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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION . BULLETIN, 1919, No. 88 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION 1916-18 IN FOUR VOLUMES VOLUME I WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OFP\EDUCATION. Created as a Department March t, 1867. Made an office of the interior Department July 1, 1869. COMMISSIONERS. HENRY BARNARD, LL. Maroh74:,- 1867, to March 15, 1870. JOHN EATON, PH.. D., LL. D., March 16, 1870, to August 1886. NATHANIEL H. R. DAWSON, L. H. D., August 6,1886, to September 3, 1889. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, PH. D., LL. D., September 1.5, 1889, to June 80, 1906. ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, Pn. D., LL. D., July 1, 1906, to JIM 80, 1911. PHILANDER PRIESTLEY ,CLAXTON, Lirr. D., LL. D., July 8, 1911, to June 1, 1921. JOHN JAMES TIGERT, M. A. (OxoN), I.L. June 1921, to date.. 2510-i6 DEC 13 1..21 .tr/4-3 Io 88 .A(.0 79 9 BB CONTENTS. Page. Chapter I.A survey of higher educationBy Samuel P. Omen and Walton C. John 5 Chapter 11.Medical educationBy N. P. Colwell. M. D 71 Chapter 'In.Engineering educationBy F. L Bishop 97 Chapter IV.Commercial educationBy ,Frank V. Thompson 105 Chapter V.Public education in the cities of the United Stan', 115 The larger cities By J. 11 Van Sickle and John Whyte_ 115 The smaller cities-43y W. S.. Deffenbaugh 125 Chapter VI.Rural educationBy H. W. Foght 159 Chapter VII.Secondary educationBy Thomas H. Briggs 155 ChapterVIILInstruction in artBy Walter Sargent 227 Chapter IX.-Instruction in masieBy Waldo S. Pratt 257 Chapter X.Vocational education-By William T. Bawden 269 Chapter XI.Agricultural edecatiodBy C. H. Lane 297 Chapter X ILThe United States School Garden ArmyBy J. 11. Francis'_ 335 Chapter XIII.Kindergarteq educationBy Alndra.M. Winchester 339 Chapter XIV. Home economicsBy Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin and Carrie A. Lyford 355 Chapter XV.Home educationBy Ellen C. Lombard 391 Chapter XVI.Educational hygiene By Willard S. Small 403 Chaser XVII.Recent progress in Negro education -By Thomas Jesse Jones___ 423 Chapter XVIILEducational surveys By Edward Franklin Buchner 437 Chapter SIX. Review of educational legislation, 1917 and 1918--By. William R. Hood 491 Chapter XX.Library activities, 1916-1918 527 Chapter XXLEducational work of the churches 553 Chapter XXILEducational work of the Young Men's Christian As,So- ciations-By William Orr 606 Chapter XXIII.EducatIOnal work of the Boy ScoutsBy Lorne W. Barclay 663 Chapter XXIV.Girl Scouts as an educational forceBy Juliette Low 677 Chapter XXV.Education In the Territories and dependencles 683 Education to Porto RicoBy Paul G. Miller 683 Education in the Canal ZoneFrom report of A. R. Lang 708 The Virgin IslandsFrom report of the school director 711 HawaiiBy Henry W. Kinney 712 The Philippine public-school systemBy W:` W. Marquardt 718 Education in Alaska 733 - _ 758 3 CHAPTER I. A SIMI-F,V OF HIGHER EDIT NTTO.I'si. By SAAILML P. CAPEN AND WALTON C. JOHN. CONTENTS.Part I. Higher education in the. period preceding the war: Standardizing agenciesThe Junior collegeFifty years of. the land-grant collegesA new associa- tion, the American Asso, Intim of University Instructors In AccountingUniversity surveys and the survey movementThe Supreme Court of Massachusetts sets aside the Harvard-Technology agreementThe Rhodes scholarshipsThe Carnegie pen- sion and insurance schemesAcademic freedom of speechTwo State institutions attackedSpecial legislation touching higher educationAmericanization. Part II. The colleges and the war : Problems raised by the warTraining and the effective organization of training agencies for national serviceUniveratty committee of the advisory commission of the Council of National DefenseIndependent action by colleges in preparation for war serviceStudents and the draftFurther efforts to secure Federal direction of civilian training agenciesCommittee on the relation of engineering schools to the Government Emergency (American) Council on Educa- tionCommittee on education and special training of the War Department. HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE PERIOD PRECEDING THE WAR. PART I. - The year 1916-17 undoubtedly marks the close of an important epoch in the history of higher education in the United States. It is impossible to foretell as yet what changes will be wrought in the purposes, methods, and control of higher institutions by the war. But the events mentioned in the closing sections in this review have so completely interrupted the old order, have to such an extent broken up the mold of academic thought, that the calm resumption of the processes and ideas of the past decade is unthinkable. It may there- fore be worth while to consider very briefly what have been the main tendencies and achievements in the field of higher education during the past 25 years. Since the last decade of the nineteenth century there has been no considerable increase in thquminber of collegiate institutions. Twen- ty-five years ago there were 594 colleges and universities. In the current Report of the Conunissiol or of Education there are listed . 574 colleges, universities, and technological schools, and 85 independ-. ent junior colleges, ss total o? 662 institutions Aich report giving instruction above high-school grade. The slight increase in the total number of higher institutions is due to the recent multiplication of junior colleges. There has, in fact, been a decrease in colleges of the older type since 1893. As the benefactions to higher education have been more numerous and substantial in the list 25 years than. 4 eIMINIIII1111111110111MIN 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. ever before, it would appear that there are approximately founda- tions enough to provide higher educational facilities for those that need and desire them. The distribution of collegiate institutions is, however, very uneven. The East and Middle West are well supplied. The States west. of the Mississippi River, on the other hand, exhibit an irregular scattering of higher institutions which, unfortunately, in many regions bears little relation to the distribution of the population to be served. It may be a safe prediction that new foundations of regular collegiate institutions, if deemed. necessary at all, are more likely to be made in this region than ill the other sections of the country. , In general, the need of the Nation is not so much to increase the number of higher educational institutions as to improve the quality of many of them. There is still a vast difference, as has been implied in previous reports, between what is understood as collegiate and uni- versity training in the more favored communities and what goes under the same name in communities served by ill-equipped, under- staffed institutions. The remarkable growth in the wealth and itntterial equipment of a considerable percentage of,, higher institutions empliasizessithis dis- crepancy in quality. The excellence of higher edfication does not depend on money alone. Nevertheless, the possession of certain material resources makes it easier for an institution to attain ex- cellence. The well-endowed private colleges and the liberally sup- ported State institutions have therefore set a pace in improving educational standards which less fortunate institutions have found it \difficult or impossible to follow. The remarkable 'expansion of higher education on the material side is indicated by the amounts spent for it 25 years ago and in the year just preceding the war. In 1893 the national expenditure for higher education was $22,944,776 and in 1916, $110,532,396. The increase in the number of persons served during the sane period is almost equally striking. In 1893 the total collegiate enrollment in the United States' was 110,50, in 1916 it was 829,387. It is clear, then, that although the number of . . higher institutions has not increased very much, there has been a large increase in the amount of higher education provided. This increase in the amount of higher education corresponds, of -course, to an increasing demand' for it. Indeed, one of the most patent tendencies of the last quarter of a century has been the, democratization of coll'sge education. Twenty-five years ago it was regarded as the privilege of the select few,. the selection not being Made, hoWever, wholly on the baths of wealth or any other artificial class distinctions. The combined pressure of State institutions, large Oilman:pie enterprises, and the.Propaganda of leading educational 1. HIGHER EDUCATIbN. 7 writers led to the gradual spread of the belief that not only should college education be open to everybody, but that ,nearly everybody should have it. A certain reaction is to be noted in very recent years from this extreme position. The experiences of higher.institutions with large numbers of persons of innate mental limitations has led* to the growing conviction among university and college officers that, after all, higher education is for the few and not for the many. But the few must be selected by me. hods more liberal and democratic than any which have yet been devised. Coincident with the tendency mentioned in the last paragraph has been the expans and liberalization of, the college curriculum. A quarter of a ce u ago there was practically but one curriculum for colleges of ts am sciences. Already, however, the virus of the '..elective sys m,, as put into practice by Harvard, was making itself ?elt. By the end of another 10 years it had swept the United States, and the reaction against it in its extreme,form had begun to set in. Having been freed through the elective system from the shackles of an antiquated and outworn scheme- of studies, institutions now began to grope for some new unifying principle to guard against the dangers of intellectual license which appeared in the general working out of the elective system. The new mechanism is the group system. Under various manifestations this principle of curriculum formation has been generally adopted in the public and nonsectarian institutions of the country. Certain colleges and universities under denomina- tional auspices retain in +substance the formal curriculum of the late nineteenth century. The liberalization of college curricula has gone hand in-hand with a closer articulation between colleges and seconder), schools. In fact, the problem of perfecting ibis articulation has occupied perhdps an undue amount of the attention of associations of both college and school officers during the past quarter of a. century. On the one hand, the schools, responding to a 'vigorous popular pressure, hive asserted their right to an independent development, free from the dOmination of higher institutions. On the other;the colleges, yield- ing to the new doctrine .of the extension of higher education (andito the ever-present urge for numbers), have abated the rigid pre- scriptions of subjects which were common 25 years ago. The decline of the entrance examination and the development of accrediting sys- tems are complementary Movements during this period. The present . extent of coordihation between the colleges and secondary'chools is indicated in this review (see p. 9)." Foremost in this movement have been naturally the State -sup-, ported higher institutions. These, whitch were-conceived as the apex of thefschool systems of their respective States,have, won their way to a degreof influence and popularity which cold n of have been- . 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. forenen 25 years ago. Indeed, the enormous expansion of State univdrsities and state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts is one of the outstanding features of the recent history of higher educa- tion in this country, The variation in the excellence of the work done by different types of higher institutions has already been alluded to. With the growth in the number of persons availing themselves of higher educational opportunities, arid the increasing 'nobility of the population of the United States, colleges have been brought into ever-closer and more frequent comparisons with one another. Migrations of students from one institution 'to another have become more and more common. Larger numbers have gone forward every year ffom the baccalau- reate course to professional and graduate study. The discrepancies in standards, therefore, become painfully apparent. One of the most important tendencies of the last 15 years has been the, tendency toward standardization of higher institutions. (This carries with it also a certain amount ol standardization of secondary schools.) A. large number of agencies have first and last engaged in this work. Associations of higher institutions, both regional and national, inde- pendent educational foundations, church boards, and several govern- mental offices have all played a part. If it were possible to measure higher education or the efficiency of institutions by purely objeCtive criteria applied to the institution and not to its product, one might regard the problem of standardization as solved. Nearly all of the agencies just referred to have elaborated and defined such quantita- tive measurements as may baopplied to an orgimizilkm which after all eludes the most preciso measuring stick. W undoubtedly much gond has been accomplished by the activitievif standardizing agencies, it is only just to record that there has been also a certain amount of damage. The American educational public has conic to think too largely in terms of credits, counts, or material equipment. Confirmation of this statement appears in the evidence recorded in the last five Reports of the Commissioner of:Educatlen, and in the proceedings of nearly every sectional and national ed)cational asso- ciation. Fortunately the reaction against the tendency to estimate all education in quantitative terms already set in. It should be ac- celerated by the educational ex ences of the war. Later in the report mention is madwf the extraordinary growth of land-grant colleges and the developMnt of university courses in applied science. No doubt _the foreign observer would find this phase of our recent educational history the most impressive of all. The relative strength of the liberal college has declined in forror of the vocational higher institution. Colleges and universities not un- deifitate;control, and primarily f9unded for to purpose of provid- MOHO EDUCATION. ing education in the liberal arts, have been forced by public demand to add numerous professional curricula, such as commerce, journal- ism, business administration, and the several varieties of engineering. But in this great movement the land-grant colleges and the State universities have been the leaders.' STANDARDIZING AGENCIES. , NON-STATE ACCREDITING AND EXIRMINING BOARDS. Perljaps no question has occupied the time of college and high- school officers 'Dory than the administration of college entrance .re- quirements. The orgqnizations charged with the responsibility of con- trolling entrance examinations have increased in number till they now jnfluence nearly every secondary school of significance in the United States. A numerical summary of the extent of this activity is given in the following pargraphs. THE NEW ENGLAND C01.1.FA:F. ENTRANCE CERTIFICATE BOARD. The sixteenth annual report of the New England College Entrance Certificate Board states that the total number of schools that had the certificate privilege last year from the board Is 543, of which 81 had the specimen certificate privilege. Fouhtun- tired and fifteen of these (about 76 per cent, as against 84 per cent last year) sent one or more pupils on certificate to the colleges represented on the board. At the present time there are 47 schools on the trial list, 429 on the fully ap- proved list, making a total of 476. To these may be added 74 schools that had the right of sending special students on certificate, making a 'grand total of.550 schools that have the certificate privilege of the board for the cowing year. The following institutions comprise the mernberAip of the New England College Entrance Certificate Board : Amherst College, Bates College, Boston University, Bowdoin University, Brown University, Colby College, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Middlebury Col- lege, Mount Ilfolytke College, Smith College, Tufts College,-Univer- sity of Vermont, Wellesley College, Wesleyan University, Williams College. THE CO'LLEOS ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. The College Entrance Examination Board examined 9,265 candi- dates during the year 1916-17. According to the secretary's report, 988 schools sent candidates to the board's examinations. Of these, 525 were public schools and 463 private schools, sending 2,823 and 6,071 candidates, respectively. In addition there were 371 candidates who were conditioned college students or were prepared by private tutors or were self-prepared or neglected to state how they received -their preparation. The public schools sent to the examination 961 fewer candidates than last year, the loss in boys being 792 and in 10 r BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. . girls 169. From the private schools there was a loss of 403 boys which was offset in part by a gain of 113 girls. The total number of boys taking the board's examinations in 1918 was less than last year by 1,338. I NCRI:ASLNG RECOGN ITION OF THE COM PREHIt ICE EX AMIN ATION PLAN. " Notwithstanding the fact that the number of candidates 'taking the board's examinations was less this year than last, the number of candidate!; presenting themselves under the new plan of admission increased from 495 to 580." In 1918 this number has increased to 75-2. Under this plan the certificate and examination methods of admin- sion are combined. The candidate presents a certificate from the secondary school testifying to the quantity of work covered. The college takes a sample of the quality by examining him in four sub- jects. The examination is designed to test the candidate's general knowledge of a given subject and his intellectual power, not to ascer- tain whether he has mastered a prescribed book or course. THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools at the meeting of March '23-24, 1917, reported 108 colleges, 51 insti- . tutions primarily for the training of teachers, and 8 junior colleges on its list of accredited higher institutions. Altogether, 1,225 schools reported, of which 1,164 were finally accredited; 913 were accredited unqualifiedly, 215 were accredited,,with warning, 39 of the old schools were dropped, and 75 new schools were added. Till ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND EPARATORY SCHOOLS OF THE MIDDLE STATES,. AN MARYLAND. The Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools bf the Mid dle States and Maryland reported for 1917 a membership of 68 uni- versities and colleges and 154 secondary schools. THE ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE SOUTHERN STASSfe The Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the South- ern States reported for 1917 a membership of 42 universities and colleges and 47 secondaryschools. Taken altogether, the foregoing reports show for the year 1917, the number of 2,896 public and private secondary schools which are directly affiliated with one ct,r more of these six accrediting or ex- amining organizations.` STATE ACCREDITED SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The following table shows, for the year 1916, 8,075 secondary schoole on the accredited lists of State boards of education or State t, universities, or both. high schools reported observe that at least 58 a State standardizing Summary ofState or States. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware. District of Columbia.. Florida (leorgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri. Montana a Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey. Now Mexico.. Now York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma .. . ...... y. Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming, Total . HIGHER EDUCATION. 11 As the' total number of public and private for 1916 is about 14,00Q, it is of interest to per centof the high schools are connected with or accrediting agency. credited secondary schools in the rnited States. 1916. (The cm. s ( X) mains yes.) .tctred- '.Stored iteilna. iLedy ary State schools. board. 121 44 278 73 64 11 II x x. ....... 50 X 97 7r, . 462 X 431 3.51 385 191 too 199 61 76 269 261 144 239 73 261 17 79 143 35 714 44 606 22 74 333 2° ' 29 7R 117 307 31 176 164 '99 319 28 8,075 x %cored- lied by State univer- sity. x Units quind by- 1 Observation. 7: 5 Cf. !!-E. tea: en 14 x_ 15 23 by State board and 21 by State university. 14 15 In 1914-15. 15 I 1915-16. Ufiits not specified. State university accredits 10 only. Units not specified. ....... Accredited by standard university. Units not specified. X 16 X 15 14 59 institutions with 15 units; 34 with 14 units. X 15 X It 385 by State university; 77 by State depart- ment. X 16 X 15 X 15 99 class A; 79 class 11 I; iCei class B II; Maims B X 15 111 ; 13 unclassifies1., 96 Maas A; 95 class w. X - 18 of the Inn belong to supplemontarfasta of State universities. 14 14 33 first group; 26 second group. 15 .. 15 . 14 Affiliated with the State university. 15 . x 1.5 ... 104 group !.%; 141 group 11; 72 group C. 15 14 Four full years required. ... ... 15 14 . 19 approved by University of New Mexico; 16 approved by State department. Units not expressed. x.. . 14 x 15 .. 15 .. First grade secondary schools. x 15 15 .. 15 Units not stated, x. - .1 4 Schools fully accredited. x - . 14 144 group 1 of State universiles; 193 on State depart ment lists, besides States universities. 15 Units not given. . 14 IS First class secomtejry schools. 14 15 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. sacrarri ATTEMPTS OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AT COLLEGIATE STANDARDIZATION. .Seferal influential associations of higher institutions have in the - past two years added to the already numerous definitions of the standard college and of the junior college. The following are prob- ab/y the most significant of these efforts. THE ASS8CHTION OF AMERICAN COLLEGES. . The Association of American golleges has ipublished a study by Dr. Calvin H./hench.which in substance establishes three grades of standard colleges. Dr. French designates the'le as the minimum col-% lege; the average college, and the efficient college. The pith of this interesting report is given here: Comparative table showing the minimum, the average, and the efficient college. It.ims com The mini- The aver - mum col- we college. The lege. based based on 16 e on 45-typ1- typical fficient cal institu- institu- college. lions. Lions. 'Total Twits required for entrance Total hours required for graduation. Number of Instructors, excluding president and library ofilciaLs Teaching boors perkweek (approximate). Enrollment Cost of administration Cost of Instruction Cost of maintenance lb 90 8 15 100 15 60 14 15 165 15 (4) 46 15 500 87,325 12,000 12, 675 91, 358 16, 941 12,941 918,050 99,000 49,100 Total oast 32, 000 . Avenge *Jules of all instructors . 11,300 Salary of president 2,500 Average value of plant 350,000 Average value of endowment 432,000 Total woos 7s2,000 36, 214 100, 750 , 1,210 2, 500 736, 877 455,010 .691,687 2,150 5; 000 965,0(X) 2, 215, 000 3, 200, 000 According to Dr. French, we mean by college efficiency that " all, the forces of the institution are working adequately and with the least possible waste -to accomplish its chief ends." Can this be done when the library and laboratories are inadequately equipped and supported, or its teachers underpaid and qverloaded with work? These are prevalent conditions in many splendidcolleges which, how- ever, are not efficient colleges. The following digest; gives a sum- marized statement of the financial needs of standard colleges with from 200 up to 1,000 students: A standard college of 200 students is one that has a faculty of 21, giving It the equivalent of 17 full-time bughers and 4 till-time administrative officers; an income of $10,800 from tuitions, $1,000 from other fees, $7,000 from room rents or other sources, and $88,700 from endowment; an expenditure of ` $27,600 for instrucdon, $10,000 for administration, and $20,000 for maintenance; HIGHER EDUCATION. 13 a productive endowment of $774,000 and a plant worth $50Q,000, making a total property of $1,274,000. A standard college of 300 students should have a -faculty of 31, giving it the equivalent of 26 full-time teachers and 5 full-time administrative officers an income of $20,250 for tuitions, $1.500 from other fees; $10,500 from room rents br other sources, and $58,250 from endowment; an expenditure of $45,000 for instruction, $15,000 for administration, and $30,000 for maintenance; a productive endowment of $1,165,000 and a plant worth $750,000, making a total property of $1,915,000. The standard college of 500 students calls for a faculty of 51, yielding the equivalent of 44 full-time teachers and 7 full-time administrative officers; an.income of $45,000 from tuitions, t2,500 from other fees, $17,500 frOni room rents or other sources, and $111,000 from endowment; un expenditure of $99,000 for instruction, $27,000 for administration and *50,00 for maintenance; a priiductive endowment of $2,=0,000 'and aplant worth $1,000,000, making a total property of $3,290,000. Standard colleges of 750 students will have, on these estimates, a faculty of 74, yielding the equivalent of 64 full-time teachers -and 10 full-time admin- istrative officers; an income of $67,500 from tuitions,. $3,250 from other fees, from room rents or other sources, and $197,000 from endowment; an expenditure of $174,000 for instruction. $40.000 for administration, and $80,000 for maintenance; a productive endowment of $3,940,000 and a plant worth $1,750,000, making a total property of $5,690,000. The standard college, of 1,000 students requires a faculty of 97, yielding the equivalent of &I full-time teachers and 12 full-time administrative officers; an income of $90,000 from tuitions, $5,000 from other fees, $35,000 from room rents or other sources, and $321,500 from endowment; an expenditure of.$262,500 for instruction, $60,000 for administration, and $120,000 for maiiknance;,a productive endowment of $8,250,000 and a plant worth $2,400,000, making a total property of $8,650,000. From the standpoint of a study of 52 colleges and universities, Dr. French has decided-that 55 per cent of the income-should go to instruction, 30 per cent to maintenance, and 15 per cent to admin- istration. Only 20 per cent of the income should be obtained from the students; the remaining SO per cent should come from endow- / ments. THE ASSOCIATION OF AMI2ICAN UNIVERSITTES. For nearly 20 years the Association of American Universities has considered -problems relating to graduate study. Among these problems is that of the proper classification. of universities and ' colleges with respect to their qualifications for preparing candidates for graduate work. At the last meeting of the association held at the State University of Iowa,' November 9 and 10, 1917, the com- 'mittee on classification of universities and colleges presented the fol- lowing report: The Association of American Universities approves the following revision of the list of universities and colleges accepted in 191& It iecognizes the lnatitn 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. tions in this undifferentiated list as falling within the three groups described by the association in 1914 in the following terms: Gsour A."Institutions whose graduates should ordinarily be admitted to the graduate schools of this association for work in Lines for which they have ,had, adequate undergraduate preparation, with a reasonable presumption that advanced degrees may be tnken with the minimum amount of prescribed work and in the minimum time prescribed. Students who choose work in lines for which their undergraduate course has not prepared them adequately must ex- pect-to take more time and do additional work. GROUP. B. Institutions from which only those graduates of high standing In their classes who are individually recommended by the department of under- graduate instruction corresponding to that in which they purpose to do their ,graduate work may be admitted on the same basis as graduates from institu- tions in Group A. Gaon, C. Other institutions whose graduates should he admitted to graduate schools, but, with the presumption that more than the minimum thne and minimum amount of work will be ordinarily required for an advanced degree. Graduates of these institutions (in the case of newer and smaller institutions the graduates of recent classes) presumably will be eligible for admission, with the limitations and reservations stated above to graduate citizenship or status. but without commitment as to the equivalency of the bachelor's degree of an individual student with that of the university admitting him, and without com- mitment as to the time which will be required by such students to secure an advanced degree. DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL TEEMS. A subcommittee of the National Conference Committee on Stand- ards of Colleges and 'Secondary Schools, appointed some years ago at the suggestion of Commissioner Claxton, presented on March 1, 1918 a report making certain recommendations which, after modi- cation, were adopted, as follows: The term "department " is restricted to the various subjects taught ; as, for instance, department of Latin, mathematics, of physics, etc. The term "course" Is restricted to the instructional subdivisions of a subject; as, for instance, Course I in English. The'term "group" is restricted to a combination of sulaeots related in con- tent or method; as, for instance, the group of classical languages, of the bio- logical sciences, etc. The term "curriculum" is restricted to a combination of courses leading to a certificate, a diploma, or a degree. The term "division" is restricted to units of a college or university ; tis, for instance, the e nsion division, the division of agriculture, the division of arts and sciences. The term "school," as,applied to part of a university, Is restricted to that part the standard of admission to which is not less than the equivalent of two years' work In the college, and which offers instruction of not less than two years' duration, leading to a technical or professional degree. After a long discussion as to the definition of "college," it was voted to print the following provisional definition for criticism and further discussion, action to lie taken by the committee next year: A "college" is an institution requiring for admission graduation from a standard secondary school, or the equivalent, and offering a four-year curricu- lum leading to the first degree in arts or science, of such character as to qualify < for admission to a graduate school of recognized standing: I330HER EDUCATION. 15 Such an institution is indicated by the following characteristics: A minimum requirement for admission of. 15 units of secondary work, not more than 2 units of conditions being allowed, all special students under 21 years of age being required to meet all of the usual requirements for admission, preparatory courses, if any, being distinct in faculty, students, and discipline. A program of studies having a reasonable relation to the resources of the institution. A curriculum of 4 years of at least 32 weeks each of actual instruction. Not less than eight-departments, each having at least one full-time professor. A staff, two-thirds of which are of professorial rank, having had at least 4 years of study in a graduate school of good standing, receiving salaries of approximately $2,000 a year, and teaching not more than16 hours a week. A minimum productive endowment, beyond all Indebtedness, of at least $250,000. An annual income of at least $40,000 a year, at least half of which is expeided for Instruction. An expenditure of at least $1,000 a year for jaboratory equipment and appa- ratus, and of at least $500 a year for books and periodicals. An annual or biennial published report of assets, income, expenditure, faculty, curricula, and student body. THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION REPORT ON STANDARDS OF ACCREDITING COLLEGES AND PNTTF:RSITTES. The North Central Association at the meeting of March 21, 1918. withdrew its membership from the National Conference Committee, and at the same time adopted a separate report embodying standards for accrediting American colleges and universities. The standards given herewith involve the definition of the "standard American college," a definition which differs in many respects from that adopted provisionally by the National Conference Committee: The "standard American college" is a college with a four-year curriculum, with a tendency to differentiate its parts In such a way that the first two years are a continuation of. and a supplement to. the work of the secondary instruc- tion as given in the high school, while the last two years are shaped more or less distinctly in the direction of spelal, professional, or university instruction. The following constitute the standards for accrediting colleges for the preeent. year (1918) : 1. The minimum Acholastic requirement of all college teachers shall be equiva- lent to graduation from a college belonging to th)s association, and graduate work equal at least to that required for a master's degree. Graduate study and training in research equivalent to that required for the Ph. D. degree are urgently recommended, but the teacher's success is to be determined by the efficiency of his teaching as well as by his research wprk. 2. The college shall require for admission not less than 14 secondary units, as defined by this association. 3. The college shall require not less than 120 semester hours for graduation. 4. The college shall be provided with library and laboratory equipment suffi- cient to develop fully and illustrate each course ifimounced. 5 The college, if a corpcitste institution, shall possess a productive endow- ment of net less than $200,000. ' 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. 8. The college, if a tax-supported Institution, shall receive an annual income of nut less than $50.000. 7. The college shall maintain at least eight distinct departments In liberal arts, each with at least one professor giving full time to the college work in that department. 8. The location and construction of the buildings, the lighting, heating, and ventilation of the rooms, the nature of the laboratories, corridors, closets. water supply, school furniture, apparatus, and methods of cleaning shall be such as to Insure hygienic conditions for both students and teachers. 9. The number of hours of work given by each teacher will vary In the differ- ent departments. To determine this, the amount of preparation required for the class and the time needed for study to keep abreast of the subject, together with the number of students, must be taken into account ; but in no case shall more than118 hours per week be required, 15 being recommended as a maximum. 10. The college must be able to prepare its graduates to enter recognized graduate schools as candidates for advanced degrees. 11. The college should limit the number of students In a recitation or labora- tory class to 30. 12. The character of the curriculum, the efficiency of instruction, the scientific spirit, the standard for regular degrees, the conservatism in granting honorary degrees, and the tone of the Institution shall also he factors in determining eligibility. 13. No institution shall be admitted to the approved list unless it has a total registration of at least 50 students If it 'reports itself a junior college and of at least 100 students If it carries course-4 beyond junior college. 14. When an institution has, in addition to the college of liberal arts, "pro- fessional or technical schools or departments, the college of liberal arts shall not be accepted for the approved list.of the association unless the professional or technical departments are of an acceptable grade. No institution shall he accredited or retained on the accredited list, unless a regular blank has been filed with the commission, and Is flied triennially, unless the inspectors have waived the presentation of the triennial blank. THE JUNIOR COLLEGE. Three types of junior colleges have recently evolved in this country. The first type, exemplified in the junior colleges of California, is an integral part of the State educational system. The establishment of junior colleges in connection with the city school system tends to keep at home in the local junior colleges large numbers of freshmen and sophomores who otherwise would overcrowd the large universi- ties and make difficult the prosecution of advanced collegiate and university work. The desire to relieve the expensive university plants from the pressure of an undue number of immature students Jess been an influential factor in the spread of junior colleges of this type. The second type is found in Missouri and in the South and South- western States. These junior colleges are largely the result of the contraction of small denominational colleges whose degrees and HIGHER EDUCATION. 17 equipment failed to meet the high standards of the leading Statti universities of those regions. The third type of junior college has recently appeared in Wis- consin, the State legislature having granted the State normal schools the privilege of reorganizing their work on the junior college plan. DISTRIBUTION or JUNIOR COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES. The following table gives the number and distribution by States of the independent junior colleges: T %nu.: 1..Vumber and distribution of junior colleges.' Junior colleges. Junior collem. California____ 15 Minnesota 2 Missouri 13 West Vi.rgIntit Virginia__ 10 Idaho 1 Texas 10 Iowa 1 Illinois 8 Kansas Kentucky 4 Louisiana 1 tieorg.in 3 Oregon 1 North l'arolinn__. 3 Washington. 1 Tennessee_ 3 Total 85 Alubuina_ Michigan Not including the normal schools of Wisconsin. STANDARDS OF ACCREDITING .JUNIOR COLLEGES. The growth of the junior college in its varied forms has called for the adoption of certain standards applicable to these institutions. With this in mind the North Central Association of CAilleges and Secondary Schools, at its 1018 meeting, adopted the following stand- ards of accrediting junior colleges: A " standard junior college" is en institution with a curriculum covering two years of collegiate work (at least 60 semester hours, or the equivalent In year, or term, or quarter credits), which is based upon and continues or supple- ments the work of secondary instruction as given In an accredited four-year high school. A semester hour is defined as one period of .classroom work in lecture or recitation extending through not less than 50 minutes net or their equivalent per week for n period of 18 weeks, two periods of laboratory work being counted as the equivalent of one hour of lecture or recitation. 1. The minimum scholastic requirements of nil teachers of classes in the junior college shall he graduation from a college belonging to this association, or an equivalent, and rn addition, graduate work in a university of recognized standing amounting to one year. 2. The junior college shall require for registration as a juniootlege stu- dent the completion by the student of at least 14 units of.1gb-school work as defined by this association. 13. The work of the junior college must be organized on a collegiate as dis- tinguished from a high-school basis. 17102V-21B0.88.-2 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 191V-1918. 4,, The teaching schedule of instructors teaching Junior-college classes shall be limited to 22 hours per week; for Instructors devoting their whole time to junior-college classes 18 hours shall be a maximum; 15 hours is recommended as the maximum. 5. The limit of the number of students in a retltailon or laboratory class in a junior college shall be 30. 6. Students registered in a junior college who are permitted to enroll in regu- lar high-school classes shall not he given full junior-college credit for such work, and in no case sloll the credit thus given exceed two-thirds of the usual high-school credit. No junior college will be accredited unless it has .a registration of 25 students if it offers but a single year, and 50 students if it offers more than a single year. 7. The Junior college shall have library and laboratory facilities sufficient, to carry on its work the same as it would he carried on in the first two years of an accredited standard college. FIFTY YEARS OF TILE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES. Perhaps no institutions +lave grown more rapidly in power. and in the public favor than the hind-grant colleges. These institutions distinctly belong to the State, at the smile time they are the only group of institutions with Federal affiliations. Because of this dual attachment they have played an increasingly important part in de- veloping not only our great national resources but also a true national spirit, The important place which the applied sciences now hold in modern university curricula is in a large measure. due to the progressive educational .policies of the land-grant colleges. EVery State in the Union, including tho Territories of Hawaii and Port Rico, has one or more institutions receiving the benefits of the Federal land-grant college funds. Alaska is the only Territory which has not established a college of agriculture and mechanic arts. although it has recently accepted the offer of Federal support. Of the 68 land-grant institutions, 51 are for whites and 17 for negroes. The following comparative tables show the general status of these institutions from the standpoints of attendance, teaching force, and income: Conspa retire statistical table of land-grant colleges at the close of nearly 60 years of eriatchee. ENROLLMENT. Average number of white students : Average numbet of all land-grant college stu- In 1918-1915 110,864 dents: In 1915-1917 120,969 In 1913-1915 - 120,069 Increase 10,613 In 1915-1917 131,952 Per cent of increise-- 9. 8 Increase- 11, 888 Average number of colored stUdeuts: Per cent of increase 9.9 In 1913-1915 9,710 In 1915-1017 10,982 Increase 1, 272 Per cent of Increase 18 HIGHER EDUCATION. 19 Comparative 8tatixtical MIMI' of !and -grant colleges ail the elmw of nearly .50 wiprx of c.ristencePunt inned. NUM II% Or Average number of white teachers: TRAcitERS, Average nutuisr of all bull grant college In 1913-1915_____ _ _ . - 9.380 teachers : In 1915 i91i_ _ 885 In 1913 - 11115 9,900 Increase 305 In 1915-1917 10.420 I'cr cent of Increase____ 5. 3 Increase 520 Average number of cgiored teachers : Per cent of increase__ 5. 2 lh 1913-1915 520 In 1915-1917 339 Increase 19 Per cent of Inen'ase 3. II STUDENTS F. N ROLLER iS Average number of white st In 1913-15)15_ 27.1573 In :12.466 1' SCIENCE. Average nurnIsl of all students In 1913-1915 In 1913-1917_ .411. 29.905 34,222 Increase 4, 815 Increase 4, 317 I'er rent of lncrea,e____ 17 Per cent of Increase 14. 4 Average number of negro studepts : In 1913-1915_ ,2.232 In 1915-1917_ _ _ _ _ _ _ I. 732 Loss 491; I'er cent of loss 22 .TAL 1 'COME. Average total Income: In 1913-1913_ $33, 333. 839 In 1915-1917_ _ $311, 000. 345 Increase $0,200,430 I'er cent of Increase_ 18.7 TIIL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS. The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experi- went Stations (the principal collegiate association with an exclus- iv.ely land-grant college membership) in its last two meetings has given special attention to the quakions of internal administration. The complex character of the land-grant college, with its diviSions of liberal arts, agriculture, engineering, home economics, and experi- ment stations, has raised problems somewhat difficult of solution. The'committee on college organization and policy of the association at its 1917 meeting made a report concerning the administrative relationships of the agricultural college. The report, which was ac- cepted by the association, was based upon a statement of principles and recommendations prepared by the specialist in agricultural edu- cation of the Bureau of Education. The recommendations contained in the report I follow : 1. That the Individual specialist, capable of working IndependentlAshould be regarded as the unit of organization. .00 LAO amplification of these recommendations may be found In Maher nlucatIon Circu- lar No. 8. U. Q. Mama of Education. 20 . BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 2. That the group of working specialists on any one of the recognized sub- jects, regardless of the kind a service, should constitute the subject-matter department. 3. That specialists should devote their time mainly to one kind of service, but provision should be made for exchanges for the mutual advantage of each. 4. That one member of each department should be designated us chairman, or adminIstrat ive head. 5. That the Members of the subject-matter department should be given a voice-in the designation of their chairman or administrative head. 6. That authority for subject matter should be- confined to the group of specialists comprising the subject-matter department, 11341 that administrative control should be limited to the amount and method of work. 7. That the distribution of administrative authority should he on the basis of the kind of service. 8. That the three kinds of service, each in charge of a secondary adminis- trative officer, 'should he coordinated under a chief executive who. in the case of a large institution composed of several faculty groups, should be an officer other than the president. 9. That the official designation " dean" In an agricultural college should he applied only to the chief executive officer who is responsible for the coordi- nation of the three phases of agricultural service, and that of "director "' should his applied to the coordinate officers in charge of each of the three lines of service resident instruction, research, and extension. 19. That when one individual performs the duties of two or more offices his official designation should identify clearly the officer with the respective offices assigned. 11. That the leaders in charge of the various phases of the extension service should be regarded as administrative officers and shoitld not usurp the duties of the specialists in the various subjects. Where an individual serves both Sts specialist and administrative leader, a dual responsibility 8134411(1 he recog- nized. 12. That lotthe promotion of extension projects controlled by either con- nected or cooperating colleges, the same administrative relations with the subject-matter departments concerned should exist as with departments that _ are organically connected. 18. That incoming correspondence, except that of an administrative nature, shblild he referred to the subject-matter departments concerned, and where re- ferred to the individual best qualified to supply the Information called for. 14. That specialists In whatever kind of service should be on an equal busfs from the Standpoint of rank and official designation. If differentiation of ex- tension and research specialists is desirable, the prefixes " extension" and "research." respectively, may be used in connection with the customary pro-., 'fessorial titles. The accompanying diagram may serve to explain the administra- tive relationships referred to above. `Oa r IL _ 15s r 1 yt it ; L HIGHER EDUCATION. Ole( Inecatin Officer (PreIdent or Dean) Inetructional Da rector Teeceing- ePegiallet Teaching Bpeciallet ruching ep.ctItt Reeearoh Director iteeearch Elger1110 iteeoareh -ggecisliet ****** eh Igeolallet Tonohing Dpeeialiet TOchilia Deeelallet P.sooroh epeoi11t Latenion Director lIgten104 Opeciallt Dirtenlon ereciallet Ratenlon SpeciISt leatneion epee lel I t iebeferoh PIM 01.11.1. lictenelon gpeoleltt is - t a - - i I «dl i2 _J 1 21 2ommon administrative relationships in colleges of agr'iculture. Administrative author- ity follows two channelsone through the directors in charge of each tied of service and the other transversely through the several heads of departmentsfrequently result- ing In conflict. The remedy consists in transferring administrative authority from the heads of departments to the directors of, the three kinds of service, resulting in single iltdministrative control. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911718. A NEW ASSOCIATION THE A NiERIcA N AssOcl.VCIoN OF UNIVERSITY TN- SlTtUCTORS IN ACCOUNTING. The teachers of accounting of 16 universities-, met at. Cohnbus, Ohio, December S. lnIG, and formed an organiintion known as the American Association of University instructors in Accounting. The purpose of this organization is to advance the cause of education for business through the study of accounting. to have suitable oppor- tunities for the discussion of problems. to promote more intimate mutual acquaintanceship, to further the standardization of courses, and to recommend policies regarding the reception of migrating students. The chtrter members are front the following, universities: Cali- fornia, Duquesne, Pittsburgh, Cornell, Yale, Ohio State, Ohio, Cin- cinnati, Oregon, Wisconsin. Texas, ffiinnis, Minnesota. Northwestern, Brigham Young, and New York. The association reported 154,de- gree-granting institutions which offer courses in accounting ;n this country. usivEasrrr ;tatvE-Fs AND Tilt: sURVEY MOVEMENT. Since 1915, eight States' have voluntarily sulltnitted their tax- supported higher educational institutions to expel criticism in order to determine their needs with more scientific precision. These sur- veys have been conacted under the auspices of the Bureau of Edu- cationovith cooperation of experts of State and National reputation. The result is that the colleges, on the whole, have been able to strengthen their influence, in their constituencies, and correspond- ingly, the general public and the legislatures have been led to give a more intelligent and sympathetic support than heretofore. The reports of -the surveys of the State institutions of Oregon, Iowa, Washington, North Dakota, and Nevada have been disiaissed in pre- ceding reports. (See Reports of the Commissiuer, 1915, pp. 145; 1916, pp. 121.) THE SURVEY 01"111E. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA. During the fall of 1916 a survey of educational conditions in the State of Arizona was begun. The study of the State university was snade by the specialist fn higher education of the Bureau of Educa- tion, and President. Livingston Farrand, of theUniverity of Colo- rado. I The following Stateshave concluded surveys of their State-supported Institutions of higher education: Oregon, Iowa, In 1915; Washington, North Dakota, Nevada, Arizona. In 1910; South Dakota In 1017. The reports of the first five surveys, with the excep- tion of the Oregon survey,. are now published as bulletins of the Bureau of Education. The other reports are in prAis. The University of Oregon survey is published by the university.' HIGHER EDUCATION. 23 The following brief4ummary includes a few of the more impor- tant recommendations of the committee:' u mo ry of 'recant m da i(111R, (a) The hotter adaptation of the college courses to the needs of the State. IG1 The rejection by the legislature Of any proposals to separate the college of agriculture or any other technical division from the main body of the uni- versity, :nal to establish it at another place. (c) The extension of the tenure of ollice of the regents frog our to eight years. (d) A more definite policy respecting the tenure of the university faculty. THE SOUTH DAKOTA SURVEY. The South Dakota survey was conducted during the fall and winter of 1911. The survey committee was composed of the specialist in rural school practice, the specialist in higher education, and the spe- cialist in agricultural education of the Bureau of Education, in collaboration with Prof. Alexander Inglis, of Harvard University, and local officers appointed by the State. The following brief sum- n1ar' of recommendations is given: 1. It was recommended that the State university. the State college, and the State school of mines be consolidated lute a single institution, located prefer- ably in Ino central portion of the State. 1. In case consolidation seem:: impracticable, it was recommended that the school of mines be abolished and that the State university and the State college readjust Olen' curricula and courses so as to avoid needless duplication. The principle of major and service lines of workswas reimbirsed.' 3. It was also recommended that one or more junior colleges he established as a part of the State higher educational system. In this and other surveys the 13ureau of Education has stood for policies which would tend to improve the mutual relations of State- contrtelled institutions of higher education in harmony with the pecu- liar -needs of each State. The bureau has consistently urged the continuance or the adoption of the principle of consolidation when practicable. It has also pointed out Ike distinctive fields of each State hipitution'on the .basis of justifiable duplication when consoli- dation was ithpracticable. 'IHE SUPREME COURT OF MASSACHUSETTS SETS ASIDE. HARVARD- TECHNOLOGYAGREEMENT. For nearly three years Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology,. have avoided expensive duplication in the teaching of engineering by the adoption of an excellent plan of I Fora mare extended discussion of this and other surveys See Bulletin, 1918, No. 45, Educations1.8urveye- For report on normal schools see Bulletin, 1917, No. 48, Educa- tional,Condlapni In Arizona. 24 BIENNIAL .suEFEF OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.. cooperation. Under this pla-n the university turned over to the in- stitute three-fifths of the income of the McKay endowment (now about $1,500,000) and agreed to use the extensive laboratories of the institute for the training of men seeking engineering degrees. The engineering faculties of both institutions were merged into a single faculty, which worked under the executive control of the president of the institute. Each institution retained control of its own ex- penditures and determined, its own engineering degree requirements. According to President Maclaurin, the "agreement marked an epoch in the history of educational progress in this country." 'The end sought was to build up an educational machine more useful to the conimunity aml to the Nation than anything that (mild he main- tained by 'either the instituteor thc..-. -univer,ity act ently." The result of the merger has proven very satisfactory, both institutions having gained thereby in educational power. Inasmuch as the vaWity of the agreement had been questioned, the university asked the supreme court of the State for a decision on thy, matter. The following. extracts front the decision mile November 27, 1917, are given herewith: .Mr. McKay intended that not only the Investment of the sndollnt funds but the education which his endowment was to make'possible should he under -the control and direction Of the milkersity, its government, and administation. In our opiniou, the intention of Gordon Mckny is not in fact carried out in the agreement. in controversy, as we have construed' its provisions in their practical operation. We are onistolned to Instruct the plaintiff that it can not lawfully carry out this agreement between it and the Institute, us far as respects the property received by the University, under the deeds of trust and the will of Gordon McKay.(Massachusetts Reports, 228, 1918.) According to Prof Swain: The decision Indicates quite clearlylhat It was not cooperation with Tech- noiogy in itself that was considered to resider the agreement loyalist, but only the character of that cooperation. It had the appearance of patting tsso much control of school and finance into the hands of Technology. The .Technology faculty paid practical control of the Harvard school. V- withstanding the adverse opinion of the court, the authorities of M t h institutions set about to develop. a new plan which would yield the advantages of cooperation without being contrary to the provisions of the McKay will. A plan was recently adopted which seems to meet the necessary requirements, having received the ap- proval of the trustees of the McKay estate and the governing boards of the university,.and it now awaits the approval of the court. The new.plan Voted to establish a school of engineering upon the following basis: 1Kberea:+, in reconstructing an engineering school in Harvard University, it is important to lay stress upon fundamental principles; to make use of the HIGHER EDUCATION. 25 ' courses in Harvard Coll;ge so far as is consistent with the curriculum of the school; and to conduct the school under a faculty Of its own, the corporation hereby adopts the following plan of organization: I. Name. The natite.of the school shall he the Harvard Engineering School. 2. Departments. The school shall provide " all grades of histrnction from the dtoatest to the highest," and Ow Instruction provided shall "lwkept accessible to pupils who have hail no other opiortunites of previous education than those which the free piddle schools aord." 3. Admission. Itulswite as the entrii)Ice examinations to Harvard College now admit freely boys front pod high schools, 11w requirement,: for ndmisslon to the engineering school shall he the same as for admission to Harvard Col- lege. Admission to advanced standing and special study shall he administered' by the engineering faculty. 4. Fees. The fees of students in the school shall be the same as for students in _Harvard .College, except that 1:m4,11)011Ru fee" for additional br for laboratory courses may be ehargeil. cb, 5. ClastriiiIIIIS and lahioratt)rles. The work of the school shall be carried on in the classrooms and labimitoies of t ho university, but arrangementsimay he made from time to time for the Ilse or ow filmit leg of other institutions or any pant of the work t In its ailvanced technical courses) when the I 5, financial resources, and best Interests of the school so require. Arrangements for the use of facilities of other institutions, or the inter- change of ilistruet lot), shall he made for it period of only one year ar a time. When there shall he income from the funds of the McKay endowment avail- able, in the judgment of the prosidint and fellows, for the constructIon of new buildings for the engineering school, containing offices, laborstori , workrooms, and classrooms, such building's are 10 be (4111Strllttl on Harvard University grounds and law the name of thirdon McKay. 6. Faculty. The faculty of the seholil shall consist the president of the university and of those professors, associate professors, a ssIstnnt professors, and instructors appointed for more than one yiar, the greater part of whose work of iiistruction is done in Ale schOol, audit' it limited number of other teachers of Subjects offered In the school to be appointed in the usual way. The term of appointment of a teacher front any other lustitution.who gives instruction in the selawl shall lie for qv year (only ; his title shall he lecturer, instructor, or ossfstant. The faculty shall, under the direction of the corporation, have control of all itistructlion given in the school wherever the instruction may he given. . -7. Pegrees. A student satisfactorily fulfilling the requirements of a pre- scribed four-year program in any of the engineering fields 511511 be awarded the degree of bachelor of science in that field. The degree of ntstta of science, or an elpIlvitlent degree, shall he awarded upon the successful completion of at least one additional year of study. For the doctors' degree the requirements shall be similar to those in the graduate school of arts and sciences. 8. Credit for instruction elsewhere. As the case of every faculty, the faculty of the engineering 'school fluty, in its discretion from time to time, allow credit toward the degree under its of for instruction received at . another institution or by other instructors. 9. Courses in the school, or the services of its staff, may be made available to qualified students of other, institutions. . 10. This plan shall be submitted to the supreme)udicial court of Massitchu- Setts, or a justice thereof, for approval. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. THE RHODES SCHOLAR/IMPS. Nearly one-half of the 400 American Rhodes scholars'are now in military or Government service, including practically all of the 'men of recent years. Six, according to present reports, have lost their lives in the service. Since 1914 the regular operation of the scholarships has been seriously interfered with by the war, .and before the United States entered the struggle a large number of the men had already engaged in relief work in Belgitunor in duties con- nected with the Red Cross. the 1. M. C. A., and the ambulance serv- ices. Since the entry of the United States into the war no more selec- tions of American Rhodes scholars have been made. The appoint' menus, however. are only postponed. and the vacancies will be filled when conditions are again normal. New plans for giving publicity for the scholarships and for making the selections are now being worked out. It seems.probable that the result of the war will be to intensify the interest in the scholarships as one means for the unifi- cation of the Anglo-Saxon race. The German scholarships have been abolished by a special act of Parliament and the fundsallotted to various British colonies. The University of Oxford has instituted. the degree of Ph: D. and is preparing for extensive organization of graguate work. In this connection .a mission from the British universities which has just finished a tour of the United States is undertaking to arrive at agreements with American universities for mutual recognition of graduate work and for the exchange of students and professors. It is expected that many American officers may be able to spend soma time in English universities during the period of demobilization. and to that end special short courses have been established in.mosr English institutions for the special benefit. of these men. For ex- ample, all American students, whether Rhodes scholars or not, will be eligible to take degrees at Oxford under the new war regulations. These regulations provide that any man who has been in military service for at least a year can be admitted to the University without. examination, excused from all intermediate examinations, and allowed to take his degree in two years, or even in one if he has had' the necessary. preparation. ----It-is perhaps too soon to speak of any large results of the Rhodes scholarshiPs'on American education. It may, however, be noted as significant- that. the system of honors, examinations, and of tutorial instruction has been rapidly gaining. ground, in American universi- ties during the last half dozen.years, and in most institutions where this is the case Rhodes .scholars are engaged in administrating the 'new plan. . HIGHER EDUCATION. 27 In order to facilitate the new arrangements for the selection of Rhodes scholars; in the United States and to provide a convenient source of information on this side of the ocean, the Rhodes trustees have recently appointed Prof. Frank Aydelotte. of the,Massachu- . setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.. as American secre- tary for the scholarships. THE CARNEGIF, PENSION AND INSURANCE SCHEMES/ Early in 1916 President Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation, proposed a new plan which, it was hoped, would gradually supplant the pension system which has been administered by the Foundation for the past 10 years. The plan as described by the Dartmouth com- mittee, ithich is included in the replies of the presidents and com- mittees of 'fife associated institutions concerning the proposal, in the eleventh annual report of the Carnegie Foundation, contemplates The incorporation under the laws of New York of an insurance and annuity agency for the benefit of college -teachers. Each teacher upon his entrance Into servfee in the college would be required in take out with this insurance agency a minimum amount opt -term insurance to mature at the age of 65, and to purchase by annual contributions a minimum annuity which would begin upon retirement front teaching and at the expiration of the insurance, To make the annuity provision effective, a separate savings association is to be created which receiveS the annual contributions of the teachers and- invests them, purchasing at the time-of retirenattit with the accumulations an annuity from the insurance association. It is proposed that the college shall par- ticipate to the extent of 50 per cent of tit cost of insurance and annuity up to an agrettd mlnimum,Aii as an alternative that the college shall contribute only toward the iturchWof the annuity. The irtdividual is free to Increase the amount of both insurance and annuity at will; and it is expected that he Will Increase his contributions as his salary Increases. The details of the plan are not fully stated. It is Omit however, that agency expenses, a large factor in old line insurance, would he avoided. Administrative expenses and taxes are nppnrentlf to be, orne by the Founda- tion, although nt one point there is a suggestkat that the administrative ex- penses may come from tiurplus if there is any. It is not definitely stated what disposition would be made of surplus; should the mortality ,experience prove to be more fayorable than the tables upon which the rates will be based, but the inference is clear that such a condition will lead to the payment of dividends to the polleyhOlders, The Foundation is to guarantee 44 per cent interest on invested funds, . , One unique -and distinctly favorable feature of the plan is that which pro- vides for the return of accumulations toward an aility in case of death, dis- ability, or withdrin before the annuity' Is available. Again, even after the annuitant has come into posseasion of his minuet, income, any balance of in- vested futds^to his accountare returned to his estate in case of death. In case of death of the annuitant, his widow will receive half of his annuity during her life. The disability privileges are to be made available at' the end of 15 years as professor instead of 25 years under the present plan. After this period of servicv and In case of eomideie disability, the Foundation win, at its 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. own cost, pay the insurance premiums and a minimum pension of $1,200 a year during the period of disability. The plan was not well received on its first submission to the asso- ciated institutions. It was, however, readily conceded that the Foundation would have to be relieved of some of its growing finan- cial burdens. But the institutions which are beneficiaries of the Foundation expressed the opinion that: The privileges and expectations which have been created under the exist- ing rules of the Carnegie Foundation constitute moral claims against the en- dowment on the part of such teachers and administrative officers now on the staff of associated institutions as tinder the Present rules would receive retir- ing allowances and that adequate provision for scrupulously satisfying all these claims should be made before the fund Is otherwise drawn upon.' In view of the opposition to the plan,. the matter was officially bpiught to the attention of a joint commission including six mem- bers of the board of trustees, two members of the American Associa- tion of University Professors, one member of the Association of American Universities, one member of the National Association of State Universities, and one member of the Association of American Colleges. After mature consideration the commission unanimously adopted the following resolutldns: Voted : Referring to the resolution of the board of trustees of the Carnegie Foundation, adopted tn NovenilTr, 1915, that "whatever plan is finally adopted will be devised with scrupulous regard to the privileges and expectations which have been created under existing rules," this commission expresses the opinion that the extension to all teachers nt present in th.e associated institu- tions of the privilege of continuini in the present system would. j mp tely e meet all their reasonable expectations. The commission assumes the trustees of the Carnegie Foundation will in due time announce a dnte after which the priviltges and expectations of the present system will not be avail- able to those newly entering upon the profession of teaching. Voted : That the trustees of the Carnegie Foundation be requested to give all possible consideration to the needs of the older teachers in institutions which are not yet, but may he later, associated with the Foundation. Voted: The conuffission does not know the extent to which assistance can be obtained outside the present funds of the Foundation, but it is acting on . the expectation of substantial assistance In carrying a large but 114ted load, and With the further understanding that adequate assistance can not be obtained to carry on the ever-increasing pension burden without calling upon institutions and individual teachers to bear a share. In harmony with the last recommendation the commission recom- . mended to the trustees of the Carnegie Foundation a plan of insur- ance and annuities. The purpose of this new organization is to set up the machinery under which the teacher may protect himself and his family from dependence, whether by bis own death or by old age or by disability; t6 furnish to the teacher the security of a contract, so that the man who cat*. upon the accumulation of an Innulty at 80 may have a 'Eleventh Annual Report of Carnegie Foundation. HIGHER EDUCATION. 29 contract for its fulfillment at the agreed age; to afford these forms of pro- tection in Such manner RS to leave to the teacher the utmost freedom of action and to tna:.c his migration from one institution to another easy. Finally, whatever machinery is set up to accomplish these purposes should be operated at a cost within the reasonable ability of the teacher to pay. rs The proposed charter embodying thesR purposes is under the title of the Teachers' Insurance and Annuity Association of America. The incorporators who subscribed their names February 1, 1918, are as follows: Milli] Root, Nicholas Murray Butler, Arthur Twining Hadley, Jacob Could Schunnan, Alex. C. Humphreys, Charles P. Stone, John Bassett Moore. Robert Weeks de Forest, George Woodward Wickersham, Newcomb Carlton. Edward Robinson, George Foster Peabody, and Henry S. Pritchett. ACADEMIC FREEDOM OF SPEECH. Up to the year 1917-18 the problem of academic freedom o pee& involved chiefly the expression of opinions on social and economic questions. With the coming of the war the danger zone shifted. It is natural in times of great national tension like the present that the personal views of thinking men should be expressed with greater vigor or passion than usual. Differences of opinion on questions of national or international policy, ventilated with heat on both sides, easily lead to the impugnment of motives and even to the damning charge of disloyalty. As a, result of this surcharged condition of the intellectual atmosphere, many doubtless well-meaning individuals have suffered the extreme academic penalty for utterances. which under ordinary circumstances would be passed by with scant notice or criticism. There has developed, therefore, a special problem of academic freedom of speech in war time. LEADING OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM OF SPEECH. One of thAliscussions oti;:this subject appeared in the joint report of the Columbia University committee on education and the special committee on the state of teaching. It is of particular interest as embodying an Ixpression of the policy of the board of trustees: In the whole history of the university, dismissals from the university of a member of the teaching staff have been but six In number; and the record shows that in all of these cases but one the Judgment and opinion of representa- tive members of the teaching staff were before the trustees as an important element fh affecting theft* action. In the one exceptional case the reasons for action had! o reference to the academic work or relations of the person con- corned. The power of removal has been exercised by the trustees only in these very rare instances, and then only after full investigation and (save in the one case above mentioned) consultation with members of the faculties. In 'each case 80 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. there had been a state of facts whlch'iu the judgment of the trustees rendered such action imperative. In view of these facts there can be no ground for apprehension on the part of anyone that the charter powers of the trustees will he arbitrarily exercised. In the whole history of Columbia University there is no instance where the trustees have ever subjected any teacher to restraint or discipline by reason of his classroom teaching. Tlie trustees have more than once been urged by other members of the university, by alumni, by parents of students, and by the public press, to take action of this charm :cr, but they have never done so. Yet ultimate decision as to whether the influence of a given teacher Is injurious to private morals or dangerous to public order and security is one which the trus- tees may neithershlrk nor share nor delegate. We fully concur in the opinion expressed by the president in his annual report for 1910 that aademie freedom imposes academic responsibility, and that there are distiner limitations upon academic freedom which should be If-imposed, namely. " the limitations im- posed by common morality. commo sense, common loyalty, and, a decent re- spect for the opinions of mankind." . In the 1916-17 annual report the president of Columbia Univer- sity a more complete statement is m e concerning the questions of (y academic freedom and tenure, the f owing quotations from which are herewith appended: It would he little short of a calamity were it not possible for an academic teatherto change his place of (occupation without thereby retlfting upon the intelligence or the integrity of those with whom he had been associated. and similarly, if it became impossible for the governing hoard of a school system or of a school or college to substitute one teacher for another .without bringing charges against the person displaced. Any contrary theory assumes a preOtab- lished harmony of which Hot even Leibnitz dreamed and a preestablished competence which would render it impossible for anyone to be appointed to a teaching position who was not ipso facto entitled to steady promotion and increase in compensation and to a lifelong tebure. Security of tenure is desirable, but competence and loyalty are more desirable still, and a secure tenure purchased ut the price of Incompetence mid disloyalty must sound a deathknell to every educational system or institution whore it prevails. These are all matters of grave impottance in the government of an educational sys- tem or an educational institution. They can not be dismissed with phrases or . formulas, but must be met and decided in accordance with sound principle and- the public interest. There is no real reason to fear that academic freedom is or ever has been In the ?lightest danger in the United States. Evidence to the contrary is quite too ma,plfold and too abundant. What is constantly in danger, how- ever, is a just sense,of academic obligation. When a teacher accepts an invita- tie 'to become a member of an academic society, he thereupon loses some of the freedom that he formerly possesied. He remains, as before, subject to the restrictions and the punishments of the law; but in addition he has voluntarily accepted the restrictions put upon him by the traditions, the organization, and 'the purposes of the Institution with which he has become associated. Try as he may, he can no longer Write or speak In his own nine alone. Were he to succeed In so doing, what he might *rite or say would have, in nine cases out of ten, no significance and no hearing. What he writes or says gains significance and a hearing because of the prestige of the academic society to which he HIGHER EDUCATION. 31 belongs. To that prestige, with all that that word means, the academic teacher owes a distinct, a constant, and a compelling obligation. To maintain one's connection with an academic society while at war with its purposes or disloyal to its traditions and organization Is neither wise nor just. No one Is com- pelled to remain in an academic association which he dislikes or which makes 'him uncomfortable. What the ancient Stole said of life itself is true of a uni- versity : "The door is always open to'anyone who has an excuse of leaving." on the other hand, academic obligation is reciprocal. The academic society of which the individual teacher is a member owes him encouragement, com- pensation as generous as its esources will afford, and protection from unfair attack and criticism, as well as from all avoidable hamperings andembarrass- ments in the prosecution of his intellectual work. Each individual member of an academic society is in some degree a beeper of that society's conscience and reputation. AS such, the society as a whole must give him support. assistance, and opportunity. The saute type of Mind which insists Veit knows no country bar humanity, and that one should aim to be a citizen of no State but only of the world, indulges itself in the fiction that one may be disloyal to the academic society which lie has voluntarily joitrett in order to show devotion to something that he conceives to be higher and of greater value. Both elmtentions affront com- mon sense and are the result of that muddled thinking which to-day is bold unough to misuse the noble name of philosophy. One 'effect of much recent teaching of what once was ethics is to weaken all sense of obligation of every kind except to oue's own appetites and desire for instant advantage. That eco- nomic determinism Wthch is confuted every time a human heart bents in sytm peaky and whit:1111U history throws to the winds has In recent years obtained much, influence among those who, for lack of a more accurate term, call them- selves intellectuals. These are for the most part men who know sa many things which are not so, that they make ignorance apitear to be not only inter- %sting but positively important. They abound just now in the lower anti more Liable forms of literary production, and they are not without representation In academie societies. -The time has not yet come, however, when rational persons can contemplate with satisfaction the rule o? the literary and sentience Bolshevik' or permit them to seize responsibility for the Intellectual life of the Nation. - Neglect of one's academic obligation, or l'arelessness regarding it,'gives rise to difficult problems. Men of mature years who have achieved reputation enough to be Invited to occupy a post of responsibility in a nnixersity ought not to have to be reminded that .there Is such a thing as academic obligation and that they fall short in it. It is humiliating and painful to find, with in- creasing freemency and In different parts of the country, men in distinguished academic posts, who choose to act in utter disregard of the plainest dictates of ethics and good conduct. It is fortune indeed that, however conspicuous are instances of this disregard, they are in reality negligible in number when compared with the vast body of loyal; devoted, and scholarly American academic teachers. It Is noticeable, too, that Instances of this lack of sense of obligation rarely arise, if ever, in the case of those men whose intellectual occupations bring themln contact with real things. It is only when a man is concerned chiefly With opinions afid views, and those opinions and views of his own making, that he finds and yields to the temptation to make his academic association the football of his own ambitions or emotions. 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1918. . The opinion of the committee ot academic freedom and academic tenure, ofthe American Association of University Professors, is as follows :1 It is a grave abuse of the power of dismissal when it Is used to deny to members of the university faculties _the enjoyment of their fundamental con- stitutional rights as citizens; and vi institution in which dismissal is posSible upon such a ground as was officially put forward in this ease is one in which adequate guaranties of academie freedom are manifestly lacking. It is in some respects a still graver abuse of power when administrative officers or governing Mamie attempt by their official declarations publicly to attach the stigma of treasonable or seditious conduct to an individual teacher because of acts of his which are in fact neither treasonable no seditious. When charges are brought against a member of a college or university 'faculty upon tiny f.tround, the proceedings should. as a matter of course, be strictly judicial in character, and should he in accord 'with the principle of faculty responsibility. In other words, the person accused should be en Wed "10 have the charges against him stated in writing in specific terms to have a fair trial on those charges before either the judicial committee the faculty or a joint committee composed of an equal number of professors and trustees, which should render definite finding, stating in case of a decision adverse.to the accused the precise acts on which the decision is based. The importance of maintaining these procedural safeguatds against hasty or unjust action is, If possible, even greater at a time of popular excitement and height- ._ fined passions than under normal conditions. I $ One of the most helpful statements made this year bearing on the question of academic freedom is that found in President Lowell's annual' report for 1916-17. The following quotations are.of special interest: The war has brought to the front In nendemic life many questions which are new, or present themselves to many people in a new light. One of these is liberty of speech on the part of the professor; and it seems a not unfitting time to analyze the principles involved, and seek to discover their limitations. In so doing I shall deal only with higher education, that Is with universities and colleges. Experience has proved, and probably no one would now deny, that knowledge can advance, or at least can ativatiet rapidly. only by means of an unfettered search far truth on the part of 'those who devote their lives to seeking it in their respective fields, and by complete. freedom in imparting to their pupils the truth that they have found. The teaching by the professor in his classroom on the subjects within the scope of his chair ought to be absolutely free. Ile must teach the truth as he has found it and seem it This is the primary co9dition of academic freedom, and any violation of it endangers intellectual progress. In order to mike It secure it is essential that the teaching in the classroom should be confidential. This does not mean that it is secret, but that what is said there shotild not be published. If the remarks of the thatructor were repealed by the pupils in the public press he would be subjected to constant criticism by people not familiar will .subject, who nusunderstbod his teaching; and, what Is more important, Se would certainly be misquoted, betsuse his remarks would be reported jot the student without their context or the qualifications that give a See Bulletin of American Association of University Professors, April, 1018. HIGHER EDUCATION. 33 them their accuracy. Moreover, if the rule that retnarks in the classroom shall not be reported for publication elsewhere is to be maintained, the professor Iiims&f must not report them. Lectures open to the public stand on a different footing, but lectures ina private classroom must not be given l,, the instructor to the newspapers. That principle is, I believe, observed in all .eputable in- stitutions. Every professor must, therefore, be wholly unrestrained in publ.(hing the results of his study In the field of his professorship. It is needless to add that for the dignity of his profession, for the maintenance of its privileges, as well as for his own reputation among his fellows, whatever he writes or says on his own subject should he uttered as a scholar, in a scholarly tone and form. This is a matter of decorum, not of discipline; to be remedied by a suggestion, not by a penalty. In troublous tithes much more serious difficulty and much more confusion of thought arises from the other half of our subject, the right of a professor to express his views without restraint on matters lying outside the sphere of his professorship. This is not a question of academic freedom in Its true sense, but of the personal liberty of the citizen. It has nothing to do with liberty of research and instruction in the subject for which the prd&ssor occupies the chair that makes him a member of the university. The university or college is under certain obligations to its students. It InpeIR them to attend courses of instruction, and on their ;ide they have a right not to be compelled to listen to remarks offensive or injurious to them on subjects of which the instructor is not a master, a right which the teacher is bound to respect. In spite, however, of the risk of injury to the institution, the objections to restraint upon what professors may say as citizens seem to be far greater than the harm (lone by leaving them free. In the firt lace, to impose upon tho teacher In a university restrictions to which members of other profes- sions, lawyers, physicians, engineers, and so forth, are not subjected, would produce a sense of irritation and humiliation. In, accepting n chair under such conditions a man would surrender a part of his liberty; what he might say would be submitted to the censorship of a board of trustees, and he would not he a free citizsii. The lawyer, physician, or engineer may express his views RR he likes on the subject of the protective tariff; shall the professor of astronomy not be free to do the same? Such a policy would tend seriously to discourage some of the best men from taking up the scholar's life. It is not a question of academic freedom, but of personal liberty from constraint; yet it touches the dignity of thA academic career. It should be. noted in passing that a number of American institu- tions have been obliged to take action on the .a,patriotic activities and utterances of teachers of German origin or avowed German sympathies. The dismissals resulting in these cases have nowhere been regarded ns breaches of academic freedom. THE WORE OF THE COMMITTEE ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM VII) ACADEMIC TENURE Or THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS. During the Nit tWo years the committee on Kademic freedom and academic tenure of the American Association o7S1lJniversity Profes- sors has had brought to its attention over 30 cases of alleged infrac- tion of the prindipps of academic freedom of apeecli and academic ine2e' *-21Bun. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. tenure. The opinions and decisions of this committee and its sub- committees, some of which have been quoted in former reports of the Commissioner of Education, have grown in weight and importance in the academic world. The committee, by its conservatie attitude, has been able to eliminate from public discussion and criticism a large proportion of the cases brought to its doors, and it has also been able to help in the-solution of many problems by dealing privately with the institutions and individuals concerned. The committee has centered its attention on a limited number of cases which led to the exposition of principletkunderlying aca- demic freedom of speech and permanency of academic tenure. It has in no sense sought publicity. The rulin& . of the committee have been largely based on the principles stated in the 1915 report of the association. Taken together, the decisions of the cominiV,ee, already° covering a large variety of cases, lay the foundation of a iiew type of educational law which should prove to be of great value in solving equitably the complex problems of academic freedom of speech and academic tenure. During the period under review two deports involving questions of academic tenure not relating to freedom of speeclt have been made by committees of the American Association of University Professors. The first of these was an investigation into the reasons for the dis- missal of Miss Winona A. Hughes, dean of women at the College of Wooster, and the methods used by the board of trustees in severing her connection with the college. The committee found the action of -the president and the board to be arbitrary, unjustifiable, and such as to jeopardize seriously the stamding of the college among American higher institutions. It declared that "the methods of the present administration have not been such as to appeal to the loyalty of a conscientious and self-respecting faculty, and it is equally obvious that they are not the methods Which gain for a college the confidence and respect of the academic world." On June 7, 1917, the State board of education of the State of Mon- tana decided not to retain as president 1:4 the State university- Dr. E. B. Craigheadwho had acted in that capacity for three years. The State board also decided not to reemploy three professors of the university. The matter having been brought before the committee on academic freedom and academic tenure, it-was the opinion of the committee after careful investigation that the dismissal of President Craighead and the three professors was not justified. The procedure of the board was criticized by the committee as being unsound in method and disastrous in its results to the interests of the university. (See Bulletin of the American Association of University Professots, May, 1917.)- HIGHER EDUCATION. TWO STATE I N STITUTION fi ATTA THE AI AGSACIII7SETTR AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 35 During October, 1916, the Massachusetts Agricultural College was criticized at a public hearing held by a commission appointed by the governor of the State to investigate the institution and to see whether its present policies should be continued. The college was charged with inefficiency because it did not turn out more practical farmers, and because it devoted more time than necessary to classical and ' olnmanistic studies, while neglecting the practical phases of farm life. In answer to these objections President Butterfield and his sup- porters informed the commission that 65 per cent of the college graduates for the past 5(1 years were engaged in agricultural pur- suits, the percentage having increased considerably during the past 10 years. About 80 per cent of the recent graduates are in agricul- tural vocations. The agricultni-al college aims to give a broad grasp of farm problems, combined with sufficient practical training. As to the 'elation between the humanistic and the agricultural sub- jects, the practice of the college is well stated in the published report of the commission, as follows: - The land-grant colleges were primarily established to promote the study of agriculture by the most advanced and scientific methods of instruction. In their courses of study one na'furally expects that science will occupy the most Imminent place, and that it should he taught by men well qualified for their work. The Massachusetts iNgriculturmil College meets this expectation. There are at present 22,8 courses in agriculture and the cognate sciences, mind only 96 courses in mathematics and the so-called humanitlem. In the first year 48 courses are given in agriculture and mathematics, and only 18 in the humanities. In the second year 6 courses are required In the humanities, and 54 in agriculture and cognate sciences. After the second year a nui)or course can be elected in one of the 17 Repartiments; during the last year4 per cent of the students elected major courses IC agriculture and horticulture. There is no major course in the humanities, and only one-quarter of the students' time is required in these studies. Three-quarters of the students are giving three- fourths of their time to distinctively agricultural subjects. Ten times as many courses are given In junior and senior years in agriculture as were given 10 yeimre ago, and more 'agricultural studies have been introduced in the first and second years than ever before. There has been no corresponding Increase in humanistic studies. Of the faculty, 54 teachers are engaged in instruction-in agriculture and the cognate sciences, and 14 teachers in the humanities and mathematics. Members of the facility and representative students alike testify that there is a prevailing tendency among the undergraduates to elect studies according to their sup- posed commercial values and to neglect..148e studies which aim to strengthen and cultivate the,mind. While there is a fair showing of humanistic electives in the curriculum; most of them are not required, as they are in the Mass- achusetts Institute of Technology and in other colleges, and only a few of-: t 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. the students elect them. Not only Is there to be considered the number of courses. but account must be made of the order in which the courses are offered. The commission recommends that the college authorities consider readjustment of the courses so as to give larger place to practical work In the first two years; also certain courses, us, fur example, that in rural journalism, might becarefully scrutinized to see whether they are really desirable and essential offerings of the college. While the State in its acceptance of the provisions of the Morrill Act is bound to give special instruction In agriculture, it is no less bound by the language of the act to give a liberal education as an Integral part of its dis- tinctive work, and not to. neglect or relegate to subordinate places those studies which experience has shown are best fitted to nourish and strengthen the faculties of the mind and which will enable men to do better work, whatever that work may be. The college has been severely" ,criticized because no larger proportion of its graduates become practical farmers, owing it is said to the lack of practical Instruction which they receive. An examination of the curriculum shows that this criticism is no longer merited. Practical farm work is now given during the first two years, and Is required of every student. -Of the total hours as- signed to Instruction in the division of agriculture and horticulture, 32 per cent are given to classroom work, and CS per cent to laboratory and field work. The field work should be considered as Indispensable as Is laboratory work In any science, so that students may apply practically the instruction which they receive theoretically.. A summer session has also been recently Introduced whereby such work can be carried on more readily. The lack of practical farmers, therefore. among the graduates does not appear to he due to a lack of practical work in agricultural instruction, and can be more readily explained from other causes. Practical farmers the. college does educate. They are found In 1111 parts of the State, and are conducting farms which are profitable to themselves, and are profitable as object lessons. ATTACK UN THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS BY GOV. FERGUSON. During the early part of the summer` of 1917, a serious controversy arose between Gov. Ferguson, of Texas, and I'resident Vinson, of the State university. The cause of the trouble was due largely- to Pres-. ident Vinson's refusal to dismiss certain college teachers to whom the governor objected. The latter, by.Avay of retaliation, vetoed the appropriation for the State university, and consequently aroused a great storm of protest from all parts of the State. Inasmuch as the governor had acted unlawfully in the matter, and seriously. threatened the financial resources of the universit,rtire legislature in special session passed the neces.kary aPpropriation"bill for the support of the university. - In August the governor wa4 impeached and removed .from office. The articles of .impeachment included counts for alleged misap- propriation of funds and the abuse of authority in his dealings with the regents and the president of the university. HIGHER EDUCATION. SPECIAL LEGISLATION TOUCHING HIGHER 'EDUCATION. THE SMITHEIUGHE13 ACT. By the enactment of the Smith-Hughes law, a large fund has been made available Tor the training of teachers in industrial and agri- cultural subjects. . This fund, which is administered by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, amounts to $546,000 for 1917-18 and increases yearly to a maximum of $1,090,000 for the yeti'. of 190-1:1, the latter sum being the annual appropriation thereafter. The maximum amount of the teacher-training fund to be used in any fiscal year in any one of the three following linestrades and industries, home economics; and agricultureis 60 per cent of the total amount allotted to the State for that year for teacher training. The training of these teachers will be directly under the State board for vocational education, subject to certain Federal regulations. In order to qualify for this special type of training, the teacher- candidate should be 'a graduate of a four-year high-school. Vo- cational experience is also required. THITEWLANDS BILL During the year 1916, Senator Newlands introduced a bill authoriz- ing the appropriation of Federal funds for the establishment of engi- neering experiment stations in the different States. The bill provides that these stations are to be placed under a board of control, consist- ing of the Secretaries of the Interior, Conunerce, and Agriculture. The approval of the governor of the State is neAssary before an ex- periment station can be established in any State. Although the bill did not obtain a vote, it has more than usual-sig- nificance. It contemplates the subsidialion of engineering research by a plan similar to that by which agricultural research is now subsidized in the agricultural experiment stations. The bill, fur- thermore, has the indorsement of the National Association of the State Universities and tof other important educational bodies inter- ested in engineering research. AMERICANIZATION. The new and important Americanization movement has necessitated- the training of teachers to look after the large number of immigrants that annually come to our shores. During the past year thf; New York Legislature has appropriated $20,000 to provide for the training.of teachers of adult immigrants, training courses being gin during the summer of 1917, in Albany, Buffalo, Nei" York, Rochester, Syracuse, and Nassau County, L. I. At- present -there are 14 universities and colleges conducting _teacher 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. training classes for teachers of immigrants. These institutions are as follows: University of Ciilifornia; &tax Normal School, Los An- geles; University of Colorado; State Normal School, flabury, Conn.; State Teachers' College,lreeley, Colo.; State Normal School, I Iyannis, Mass.; American University, Springfield, Mass.; Columbia University and Teachers' College, New fork; State College \for Teachers, Albany, N. V.; State 'Normal School, I3uffalo, N. Y. ;-Syra- cuss University, Syracuse, N. Y.; University of Pittsburgh ;.Univer- sity of Wyoming: University of Wisconsin. Teacher training clases are also being conducted by various-boards of Education, as in Hoboken, N. J., Detri)it, Mich., Rochester, N. Y., Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Philadelphia. PART H. THE COLLEGES AND THE WAR. Universities anti colleges have been temporarily transformed by the War. It is still too early to say whether any of the changes wrought will be permanent. Certain principles and methods, however, have been developed by the war experience _which apparently commend themselves to large numbers of university and college officers. These are treated in some detail at the end of this chapter. The contributiont of the higher institutions to the war are definite and easily recorded. They are Also noteworthy.' Indeed, it is prob- able that no other class or group in the population of the United States contributed so large a proportion of its membership to the fighting forces of the country or participated so directly in the lead- ership of noncombatant war activities.. It ha often been remarked that the intellectual classes were responsible for the United States joining the Allies. The extent to which-public opinion was molded 'by college officers and college stndents before the declaration of war is of course diffic'ult to ascertain. It is beyond question; however, that the influence of collegiate communities upon public thought was very great. In spite of the consistent attempts of college officers-to foster an open mind and to offer a. free forum for discussion of the issues involved during the first threelears of the World War, the trend of sentiment in college communities was from the beginning strongly in favor of the allied cause. Many presidents and professors also con- stituted themselves,the spokesmen of this cause before the country. Reflections of the strength of studEnt sentiment are to be found in the overwhelming support given to allied charities by collegiate Com- munities. When the declaration of war came, it found the. college world mentally prepazed,knd eager to .take its part in what it re- gar d as a great mond HIGHER EDUCATION. 39 PROBLEMS RAISED BY THE WAR. It has been stated that the officers of higher institutions furnished a large part of the intellectual leadership in the actual conduct of the war. This leadership began to make itself felt at once. The colleges perceived at the outset the problems which they as institu- tions would have to meet. They perceived these problems in relation to the war enterprise as a whole. In fact, university and college officers seem to have been the only considerable group of individuals who did see in the beginning what were the fundamental human ele- ments in preparation for war and in the successful prosecution of the war. Others, to 'be sure, grasped the need for deploying the - Nation's material strength. The colleges saw first that this would be ineffective unless- backed by the complete mobilization of the Nation's resources in knowledge and skill and intention. The colleges iterated and reiterated these truths until appropriate national policies were adopted. Aiid the adoption came regrettably late. Both the suc- cesses and the failures of America's war experience demonstrate that the colleges were right. . , War is an exceedingly practical business. Many have been sur- prised that college men, reputed to be a cloistered and unpractical lot., able to lead in anything so concrete and matter-of-fact. But is it surprising? Besides'being a practical business, war is also perennially a new business. Fighting is. old, but °every war is more moderfi than its age. The latest devices of science and in- vention are put to work. Under the tremendous mental tension of veer, new devices ere produced at a rate unknown in peace. It is the business of university and collegeinsttuctori to follow the progress of the world in every field of intellectual endeavor. The open mind, adaptability to new conditions, are what they aim to produce in their students also. The double aspdet of thei,present war has often been noted. On the one hand, it has been a war of science, of e.Igineering, nf medicine, of agriculture, of transportation; on the other hand, it has been a great moral struggle, in which two divergent concepts of human relationships have collided. University staffs contain men who are expert in, each Qf the elds of science, and men also *hose task it is to interpret ,the ethical pects of every social movenient. T : t these men should have read both the material and spiritual les, developed in the three years of war in Europe, and should have their import for the. United States in 1917, is not to be tijo w. . : : i at. It would, in fact, have been surpriAg if theyhad not:. At , .; to they were more ready than any other .group with sugges- tio s r the practice solution of the difficallties*hich confronted the G ernment in A 1917. 4. 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, .1916-1918. What were the concrete problems in which colleges and universi- ties were primarily concerned and toward the solution of which they contributed? These were of a threefold nature. They related (a) to training andithe proper organization of training agencies, (b) to the mobilization of science, and (c) to the development of public morale. These problems merged into one another to some extent. A consistent classification is not always possible. For the sake of convenience, however, the grouping that has been suggested will be used in the following discussion. TRAINING AND THE EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING AGENCIES FOR -- NATIONAL SERVICE. The declaration of war by the United States was not unforeseen in the university world. Several institutions immediately on the rup- ture of diplomatic relations made plans to meet the emergency which was certain to arise. Two especially noteworthy acts may be mentioned. Columbia University developed a plan of registration and mobili- zation which would make possible the participation of any member or group of the faculty, alumni, or student body in the national service, with a minimum of delay. The very- effective registration blanks devised by the university for this purpose were- circulated with comment by the Bureau of Education among all the colleges. Many institutions adopted similar forms and organized in a similar way for service. Harvard University, which had been conducting intensive military training for, a number of months, approached the French Govern- ment for the assignment of invalided French officers to take charge of the instruction of the Harvard regiment. The preliminary nego- tiations were completed during February and March, 1917, and the officers arrived on the heels of the declaration of war. With the actual declaration, of war the exodus of students, chiefly from the upper classes, to enter the service as volunteers began. At the same time the presidents and boards of trUstees of many institu- tions addressed the President, and Secretary of War, or the Core missioner of Education, offering the services of their plants and equipment to the Government. Back of these formal offers was a profound convictiqn that higher institutions had a .uniquely vallmble contribution to make, both as Centers of training and as focal points.. for scientific etperimentation, Presidenti and faculties viewed the daily. increasing enlistments bf upper-class men with mixed feelings. On the one hand they were glad and pioud of the response of the ,student bodies; on the other, they realiied that if de scientific and technical training agencies were broken up and the supply of 'trained , men diminished, the consequence would be very serious in the event HIGI1 Ea EDUCATION. 41 of a long war. It early became clear that, without checking the patriotic impulses of students, steps must be taken to retain a con- siderable percentage in .college. . The colleges naturally looked for central directiok The conduct of the war was the businass of the Government.. The Government shod say what colleges were expected to do. For a number of weeks no governinental direction was forthcoming. The Govern- ment's educational activities are distributed among some 20 separate departments and bureaus, no one of whit -h was in a position to speak authoritatively to the institutions on a matter involving the military and economic policy of the Nation. e uNivEasrry COMMITTEE OF THE ADVISORY COMMISSION OF TIM COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. In the autumn of 1916 Congress had created the Council of National Defense. The council consists of the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. Associated with it is an advisory commission composed of seven civilians expert in the fields of transportation, munitions, supplies, raw materials, en- gineering, la,bor, and medicine. The function of the council is to investigate the resources of the country with a view to their utiliza tion in the event of war. The members of the advisory commission -associated with themselves committees of experts to assist in these investigations and in the formulation of pi:1E6es to be recommended to the executive departments and to Congress. The council is there- fore designed in part as a coordinating agency to relate the adtiii,ities of the executive department~ concerned in national defense and to brink to bear civilian opinion upon the problems of the Governinent. Education was not originally included in the Lphere of the council's lii vities. 'Shortly after the declaration of war, however, the Corn- ioner for Engineering of the advisory commission was charged th the task of investigating and 'reporting upon educational problems related to the war. 01/.. `The Commi4sioner for Engineering end Education therefore ins mediately appointed the nucleus of a committee on educational problems and called a meeting of representatives of the principal as- sociations of colleges-and universities, to formulate a comprehensive policy for cooperation between the higher institutions and the Gov- ernment. The conference. was held at Washington May 5. It was attended by the official representatives of the National Association of State Universities, the Association of American Agricultural Col-, loges and Experiment Stations, the Association of American ITni- versifies, the Association-of American Colleges, the Society for the Promotion of Engineqing Education, and by officers of 187 higher . 7' I institutions. The foil-owing preamble and statement of principles . . . . . . 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. were adopted by the meeting. They indicate very clearly both the exalted spirit of service which animated the universities and colleges and the accuracy of their forecast of the educational needs of the country duriig the war. PREAMBLE. In the supreme crisis that confronts the Nation the colleges and universities of America have the single-minded thought and desire to summon to the country's service every resource at their,cottunand, to offer to the Nation their full strength without reservation, and to consecrate their every power to the . high task of securing for all mankind those ideas and ideals that gave them birth and out of which have grown their most precious traditions. In order that such service may be most Intelligently developed and applied, the following declaration of principles is respectfully suggested. STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES, It is our judgment that our colleges and universities should so organize their work that in all directions they may he of the greatest possible usefulness to the country in its present crisis. We therefore believe, first, that all young men below the age of to the selective draft' and those not recommended for special service, who can avail themselveS of the opportunities offered by our colleges. should be urged so to do in order that they may be able to render the most effective service, both during the full period of the war and in the trying times which, %till follow its close. We believe, second, that all colleges and universities should so modify their calendars and curricula as will most fully subserve the present needs of the Nation and utilize most profitably the time of the students and the institutional plant, force, and equipment. With this end in view, we suggest ;hat, as an emergency measure, the colleges consider the advisability of deciding the college' year into four quarters of approximately 12 weeks each, and that, where neces- sary, courses be repeated at least once a year so that the college course may be best adapted to the needs of food production. We believe, third, that In view of the supreme importance of applied science in the present war.'students pursuing technietkl courses. such as medicine. agriculture, and engineering are rendering, or are to render, through the con- tinuance of their training, services more valuable and efficient than if they were to enroll in military or naval service at once. We believe, fourth, that the Government should provide or encourage military training for all young men in college by retired officers of the Army and. .National Guard or by other persons competent to give 'military instruction, and that the colleges should include as a part of their course of study teaching In military science. in accordance with the provisions of the national' defense act of June, 1916. We believe, fifth, that the Bureau of Education of the Department of the Interior and the States Relations Service of the Department of Agriculture, with the cooperation of the committee on science, engineering, and education of the advisory commission of the Council of National Defense, should be the medium of cornmunrcailon between the Federal departments and the higher educational institutions of the country. will be recalled that the Selective Service Act was parsed almost taneotudy . With this meeting of May ft, , HIGHER EDUCATION. 48 Finally; we believe that an educational responsibility rests on the institutions of higher ,learning to disseminate correct information concerning the Issues involved in the war and to interpret its meaning. The meeting was addressed by the Secretary of War. In the course of .his remarks he made the following significant statements: I think this, though, is more or less clear to those of us who look at it from, the outside: First, that the country needs officers. There is no preference of college men for officers, but because a man has had academic opportunities he has to start with. presumptively at least. a better foundation upon which to build the imirning which an officer must hove; and therefore t a very sub- stantial extent the country desires its college graduates and its college-bred men of suitable age in the training camps in 'order that they may be rapidly matured into officers and used In the training of the new forces. To the extent that the men in college are physically disqualified, or to the extent that they are too young to meet the requirements of the department, it seems quite clear that in the present state of the emergency their major use- fulness lies in remaining in the college, going forward with their academic work ; and the colleges can. I think. lend some color of patriotic endenyor to their so doing by such simple tnodifications of their courses and curricula a will show the boys who stay that they are being directly equipped for sub quent usefulness if the emergency lasts until their call comes.sss The meeting left behind it -a permanent committee attached to the advisory commission of* the Council of National Defense. Thesper- sonnel of this committee follows: Hollis. Godfrey, Sc. D., member of the advisory commission of the Council of Na Defense, president. Drexel Institute, chairman. Henry. PE Crampton, Ph. D.. professor, (7olutahla University, vice chairman: 'Frederick C. Ferry, Ph. I)., dean, Williams College, secretary. Samuel P. Capen, Ph. D., specialist in higher educationin the United States Bureau of Education, executive secretor/. Edwin A. Alderman. LL. D., president. University of Virginia. Guy Potter Benton, LL. D., president, University of Vermont. Kenyon L. Butterfield, LL.D., president, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Augustus S, Downing, LL. D., assistant commissioner for higher education, University of the State of New York. Wilson Fart-and. M. A.. headmaster. Newark Academy. Guy S. Ford, Ph. D., director of the division on Civic and educational co- operation of the Committee on Public Information. Frank J. Goodnow, LL. D.. president, Johns Hopkins University. .Edward K. Graham, LL, D., president, University of North Carolina. Charles S, Howe, Ph. D., president, Case School of Applied Science. Harry Pratt Judson, LL. D., President, University of Chicago. A. Lawrence Lowell, LL. D president, .Harvard University. Frank L. McVey, I.L. D., president, State University of North Dakota. Alexander Meikeljobn, LL. D., preSident, Amherst College. Joseph A. Mulry, Ph. IX, president, Fordham University. John S. Nolien, LL. D., president, ,Lake Forest College. Raymond A. Pearson, LL. D., president, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. . Winthrop E. Stone, LL. D., president, Purdue UniveaZto Henry aguallo, Pb. D., president, University of W n. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. William 0. Thompson, LL. D., president, Ohio State University. Robert E. Vinson, LL1 D., president, University of Texas. With recognition of education by the Council of National Defense and the establishment. of this committee, higher institutions believed that they had at last located the Government agency which was pre- , pared to give them competent and authoritative direction. Their expectations were only in part fulfilled. The Council of National Defense is not an executive, but purely an advisory body. During the war, .moreover, it was equipped with such small financial re- sources that its facilities even for educational investigation were limited. However, through the agency of the university committee and the committee on the relation of engineering schools to the Gov- ernment, mentioned below, it was able to bring to the attention of /tlieI;erating departments some of the major problems of the col- . leges and to assist in the development of an effective national policy for the utilization of these training facilities. INDEPENDENT A CTIONT BY COLLEGES IN PREPARATION FOR WAR SERVICE. MILITARY TRAINING. The statement of principles just quoted received wide circulation among colleges and exercised a steadying effect. A large percentage of the institutions acted upon the advice contained in this statement. The one activity of foremoot importance, as it -seemed, in which college students could engage at once was military training. Almost without exception the colleges provided military training. In many cases a large amount of time'was devoted to it each week, and aca- demic credit given. Under the national-defense act of June 2, 1916, the establishment of units of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps in all colleges mustering 100 able-bodied male students for the purpose was authorized. Up to the outbreak of hostilities something less than a hundred units of the corps had been established. The great pressure upon the War Department for officers, rifles, and other equipment prevented the extension of the corps (except to the in- stitutions that had already been promised units) during the war. Asthis was the only form of military training under Government supervision and receiving Government recognition, colleges which did not have the Reserve Officers' Training Corps were obliged to provide such training on their own responsibility. Retired Iffieers of the Regular Army and National Guard were hired as instructors, as fil'r as they were available. Some institutions secured invalided officers of the allied armies. Military training thus made ,,great progress in the spring of 1917. By the opening of the fall term the provision of military training was recognized as the sine qua non of .college's existence. HIGHER EDUCATION. 45 The opinion of American college officers with respect to the de- siral;ility of the general introduction of military 'training was re- inforced by the testimony of representatives of Canadian universi- ties. The university committee of, the Council of National Defense held a conference with representatives of Canadian universities on July 3 and 4, 1917. The following gentlemen represented the Cana- dian universities: Sir Robert A. Falconer, president of the University of Toronto. Dr. A. Stanley Mackenzie. president of Dalhousie University. Dr. H. M. Tory, president of the University of Alberta. Dr. Frank D. Adams, dean of the faeully of applied science, Magill University. Capt. William H. Alexander. University of Alberta. These gentlemen reported the. establisment in Canada early in the war of officers' training corps in the universities, the training consti- tuting a part of the regular university work for a period of two years. The training was limited to two years because few physically fit upper clansmen remained in Canadian universities. (Students in' arts courses proved excellent candidates for commissions in the Army after having received this training. Officers' training corps ufiits were parts of the militia of the Dominion of Canada. The instruction was regularly given by members of the teaching force of the universities, because it had been found in general that univer- sity teachers proved more effective instructors for university men than Army officers. The results of this conference were reported both to the colleges and to the War Department. The War Department expressed its conviction of the soundness of the contention of college officers that students should be given regular military instruction under the aus- pices of the department, but regretted that the shortage of men and material prevented the adoption of this policy at once. SFECI AL COURSES Volt REDMAN STUOV.NTS INTRODUCED AS A RESULT OF THE WAR. Before the end of the academic year 1916.-17 the majority of insti- tutions had introduced a variety of special.emergency courses. The great problem of conservation, especially the conservation of food; received attention not only in agricultural colleges but in colleges 'of arts and sciences, and especially in colleges for women. Nearly every college with women students offered Red Cross work or home nurs- ing, or both. Engineering schools inaugurated courses in such mili- tary applications of engineering subjects as map making. military surveying, bridge building, telegraphy, radio operation, etc. Courses in spoken French and courses in economics, government, and history, designed to illuminate the background and causes of the war, were introduced in a number of institutions. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. NEW SCHOOLS ASO COURSES. As early as the spring of 1917 the various branches of the military departments began to recognize the contributions to training for special service which could be made by the organized civilian insti- tutions. The Signal Corps established eight aviation schools in connection with universities. The Quartermaster's and Ordnance De- partments contracted with colleges for the piovision of storekeepers' courses. The Navy trained ensigns and technical specialists at sev- eral large universities lying near the coast. Each of these types of training was managed by the branch of the service in which the candidates were to serve. As yet neither the Army nor the Navy was prepared to develop ft comprehensive policy of cooperation with the colleges in the -work of trttining. CHANGES IN cOLLEGE cALENDARs. A considerable number of institutions adopted the suggestion made in the statement of principles quoted above and reiterated by the Secretary of r regarding the modificatiiin of college calen- dars. The fours ter year had been debated in educational meet- ings fora long time. Few institutions had found themseltes able to adopt it. The principal obstacle was a financial one, although there were others also. In the enthusiasm of the first months of the war a considerable number of institutions made this change and accepted the financial loss which it entailed as a part of their contribution to the national service. STUDENTS AND THE DRAFT. Reference has already been made to the serious military conse- quences involved in the withdrawal of a large percentage of students undergoing general and technical training before the completion of their courses. The experience of the allied countries in this regard pointed an unmistakable lesson. In the beginning of the war Great 4Britain and Canada allowed hundreds of scientific experts to go to the trenches as privates or officers of the line. Their higher institu- tions were decimated. Later, when imperative demand for the peculiar services of these technically trained men came, the men were no longer available. The supply ordinarily furnished by the higher institutions had also been temporarily cut off. Both Great Britain and Canada realized that their failure to use technical men in technical service and to keep a constant flow of scientifically trained students and men of advanced general education issuing from their institutions was a mistake. Military and jndustrial ad- visers from both countries warned the United States in the early days of our participation in the war not to repeat this error. The- activities of the medical section of the Council of National. Defense were responsible. for the protection of medical and dental HIGHER EDUCATION. 47 students from the draft by special legislation at the time of the pas- sge of the selective-service law. But no similar measures were taken to defer the military service of students in other technical lines and in colleges of arts and sciences. The reason was evidently twofold. In the first place, few people realized that there was dan- ger of serious shortage either of engineers or of arts-college gradu- ates. In the second plactit it was regarded as unwise public policy to p,rotect from military service a class of persons which was enjoy-, ing already special advantages. The draft must appear absolutely democratic in its operation; otherwise it could not command the sup- port and confidence of the entire country. College officers appre: Mated the cogency of this argument. They were reluctant to put themselves in a position of asking special favors. Particularly did they hesitate because their motives might seem open to suspicion, a shortage of students having a depressing effect upon the financial status of their institutions. The draining of the trained and educated resources of the coun- try came not alone from the operation of the draft. College and uni- versity students were among the first to volunteer. Until enlistments were entirely barred, colleges were the happy hunting grounds for recruiting officers of every branch of the military service. The senti- ment grew that to wait, for the draft was the mark of a slacker. Uollege officers were therefore faced with an exceedingly difficult and delicate problem. It would have been disastrous for the morale of the institutions to discountenance volunteering. Without taking this step, the arguments in favor of delay and of a wise, long-distance patriotism were not very effective. The way in which educational leaders and other public-men went about solving the difficulty is of special interest. Indeed, one of the striking aspects of America's first y6ar in the war is the long series of efforts to conserve the supply of men of higher training and to 'tender the selective-service ltecv truly selective in its operation. The history of these efforts is worth recording briefly. line first public pronouncement appeared in the statement of prin- ciples adopted at the meeting of May 5, quoted above. This was followed by a circular issued May 22 by the Commissioner of Edu- cation, entitled "Suggestions for the conduct of educational' insti- tutions during the continuance of the war, to the end that their educational efficiency may not be lowered and that they may render the largest amount of service both for the present and for the future." In the section addressed to colleges, universities, and technical schools the commissioner made the following statement: All students should be made to understand that it is their duty to give to their country and to the world the best and iullest possible measure of service, and that botIPwill need more than they will get: of that high type of service 4t5 BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19118. which only men and women of the best education and training can give. Patriotism and the,desire to serve humanity may 'require, of these young men and women the exercise of that very high type of self-restraint that will keep them to their tasks of preparation until 'the time comes when they can render service which can. not be rendered by others. On July 19 the Secretary of the Interior'brought to the attention of the President the serious falling off in the number of students in higher institutions. The President, replied on July 20, as follows: MY DEAR MR. SECRETARY : The question which you have brought to my atten- tion is of the very greatest moment. It would. as you suggest, seriously impair America's prospects of success In this war if the supply of highly trained men were unnecessarily diminished. There will be need for a Vger number of persons expert in the various fields of applied science O,' ever before. Such persons will he needed both during the war and after its close. I therefore have no hesitation in urging collegts and technical schools to endeavor to main- tain their courses as far as possible on the usual basis. There will be many ,young men from these Institutions who will serve In the armed fooces of the country. Those who fall below the age of selective conscription and who do not enlist may feel that by pursuing their courses with earneetuess and diligence they also are preparing themselvesfor valuable service to the Nation. I would particularly urge upon the young people who are. leaving our high schools that as many of them as can do so avail themselves this year of the opportunities offered by the colleges and technical schools, to the end that the country majr not lack an adequate supply of trained men and women. Cordially and sincerely, yours. WOODROW WILSON. In spite of this advice and similar counsel from many other influ- ential persons all over the country; the exodus from higher institu- tions continued. The actual effect of the war on student enrollment at the beginning of the acade* year 1917 -18 id shown in the follow- ing tables compiled by the Bur&tu of Education from a questionnaire issued October 1,1917: Effect of the war on Si 3 colleges of liLeral arts. Classe3. Fall of 1916. Fall of 1917. Gain or loss. Per cent. Freshman class: Gain. Lou. Gain. Lou. Men 22,531 . Is, 560 3,671 16.3 Women.., 17,442 17,556 114 ' 0.8 Sophomore class: Men 14,613 12,806 2,113 14.4 Women 11,013 11,882 269 2.3 Junior class: Men Women s, 10,692 5,961 8,157 9,911 130 2,535 1.4 23.7 Senior class: Men 5,712 6,149 2,503 29.4 Women 7,94 7,897 611 8.4 Special and graduate students: Men ,... 4,043' 2,119 1,624 40.1 Women 9,273 2,919 354 10.8 Total men.. . 60,596 48,000 12,506 20.6 Total women 48, 676 49,346 , 770 1.6 Total students 109,171 97,435 11,736 10.8 3 HIGHER EDUCATION. I5,_-,t- ig bQ .9 ''' 4 g,4 a. 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A a !'. 2 2 2 2 2 li I ''' IQ 81.fi ''''", g- ii 1 1 i 0 TS .8 1111 I 1 i 1 III hi -811-1 ..6, 1 4 v 1 :s s T v 10 1111 111 I lit 111 171029*-21Bu1l.88--4. yO Oi I 3 49 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1918. Other figur6s compiled by the Bureau of Education during the summer of 1917 with regard to the total available supply of en- gineers and engineering students, revealed a particularly serious Fall- ation with respect to this group of persons, It became evident that the only hope of a satisfactory solution of the difficulty lay in action by the War Department, giving a special military status to engin- eering students. T:.e university committee of the Council of Na- tional Defense, therefore. brought the facts in its possession to the attention of the following bodies: The Association of American Uni- versities, the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Ex- periment Stations, the National Research Council, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, the Council of the Ameri- can Society of Civil Engineers, the Council of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Council of the United Engineer- . ing Societies. Most of these-agencies memorialized the Secretary of War, urging in effect that engineering students be placed upon the same military status as students in medicine. On December 8 the Secretary of War authorized the issuance of regulations which pertinitted students in schools of engineering to finish their courses before being called upon for active military serv- ice. This ruling was embodied in the Revised Selective Service Reg- ulations and read as follows: Under such regulations as the Chief of Engineers may preScrlhe, a propor- tion of the students pursuing an engineering course in one of the approved technical engineering schools listed flti the War Department as named hy the school faculty may enlist in the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the Engineering Department and thereafter, upon presentation by the registrant to his local board of a certificate of enlistment, such certificate shall be filed with the questionnaire and the registrant shall be placed in Class V, on the ground that he is in the military service of the United States. The status.of engineering students thus established persisted until the abolition of the Enlisted Reserve Corps in 1918, and the este)); lishment of the Students Army Training Corps. By later regula- tion of the Secretary of War, students in applied sciences were also allowed to enter the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the Quartermaster's Department, the Signal Corps, and the Ordnance Department. FURTHER EFFORTS TO SECURE FEDERAL DIRECTION OF CIVILIAN TRAINING AGENCIES. The measures just mentioned resulted in only a partial and inade- quate utilization of college resources in the great task of- training for war service. They did not furnish the colleen with the authori- tative and intelligent direction which was mgassry. Neither were they sufficiently definite and drastic to conserve the supply of experts and of officer material. The colleges recognized these defects. From HIGHER EDUCATION. 51 May 1917, to February, 1918, a series of efforts were. made to induce the Goverrunent.to coordinate civilian training agencies and to carry out through them a training prOgrain appropriate to the immediate needs of the Nation. Since Congress had placed in the hands of the War Department the destinies of young men of college, age; it was clear that the responsibility for such coordination rested in the first instance with that department. In fact, the cause of most of the difficulties which colleges faced was the lack of any agency in the War Department itself to consider the question of training in a com- prehensive way and to make use of the vast training facilities afforded by civilian institutions. Whatever the opinion of the Sec- retary of War and the heads of the staff 'corps with regard to the greater serviceableness of men who had finished their technical train- ing, the inexorabre machinery of the selective-gervice law nevertheless operated to drive technical students as well as others into the Army prematurely.. Numerous plans were proposed to the War Depart- ment both by individuals and by educational associations looking toward the establishment of such an agency. Indeed, the full ultili- zation of the civilian educational Plant by the Government was the principal topic of discussion at nearly every higher educational gathering ciring this period. Limitations of space do not permit the complete enumeration of these efforts. The cumulative effect was doubtless influential in se- curing the action eventually taken. Naturally the governmental agencies for education, especially the educational committees of the Council of National Defense and the Bureau of Education, were in a strategical position to reinforce these efforts and to exert a con- stant pressure toward the same end. In fact, these two bodies served as foci through which the opinions of the leaders in the university world were brought to bear upon the persons in charge of training for military operations. This whole movement can therefore best be followed by recording the-Acts of the two bodies mentioned. COMMITTEE ON THE RELATION OF ENGINEERING SCHOOLS TO THE GOVERNMENT. In July, 1917, the Commissioner for'Engineering and Education of the Advisory Commiksion of the. Council of National Defense ap- pointed a committee to studrithe relation of engineering schools to the Government, this committee functioning as 'a subcommittee of the uni- versity committee noted above. Its members were Dean Pr L. Bishop, of the Engineering School of the University of Pittsburgh (chair- man); Dr. S. P. Capen, of the United States Bureau of Education (secretary); President C. S. Howe, of the Case School of Applied 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Science; Dean M. S. Ketchum, of the College of Engineering at the University of Colorado; Dr. C. R. Mann, special investigator for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Throughout the month of August the committee was in nearly continuous session. It held occasional meetings also up to January, 1918. It was throughout its lifetime in touch with the Society for the Promotion of Vngineering Education, the National Engineering Societies. the Assoiat ion of American Vniversities, the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and the National Association of State Universities. The committee's first task was to consult with the beads of various biireaus, divisions, and departments of the Department, of War and the Department of the Navy, with regard to the probable needs for scientific and technically trained men in connection with the military operations. The mobilization plans for the- Army were not then complete. It was, in fact,, impossible to tell either how many spe- cially trained experts would be needed or what relation the probalA demand for such persons b9re to the available, supply among the civilian population.. Army authorities were not even certain of the proportionate number of specially trained individuals needed in each type of military. unit. Convinced of the urgency of securing, this information and relating it to a definite program for the use of educational jnstitutions, the committee presented to the Secretary of War, on August 17, 1917, the folowing recommendation : "That. an engineer fiimiliar with the equipment and capacity of the higher technical institutions of the country be commissioned in the Army and assigned to the task of coordinating the needs of the Army' for technically trained men with existing educational facilities." On August 31 the Secretary of War detailed an officer of the General Staff to study the needs of the War Department for technically trained men and the methods of secuci4lhe cooperation of educa- tional institutions toward meeting these needs. The committee at, o a e ter into a series of conferences with this officer which led to the form lation of certain unexpected conclusions. It appeared that far greater than the need for highly trained experts was the need for men with lower grades of technical skill. It writhe original assumption that a sufficient number e persons 4 qualified to serve the Army as carpenters, outomobile mechanics, electricians, blacksmiths, etc., might be secured from the civilian population by. means of the selective-service law. Indeed; it wa at first Nought that sufficient:numbers of artisans and technicians would turn up' in the ordinary process of the draft to meet these needs. In the summer of .1917 the committee on classification of personnel in' the Arniy began to prepare a census of the drafted HIGHER ED17CA7ION. men with reference to their previous occupations, experience, and education. The committee gad not. completed its work before it/13e- came aliparerit that the draft ivas failing by a very large per,Lent to bring int9.the service the technicians required* for ordinary mili- tary operations. Indeed, the calls for specialists filth the American Expeditionary Force were operatin-r to strip the units in home camps of, the skilled personnel absolutely esSential to the effective mainte- nance of these units. illoreover, the increasing pressure upon tech- nical industries for the pod.Ectin of war materials rendered it unwise to draft larger numbers of technically trained men. It was 4 clear, tirrefore, that emergency training devices must' ar,oncebe !!stablished, if the Army program were, to .be a success. The General Staff ollicer hssigned to the study of this problem and the connnittee, on the relation Qf engineering schools to the dsv- ernment worked out a tentative plan for tie creation, of machinery in the War Department which should supervise the trftining of both the lower and . higher gradec)of technical (wefts and should enlist the cooperation of civilian institutions in the task of training. With the relic! of this officer and the assignment of anyther to the same task, the tentative plan was temporarilyshelved. The Fed- eral Board for Vocat loud .Education, which had been established in July, 1917, &bred its services to the General Staff for the training of technicians and trade specialists for the Army. The Adjutant General, therefore, issued an order on November 15, 1917, directing the heads of the staff corps to apply. to the Federal Board for the nutters of technically trained men needed by each corps. The Fed- eral Board established at once emergency courses in several of the Army ocTupat ions for th6, training of men awaiting the draft. These measures served as only a partial remedy for the. difficulty. Their principal defect lay in the fact that the Federal Board had no means of controlling the numbers of men in training. It wi}s also bunch:- capped in administering an extensive training program, owing to the fact that most of the men in its courses were following their regular occupationstIt was evident that no accurate correlation of training with the Army needs could be secured without a change of policy. - The Federal Board for Vocational Education consequently'brought together the representatives of secondary and higher technical train- ing at two conferences in Washington, and secured their indorsement for a 'proposal to tie Secretary of War sub.stantially similar to that made by the committee on the relation of engineering schools to the Government. The principal feature of both plans was that the War Department' should create a special board or committee to have charge of the Army training enterprise other than military, and . r 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OP-EDUCATION, 1918-1918. should rely upon civilian institutions for the provision of training facilities. EMERGENCY (AMERICAN) COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. College and university Officers had been growing more and more impatient at the delay in the formulation of the Government polity toward higher institutions. The feeling that there should beat the seat of the Government an independent body without governmental connections which could present the views and the situation of the colleges, gradually crystallized at meetings of the Association of American Colleges and the National Association of State Universi- ties held in Chicago in January, 1918. Delegates from these associa- tions, from the Association of Urban Universities, the Catholic Edu- cational Association, the Arneritan Association of University Pro- fessors, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the various branches of the National Education Association met in Washington during the last week in January. under the chairmanship of the specialist in higher education in the Bureau of Education. The meeting resulted in the formation of the Emergency Council on Education, the de- clared puipose of which was: To place the educational resources of the country more completely at the service of the National Government and its departments, to the end that through an understanding cooperation : The patriotic services of the public schools, professional schools, and colleges and universities may be augmented; A continuous supply of educatea men may be maintained; and Greater effectiveness in meeting educational problems arising during and following the War may be secured. The Emergency Council elected the following officers: President Donald J. Cowling, Carleton College, president. President P. L. Campbell, University of Oregon, secretary. Dr. Robert 14' Kelly, executive secretary. Executive council. The president and secretary. Dean Herman V. Ames, of the University of Pennsylvania. President Homer H. Seerley, Iowa State Teachers' College. Right ReV. Thomas J. Shahan, Catholic University of America. The council changed its name after the first meeting to the Ameri- can, Council. on Education. It established headquarters in Wash- ington, and through the active efforts of its executive officers it served as a valuable mediating agent between the- Government departments, particularly the War Department, and educational institutions. It interpreted the measures later adopted by the War Department to the colleges. It 'was especially effective in keeping the operating de- partments constantly informed of the views and desires of the educa- tional leaders of the country. HIGBEE EDUCATION. 66 COMMFFTEE ON EDUCATION AND SPECIAL TRAINING OF THE WAR DEPART- MENT. The preceding discussion has shown the development of a strong body of opinion, botfi inside and outside the War Department, as to the necessity for formal action by the department in the matter of its educational program. The Secretary of War and his advisers had before them in the latter part of January the plans suggested by various individuals, by several educational associations, by the com- mittee on the relation of engineering schools of the Council of Na- tional Defense, and by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. All were in agreement as to the fundamental ends to be attained. There were indeed only minor differences in the various solutions proposed. On the 10th of February, 1818, the Secretary of War created the committee on education and special training. The. order authorizing this committee and defining its functions follows: 1. There is hereby created within the War Department the committee on education and special training. This committee of three members shall con- sist of Col. Hugh S. Johnson, Deputy Provost Marshal General; Lieut. Col. Robert I. Rees, General Staff, and Maj. Grenville Clark, Adjutant General's De- partment. 2. L'nder the direction of the Chief of Staff, Oa:, functions of the committee shall be: To study the needs of the various branches of the service for skilled men and technicians; to determine how such needs shall be met, whether by selective draft, special training in educational institutions, or oNerwtse ; to secure the cooper,otion of the educational institutions of the country and to represent the War Department in its relations with such institutions; to ad,- minister such planof special training in colleges and schools as may be adopted. 32The committee on education and special training shall have associated.with It Lai advisory civilian board appointed by the Secretary of War, composed of representatives of educational institutions. An °dicer shall be detailed by*the chief of each staff corps and department to consult with the committee con- cerning the needs of his corps or depaftrfient. 4. The committee. will be given such assistance, commissioned and civilian, as may be necessary to fully execute its duties, with office room in the War Department )luild Mg. The Secretary of War appointed the fo'lowing gentlemen to serve as Members of the advisory board, regre.senting civilian educational interests: , Dr. C. R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation for the 'Advancement of Teach- ing, representing engineering education (chairman). ,Dean James K. Angell, of the University of Chicago, representing university 'education. Mr. S. Dlet7., educational manager of the Western Electric Co., represent- ing vocational education. Mr. J.P. Monroe, member of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Dr. S. P. Caper', specialist in higher education do the Bureau of Education. 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Later President R. A. Pearson, of Iowa State College, was ap- pointed to represent agricultural education, and Mr. Hugh Frayne to represent labor interests. On the resignation of Mr. Monroe, his place was filled by Dean Herman Schneider, of the engineering school of the tniversity of Cincinnati. NATIONAL ARMY TRAINING DETACHMENTS. Immediately upon its organization the committee and its advisory board proceeded to secure estimates from the staff corps as to the needs of the different brancles of the Army for technically trained men. These needs -were calculated as accurately as possible and compared with the estimated number of practitioners of various trades that could be expected from the operation of the draft. It appeared that there would be a shortage of approximately 100,000 mechanics by September 1. unless special training courses were set in operation. The committee regarded the provision of these 100,000 mechanics as its first task. Ordinarily the trade schools and technical high schools would have been enlisted to provide the necessary training. The character of the present emergency, however, made this course of procedure impractical. The committee was engaged in training soldiers. The men over whom it had jurisdiction were already enrolled in the Army, either by voluntary induction or draft. They must therefore be under military discipline and control while receiving their tech- nical training. To insure the effectiveness of this control, they must be housed and fed under military conditions. It was not sufficient that adequate training facilities should be provided by institutions which undertook to train these men. Living quarters and a common mess were likewise essential. Moreover, the requirements of the Army service demanded that all technical specialists should have had contact with practical operations identical with those which they would have to perform with the military forces. Few trade schools and technical high schools possessed either the housing facilities or the large shops necessary to meet these condi- tions. The committee therefore turned first to the engineering schools of the country, in therbelief that they would be willing to depart from, their usual procedure to the extent of accepting and training these groups of tradesmen. With very few exceptions, the engineering schools enthusiastically volunteered for the task. Alto- gether the committee established 147 training centers for technicians. Of these, 123 were at engineering schools. Some 47 of the principal Army occupations were taught. by April 1 the first 6,000 men were under instruction. At the time of the signing of the armistice 180,000 had been trained; 92,000 had been assigned to military units; mann Entbenox. 57 and more than 70,000 had been sent to France. The General Staff had authorized the committee to train 226,000 more before the sum- mer of 1919. Certain brief comments on the principles underlying the training of these technicians in the so-called National Army Training De- tachments and the methods employed may be in order. It was neces- sary that the training should be brief and intensive. If the requisite number of men were to be produced by the- autumn of 1918, the train- ing courses could not exceed two months in length (except for a few trades in which the numbers were small). At the outset it seemed absurd to suppose that inexperienced men could be taught a mechani- cal vocation in two months. But, to the surprise of the committee and of the school officers, the majority turned out to be competent mechanics on the completion of the courses. In fact, the reports of the officers of active field units to which they were assigned for special duty showed that they were entirely satisfactory and that they saved the situation. The reasons for this unexpected -and truly extraordinary result are not far to seek. They may be summarized under three heads: (a) Adequate motivation, (b) an intensive and practical method, and (e) Army discipline. (a) The experience of the committee, like that of other war-train- ing agencies, appears to demonstrate that the educational processeS of peace have used but a portion of the individual's capacity. They have not supplied a compelling motive. With a motive and a method of instruction Nyhich is at once practical and.interesting, the progress of the learner in any practical pursuit is astonishing. In these courses for technicians the moijve. for a supreme effort on the part of the student soldier was of course patent. Every man expected that proficiency in the trade which- he was learning would improve his military status. Nearly every man also was animated by a high spirit of patriotism. (b) The training melkoda were as practical as possible. A theo- retical or scientific background was not regarded as important. The vital object was to inculcate a knowledge of the job and to develop resourcefulness. Men were consequently put to work at once on practical industrial problems;. Automobile mechanics were set to taking down and re-assembling cars; carpenters were given simple building to do. The necessary theory was interwoven with this practical work in greater or less measure. The committee's guide, however, was not any preconception of the pedagogical advantages of one or another mode of presentation. It was rather the specific definition of the job each specialist would have to perform as a member of an Army unit. because the courses were established on - short notice, it was impossible to fotmulate teaching material to 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. help the schools. School officers were therefore given the definition of the finished product. For example, a tire repairer would have such and such specific things to do. The committee furnished the men and a statement of the goal; it left the school officers to work out the method whereby the goal might be reached, insisting only upon a maximum amount of actual practice. This resulted in the development of a multiplicity of teaching devices and a wholesome pedagogical rivalry among the different institutions. (c) The whole training enterprise was galvanized and systematized by military discipline. Moreover, all the men in training were under military instruction for several hours a day, and were consequently in splendid physical condition. Although the vocational training in the National Army Training Detachments, as they were called, was not higher education, a dis- cussion of it properly belongs in this section, both because it repre- sents an educational contribution made by higher institutions and because of its influence upon the normal educational processes of many institutions. The inclusion of a group of men devoting them- selves to a less advanced grade of technical training was, in the be- ginning, regarded with disfavor and alarm by college officers. After eight months' experience, many of these same officers came to two unexpected conclusions, namely, (1) that the methods employed in the vocational courses might profitably be applied to some extent in the higher grades of professional training, and (2) that the presence of a body of men engaged in practical processes, with an immediate vocational goal in view, strengthens rather than weakens the academic morale. There is still another aspect of the training offered the National Army Training Detachments which bids fair to have lasting influ- ence, not only on vocational training, but on higher education. It was-noted above that the men under special training in these detach- ments were considered by the Army primarily as soldiers. An ideal soldier, from the point of view of the General Staff, is a resourceful, adaptable man, with initiative and conviction of the righteousness of his cause. The narrowly trained specialist may fail to be a suc- cessful soldier. From the beginning, therefore, the committee held that other elements than purely trade instruction should be included in the training. It sought to solve the problem by introducing weakly discussions on the war aims of the United° States. These 4,A3- eussions were designed to cover the historical background of the war, the economic and social development, and the types of government of the belligerent countries; and toacquaint the soldier with the ex- pression of different national purposes and philosophies, as these have found their way into literature. No attempt was made to 1 HIGHER EDUCATION. 59 create official propaganda. The discussions were intended rather to assist soldiers to answer the questions which naturally arose in their own minds. 'his war-aims course later cVyeloped into the war- issues course for the Students Army Training Corps. THE STUDENTS' ARMY TRAINING CORPN. Having inaugurated the units of the National Army Training De- tachments, the committee and its advisory board proceeded to study the more complicated question of the proper development of the po- tential officer material contained in colleges and universities. The committee was convinced that the measures already taken to enroll technical students in the Enlisted Reserve Corps were a wholly in- adequate solution of the problem. The majority of the students were not satisfied with this status and could not be convinced that they were serving their country in.the most useful manner by entering the Enlisted Reserve Corps. Something more definite was demanded, not merely to preserve the supply of prospective technical specialists, but to keep the colleges front being stripped of students. Such a re- sult would have been very unfortunate, from a'military as well as an educational point of view, in the event of ,long war. The solution which the committee proposed was finally embodied in a letter ad- dressed by the Secretary of War to presidents of colleges, on May 6, 1918: In order to provide military instruction for the college students of the country during the present emergency, a comprehensive plan will be put in effect by the Wur Department, beginning with the next collegedear, in Septem- ber, 1918. The details remain to be worked out, but in general the plan will be as follows: Military instruction under officers and noncommissioned officers of the Army will be provided In every institution of college grade which enrolls for the instruction 100 or more able-bodied students over the age of 18. The necessary military equipment will, so far as possible, be provided by the Government. There will be created a military training unit in each institution. Enlistment will be purely voluntary, but all students over the age of 18 will be encouraged ,to enlist. The enlistment will constitute the student a member of the Army of the United States, liable to active duty at the call of the President. It will, however, be the policy of the Government not to call the members of the train- ing unite to active duty until they have reached the age of. 21, unless urgent military necessity compels an earlier call. Students under 18 and therefore not legally eligible for enlistment, will be encouraged to enroll in the training units. Provision will be made for coordinating the Reserye Officers' Training Corps system, which exists in about one-third of the collegiate Institutions, with this broader plan. This new policy aims to accomplish a twofold object: First, to develop as a great military asset the large body of young men In the colleges; an,d second, to prevent unnecessary and wasteful depletion of the. colleges throuigh Indio- criminate volunteering, by offering to the students a definite and immediate military status.. 60 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Later announcement will he made of the details of the new system. In the meantime, presidents of collegiate institutions are requested to call this mutter to the attention of all their students. Those who do not graduate this spring should be urged to continue their education and take advantage of this new opportunity to serve the Nation. This letter was the first announcement of the Students' Army Training Corps. It was followed by a more definite and detailed statement in the latter part of June. It was the original intention of the War Department to interfere as little as possible with the freedom and independence of colleges. While providing facilities for military training and furnishing young men a strong incentive to attend college, the department expected to leave full liberty of action to college officers, in the development of courses and in the conduct of the institutions. Plans were made during the summer by the committee to put the Students' Army Training .Corps into operation on this basis. The committee also indorsed a campaign for collegiate enrollments; which was undertaken by the American Council on Education and the Bureau of Education. While these arrangements were being made, the military situation changed. It became imperative to deploy America's forces on a vastly greater scale. On recommendation of the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff, therefore, Congress passed the man-power bill August 30. This action necessitated two radical modifications of the Students' Army Training Corps plan. First, there was no possibility of keeping a large nuieber of men in college for two or three years prior to their attainment of draft age. The new draft ages were from 18 to 45. Second, a very greatly increased number of officers were demanded for the new armies of the autumn of 1918 and the spring of 1919. The central officers' schoolscould not be relied upon to furnish all of these.. Colleges must be regarded as one of the principal sources of officer material. Authorization foi the creation of the Students' Army Training Corps as an active military unit was therefore secured from the President, and the following General Orders No. 79 issued 'on August 24, 1918: Under the authority conferred by sections 1, 2, 8, and 9 of the act of Con- gress authorizing the President to increase temporarily the Military Estab- lishment of the United States, approved May 18, 1917, the President directs that for the-period of the existing emergency there shall be raised and main- tained by voluntary induction and draft a Students' Army Training Corps. Unita of this corps will be authorized by the Secretary of War at educational institutions that meet the re9uirements laid down in the regulations. The fundamental difference between the student soldier under the first plan for the Students' Army Training Corps and the member of that corps under the revised plan was that now he became a soldier, on active duty. This meant that he must be constantly under mil HIGHER EDUCATION. 61 itary control; that lie must. be housed, clothed, and subsisted by the Government. The relations ot the War Department to the colleges, therefore, were radically changed overnight. Colleges which had been approved for units of the Students' Army Training Corps un- der the first plan were now asked to contract with the War Depart- ment for the housing, feeding, and instruction of student soldiers, who thould be at all times under military authority. It is a striking testimony of the patriotism of the colleges that practically all of them consented to enter this arrangement. Five hundred and seven- teen higher institutions were authorized to maintain units of the Students' Army Training Corps. On the administrative side difficulties at once arose, which the committee indeed foresaW but could not remedy. The members of the corps were theoreticallx at all times under military control. College officers, relieved of discipline and deposed from their ordi- nary authority, were nevertheless in a measure responsible for the academic progress of members of the corps. There was divided re- sponsibility therefore, and an unfortunate dualism of authority which was never remedied before the demobilization of the Students' Army Training Corps. The Students' Army Training Corps had a brief six weeks of life. Part of this period, moreover, was rendered useless in many institu- tions by the influenza epidemic which swept the country in the months of October and November, 1.919. Indeed, the Students' Army .Training Corps ran just long enough to develop all the possible centers of friction and to expose all its serious defects. The orders for its demobilization came before these defects could be remedied. Nevertheless, there were certain educational concepts involved in the plans for the corps which are worth recording. These have been recognized and appreciated by many college officers. 1. Needs. Like the trade training in the. National Army Training Detachments, the officers' kwining carried forward in the Students' Army Training Corps wirto have been predicated upon a careful estimate of the needs of the Army for various kinds of officers. For example, the committee discovered that the Infantry service would require from the colleges 3,000 officers a month from October, 1918, and that the Field Artillery would require 2,000 a month. It analyzed the work which each of these types of officers would .liave to perform and the problems which they would have to meet. It then proceeded to organize courses to fit men directly for these tasks. The courses were originally outlined in consultation with officers from the various services. They, were being modified and elaborated at the time of the demobilization of the Students' Army Training Corps. A system was also about.to be inaugurated to as7 62 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1B18. sign to each course a number of men corresponding to the number required in that branch of the service for which the particular eourse was designed to train. It was the committee's purpose to integrate training with Army needs, precisely as it had done in the case of mechanics and artisans. The first prescribed courses issued to the units of the corps carried out in a tentative way this theory. It was understood that mem- bers of the Students' Army Training Corps would be called to active service at the time of the summoning of the age groups to which they severally belonged. Thus it was assumed that 20-year-old registrants would be called by January 1, 1919, that 19-year-old registrants would be called by April 1, 1919, and that the 18-year- old group would be summoned in July or August, 1919. The com- mittee therefore required that the college year be divided into quarters. It assumed that 20-year-old students could remain in col- lege three months, 19-year-old students six months, and 18-year-old students nine months. Exceptions were to be made in the case of students of unusual proficiency in specialized curricula, such as en- gineering, chemistry, medicine, etc. Former college class alignments were abandoned. Curricula were organized leading to each of the principal line and staff services, and divided into quarr. Each curriculum contained certain prescribed subjects. Military drill and a course on the issues of the war were prescribed in every cur- riculum& In the case of the three months' student the prescriptions were so numerous that there was practically no elective opportunity. A greater amount of freedom of choice was granted to the six months' student; the nine months' student, being allowed to dis- tribute his prescribed work over three quarters, had a considerable amount of academic liberty. 2. New organization of humanistic training.The course on the issues of the war which wag prescribed in every curriculum was the direct result of the committee's satisfactory experience with the war- aims courses given to members of the National Army Training Detachments. Indeed, the outline for Lids course was evolved very largely from the questions asked by members of the National Army Training Detachments. The course on the issue's of the war com- bined history, economics, government, literature, and philosophy. It paid no attention to the artificial divisions which have separated these subjects in the past. It aimed rather to bring about a fusion of the essential elements of these and other subjects. The design was to furnish the student soldier with facts, criteria, and inspiration which would enable him to understand his world and to relate his conduct to the major issues of his _life. Incidentally the committee's action resulted in breaking downlemporarily the illogical barriers between departments which have sOlong been traditional in academic organi- 41% 1 HIGHER EDUCATION. 68 zation. The courses on the issues of the war could not be fairly tested in practice within a period of six weeks. In many institu- tions, however, the principle upon which they were based so fag commended itself to college officers that these courses are to serve as the model for organizing the fundamental elements of peace-time litmianistic training. Commenting upon the permanent valtle of the war-issues course, Dean Woodbridge, of Columbia, says: In the past, education was liberalized by means of the classical tradition. It afforded for educated men a common background of Ideas and commonly under- stood standards of judgment. For the present that tradition no longer suffices. If education Is to be liberalized again, If our youth are to be freed from the confusion of ideas and standards, no other means looks so attractive asp-com- mon knowledge of what the present world of human affairs really is. The war has revealed that world with the impelling clearness which tragedy alone seems able to attain. That our student soldiers may see the issuesIs of iminediate consequence; but the war and Its issues wilt be the absorbing theme of genera- tions to come. To the thoughtful, therefore, the course affords the opportunity to Introduce into pur education a liberalizing force, which will give to the gen- .. eradiate to come a common background of ideas and commonly understood standards of judgment. 3. 0,bjectire testa. Inductions into the Students' Army Training Corps were originally based upon bona fide college membership. Colleges were expected to enforce their ordinary admission require- ments. A. larger number of new students than usual were drawn into the colleges, because the Government assumed their expenses and plaid them soldiers' pay. The large and continuous supply of officer mate- rial which would be demanded, however, could not be produced with certainty if the old formal admission requirements must be absolved by every student soldier. The Students' Army Training Corps would have to' be recruited from that much larger stratum of the popula- tion which possessed the capacity to pursue work of college grade but could not meet the fornial entrance requirements. Hence a system of .recruitment for the corps was devised which combined three elements: (a) A personal interview with every candidate, the purpbse of 'which would be to determine the character of his school- ing and experience and his general qualifications for college work; (b) the Army intelligence test; (c) in the case of candidates for courses which by their professional nature demanded special prepa- ration in one or more subjects, such examinations as.AttAd be neces- sary to test the candidate's proficiency in these subjects. This recruitment plan was never issued, because demobilization of the corps was ordered and recruitment ceased. It is undoubtedly cause for regret that a comprehensive experiment with psychological and other objective tests of fitness for college work could. not have been made. The material prepared by the committee has, however, interested numerous college officers and his apparently stimulated discussion 64 BIENNIAL sunny OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. and careful consideration of its possible application in college entrance procedure. Reference has been made to the brief life of the Students' Army Training Corps. To complete the record, it should perhaps here be stated that the corps enrolled some 142,000 men. The 'signing of the armistice on the 11th of November did away with the need for continuing it as the source of supply for officers. It was, ordered demobilized by December 21. It is, of course, still too early to say what, if any, effects the Stu- dents' Army Training Corps may have had upon college methods and organization. There has been, as might be expected, a period of sharp reaction?: College officers, smarting under the humiliations im- posed by the system of .military control, are not disposed to find many virtues ih the scheme. On the other hand, aside from the possi- ble influence of the educational policies described above, the influence of military training and discipline upon the student body may have some permanent results. Both faculties and students have recog- nized the greater efficiency of a student body subject to a military rt5gime. The by-prodticts in the way V physical fitness, deyelopment of courtesy, and the spread of a democratic spirit :are also too de- sirable to be lost. Colleges now have before them the task of de- vising means to retain these tangible advantages of the period o war training. They are also faced with the problem of transfor ing the spirit of self-sacrifice engendered by the national emergency into a spirit of service to the community and to the Nation in peace. The solution of this problem is admittedly difficult; but unless it is solved America will have lost.the best fruits ot the war. It is worth while to point out one fundamental aspect of the Students' Army Training Corps wjiich has not always been recog= nized. For the first time in history the higher .institutions of the country were united in a common purpose. By offering themselves voluntarily to the War Department they created a single tiaining plant for the production of specialists and officers for the Army. In other words, there was reated for a brief period a national sys-,,, tem of higher education. _Further, the whole training program car- ried out in this system was based on an accurate forecast of national needs. The condition's were of course abnormal. They could never occur in times of peace; nor is it desirable that higher education should be controlled from the center. Nevettheless, this temporary organization contains important implications upon which the colleges themselves may profitably act. The Students' Army Training Corps saved colleges from virtual extinction. In the letter announcing the plan quoted above) the Secretary of War alludes to the preservation of higher education as HIGHER EDUCATION. 65 one of the two important purposes to be attained. In spite of the difficulties of readjustment toa peace basis and in spite of the financial losses (in case of some institutions very great), the higher educational machinery of the United States emerges from the war in more nearly normal condition than that of any other country. The 15 nronths of effort to secure an adequate recognition of the importance of civilian training agencie culminated in the Students' army Training Corps. With the establishment of this agency the Government accepted in its totality the contention of, university and college authorities that higher institutions should be formally in- corporated into the training plant of the military departments. THE MOBILIZATION OF SCIENCE. It was stated at the beginning of this section that the second great problem to the solution of which colleges contributed was the inobili- zat-ion of science. It was generally recognized when the United States entered the war that the country possessed in its university, laboratories, and staffs of trained research workers an immense scientific capital which could be made immediately productive. Vari- ous agencies were at once established to facilitate the use of these resources by the Government and to designate problems for invesli- gation which possessed special military importance. THE INTEKOLLEGIATE INTELLIGENCE BUREAU. One of the earliest of these agencies was the Intercollegiate In- telligence Bureau, established by the voluntary action of a group of universities and colleges, under the direction of Dean William McClellan, of the University of Pennsylvania. This bureau set itself the task of furnishing to Government departments, on request, the si rvices of experts needed for highly specialized scientific and administrative taskS. Under its direction the scores of higher insti- tutions Which' joined it prepared personnel, records of those members of their student and alumni bodies and ,faculties who might be available for such services. Throughout 1917 the.bureau furnished effective help to many Government agencies in buildiyig up an expert personnel. THE NATIONAL jtESEARCH COUNCIL. The National Research Council, created by the National Academy of Sciences and affiliated with the Council of National Defense, served as the central agency for determining the research problems connected with the war, allocating them to different scientific agen- cies for solution and coordinating the results. Under its general direction the great centers of research throughout the country were 17102W-21Bulk 88 5 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. kept occupied with Government work. In some 25 of the leading educational institutions the study of problems relating to military optics, to ordnance, munitions, topography, and food conservation were carried on. The council was also concerned in investigations relating to gas defense, dyes, devices for the Navy, high explosives, electrical problems connected with wireless, smoke screens, fuel sub- stitutes, detection of submarines, various pathological and medical problems, the testing of materials, etc. Associated with it also were the group of psychologists, whose contributions revolutionized the methods of organizing Army and Navy personnel. TILE WAR SERVICE OF PROFESSORS. Large numbers of academic experts in pure and applied science were summoned from their regular university duties and entered the Government service. /They became expert advisers and administrators for the Army, the Navy, the War Industries Board, the Food Adminis- tration, the Fuel Administration, and nearly every other branch of the Government engaged in preparing for and waging war. A com- plete census of college and university teachers so employed has not been, perhaps will never be, made. They were numbered literally by hundreds. They rendered services which none hilt men so trained could render. They were indispensable. Doubtless the effect of this service on the status of the university professor in the public mind will be revolutionary. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC MORALE. The third problem relating to preparation for war, in which from the outset the higher institutions were concerned, was the develop- ment of public morale. Reference to the statement of principles on page 40 shoWs that college officers early recognized their resRonsi- Nay in the dissemination of Correct information concerning the issues - of the war and the interpretation of its meaning. This task had been assumed by the higher' institutions of Canada and carried forward by them for three years with extraordinary success. In greater or less measure probably nearly every institution in the United States at- tempted to perform this service. Two or three especially interesting examples may be mentioned. The University of Washington, whose president, Henry Suzzallo, was also chairman.of the State Council of Defense,.organized a group - of college and university teachers and teachers in-secondary schools, which rendered. most effective service in explaining the issues of the war to laborers engaged in war industries. Numerous threatened labor disturbance- in the Northwest were thus averted. ` HIGHER EDUCATION. 67 The University of North Carolina, which had before the war an especially well organized extension bureau, developed immediatiply upon the entry of the United States into the war a war-information service. Reports from that State indicate that this was a very effec- tive factor in the development', of an intelligent comprehension of America's. part in the struggle. The following quotation, from a leaflet issued by the university, gives an outline of this service: 1. EETENRION CENTERS.Centers may he established in any community upon the application of a properly organized group of students. From one course to six courses given at each center, each course requiring a month for its completion. A member of the university faculty to be sent to the center at the beginning of the 'course and the remainder of the group meetings directed q him through a local, well - qualified man. The work to be guided by a syllabus, by Outlines, and testedby an examination. The courses to form a consistent whole; The courses (by way of example): a. Theories of the State. b. Europe since 1815. o. South American. Relations. d..Political Idealism in British and American Literature. e. Economic and Social Aspects of the War. /. The War as Reflected In Recent Literature. 2. GROUP LECTURER.Four or five or rnoreof these lectures or similar lectures . more popularly treated and without intensive class study may be ar- ranged as a series by any community (e. g., one a month by a Young Men's Christian Association, or similar organizations). 3. CORRESPONDENCE COURSES (with college credit) and READING COURSES (with- out credit) on the subject matter of these extension center courses, using the same syllabus and other material, but in more popular form. A textbook (326 pages). "American Ideals" (Houghton Mifflin;& Co.), prepared by two of the profeksors, is a source book of selections shoe Mg through state papers, speethes4 etc., the development of American thought, political Ideals. etc. 4. SINGLE LFATURES on a wide variety -f subjects related to the war will be furnished to communities as a part of any °OA* lecture plan they may have for special occasions. A list of lecture subjects and lecturers fur- nished on application. 5. READERS' SERVICE.This service undertakes to furnish through the univer- sity library, the Paellay cooperating, information ap to books, articles. on special- subjects relating to the war, furnishing small package if- . braries of pamphlets on half a dozen important phages of the war and In-so far as possible lending books and acting as a' distributing agency for putting Government and other publications In the hands of Inter- , ested readers. 13. DIRECT PUBLICITY ON WHY WE ARE AT WAR AND WRY THIS Is Otis a. Special articles by members of the faculty in journals of education and the like, and special leaflets to be issued by the Extension Service and sent to public school teachers. b. Special editions'of the University News Letter (a weekly clip sheet published by,-the university) devoted to these. subjects and sent 68 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. to a special list of people influential in their beat communities, but not for the most part readers of the daily press, o. Debate subjects and outlines, composition subjects and patriotic programs, for school exercises and celebrations, community gather- ings, etc.. 7. THE LAFAYErrs ASSOCIATI(iN.An associationState-wide and Nation-wide, If possiblecomposed of high-school and grammar-school st4dents, parents. and others interested, called the Lafayette Agsoclation to symbblize the ideals to which Lafayette devoted his life and for the purpose of "realizing the Infinite power of the public school as the center of the community life of the Nation in the essential task of nourishing, developing, and crystallizing, through expression, the nntiorfal spirit of present and future America." A full explanation of the LufayettO Asso- ciation is given in another leaflet. It soon became apparent, however,' that a central officialegency was needed,, not only to furnish reliable data to these local institu- tions, but.als'o to give consistency and point to the scattered efforts of individual bodies. The task fen almost by force of gravity to the Committee on Public Information. This committee recruited the services of the best scholars in the fields of history,seconornics, and government, and under the leadership of Dean Guy Stanton Ford, of the University of Minn "As, prepared the Red, White and Blue Series of popular monoaphs on the background and issues of the war. THE NATIONAL BOARD FOR IIISIVRICAL SERVICE. The activities of the National Boaid for Historical. Service may appropriately be 'counted as one of the contributions made by the univetsities to the war. The board was organizedon April 29, 1917, and established headquarters i'n Washington. Under the chairman- ship 1of Prof. Evarts B. Greene,of the University of Illinois, it sought to direct the activities of historical scholars into lines of na- tional service. It furnished advice concerning university courses, public lectures, popular Articles, and research. Cooperating with the History *Teachers' Magazine, it contributed rinumber of supple- ments, including documents illustrating the German occupation of Belgium, a selected and annotated bibliography of the war, and a notable topical outline entitled "A Study of the Great War," pre- -. pared by Dr. S. B. Harding. The board was also in close and. active cooperation with the.Committee on Public Information, especially in the preparation of the War Information Series and the Red, White and Blue Series. 4.. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION. The war has brought about in the United States a great enhance- ment of interest in every phase of civilization in the allied countries. Especially have the friendly relations which have existed so long 1 HIGHER EDUCATION. 69 between the universities of this country and those of Frande and Eng- land received added stimulus. In January, 1918, the commissioner for'engineering and education of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense issued, with the indorsement of the council, an invitation to university officers of the allied countries to send groups of representatives to America to confer with and To ad- vise the officers of Americaninstitutions. The first natioi to respond to this invitation was Great Britaii). A distinguished mission, repre- senting British universities, landed in New York on the 8th. of Octo- .ber. The members of the mission were as follows: Dr. Arthur Everett Shipley, vice chancellor of the rnivenalty .of Cambridge. Sir Henry :diem vice chancellor of the University of Manchester. Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, ilbrurbut of Queen's College, Oxford. Sir Henry Jones, professor of moral philosophy, University of Glasgow. Dr: John Joly, professor of geology urrljnineralogy, Trinity College, Dublin. Miss Caroline Spurgeon, professor of English literature, University of London. Miss Rose Sidgwick, lecturer on history, University of Birmingham. Arrangements for their entertainment were made by the American Council on Education. After a visit to Washington, where they were received by the Present and by the Council of National Defense, they made a tour of a considerable nunibtr of universities and col- leges east of the Mississippi River. Conferences on important of the question of educational exchanges between the United States and, Great Britain were held in Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, Minneapolis, Houston, and Boston: Definite arrangements were made for the mutual recognition of academic credentials, and, tentative plans were proposed for the interchange of students and professors. 1 CHAPTER II. MEDICAL EDUCATION. By N. P.COLWELT., M. D. Secretary of the Co Unfit on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, Chicago. CONTENTS.EntrAnce requirements of medical colleges Coeducation In medicineMedi- cal education and the warMedical education and the selective serviceA national control of medical educationImproved standards of licensing boardsState require- ments of preliminary education Confusion from multiple boardsSimplifying medi- cal licensurePrattical and clinical examinationsNational Board of Medical Ek- aminersPremedical college workNeed of a list of approved colleges of arts and ecieucesItems concerning medical educationDeveloping medical education In China. In'previous reports attention was called to the rapid improvements in medical education in the United States, secured through a cam- paign which was begun by th'e American Medical, Association in- 1904: At the beginning of the campaign, the number of medical schools in this country 'exceeded this total in all the rest of the world. There was clearly an oversupply pf medical schools. Many of them were poorly equipped and adhered only to low entrance require- ments,'while some were conducted for profit and required-for admis- sion little or nothing in the way of educational qualifications. It was shown that in 1904 only four medical colleges were requiring any college work for admission, and only from 20 per cent to 25 per cent were actually requiring a four-year high-school education. Under the methods pursued, it is not surprising, therefore, that in 1904 the number of medical students reached the amazing total of 28,142,. and that in, that year 5,747 physicians were graduated. The campaign for improvement successfully urged the merging of two or more medical colleges in each of our various cities or States. This resulted in a rapid reduction in the total number, but a material strengthening of the quality of the. institutions remaining. At the same time higher standards of preliminary education were urged consisting, first, of the four-year high-school education, then . one year, and finally two years of premedical college education. In 1916 the two-year entrance standard was made- an essential for any' medical school to be considered as acceptable by the American Medi- cal Association. In that year 48 colleges had already put into effect 71 72 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, the higher requirement and also 16 State boards had made it the minimum essential of preliminary education of graduates who might seek licenses in those States. Attention was also called to the great improvements in the way of full-time salaried teachers, greatly im- proved laboratories, the closer relations with teaching hospitalq, and the securing of greater endowments. At the present time there are 90 medical colleges; the number of students during 1917-18 was 13,630. and the number of graduatts. in 1918 was 2,670.1 These lower figures represent the normal decrease that was expected under the increased entrance requirements, and are not due to the Ivan The following tabulation shows the decided in- crease since 1904 in the number of colleges which have enforced higher entrance requirements and in the number of students and graduates who have held the higher entrance qualifications: Entrance requiremepts. Colleges. 1904 1918 Num her. Per cent. Num- ber. Per cent. Four-year high-school education or leas 158 97.5 'r 7. One year of college work 34 37.8 Two years of college work 4 2.5 49 54. 4 Totals 162 90 Students. I Graduates. 1904 1918 I 1904 1 1918 I Num- Per Num- Per 1 I Num- Per I Num- I Per I her. cent, ! her. cent. her. ' cent. ber. , cent. 28, 391 93.8 1 631 5,378 1 93.6 1,761 28,142 5,944 6.21 7,055 113,630 4.6 43.6 51.8 389 5, 747 258, 9.7 1,147 ' 43.0 8.4 1,265 1 47.3 2,670 1 It Is not probable that In 1904 more than about 30 colleges (20 percent) were actually requiring a four-yew high-school education as a rnlntmum or admission. Instead of 4 (2.5 per cent) medical schools which in 1904 required ny college work for admission, for the session of 1917--18 83 (92.2 r cent) medical schools required one or two years of such work; ihstead of only 1,761 (6.2 per cent) students enrolled in the higher stiMdard colleges in 1904, during last year 12,999 (95.3 per cent) stu- den,ts were enrolled in the higher standard colleges; and instead of onl 3*(6.4 per cent) graduates who were turned out by the higher star rd colleges in 1904, at the end of last session 2,412 (90.3 per cent) aduated from those institutions. The 7 medical schools which ill require only a high-school education or less for admission are also nterior in other respects, and are reported as not recognized by from ,7 to 38 State' licensing boards. The ptogress in medical education ;In respect to preliminary requirements is graphically shown in Chart 1. This general adoption by medical schools of the I Altogether 2,807 students successfully completed the courses of the senior pear. From 187, however, in the Universities of California and Minnesota and In Rush Medi- cal College, the degrees have been withheld pending the completion of a hospital in. terneship. MEDICAL IliCATION,1916-1918. 73 two-year standard of preliminary education and the other improve- ments' made have brought medical education in this country to a par with that of leading countries of Europe and elsewhere. (CatAar.1.Medical schools and entrance requirements.) This chart shows (heavy line at the top) the total number of medical schools existing In the various years. The chart also shows the number of medical schools requiring for admission (horizontal shading, indefinite, estimated) a four-year high-school education; (vertical shading) one year of premedical college work and (heaVy shading) two years of premedical college work. 100 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 -80 70 03 to 40 10 0 1900'01 WWWUW'07 '06 '00 10 '11 1! 11 '14 '15 16 '17 18. M AMME WIMMEMISOMMEMMINIMM MMOEI MINIMMEMEMMOMMINIMMINI MMEEME MEEM IEIMMO 111MMEMEMMIMME MIME= II -7.--- 1111 MMINEEE life 100 150 140 110 120 110 100 to 70 CO eo 10 0 Totals Totals (1) Total* (b) Totals (e) 1900'01 160 140 458.. . 2 '01 100 128.. 3 '05 160 167.. 11 '04 100 116.. 4 '05 TO '07 VS '09 158 142 121151-140 152 156 148 125 116 .. 1 2 5 3 6 5 9 11 16 '10 131 91 13 27 '51 132 SO 14 28 11 I1 118 107 72 60 16 16 30 11 '11 106Ua 14 16 96 12 44 40 '16 96 10 15 47 17 515 9 11 64 '15 94 9 6 79 work; (c) two more years of college work. Requiring firdmitsion (a) a high school education or less; (b) one year of college ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS OF MEDICAL COLLEGES. -t Eighty-bne medical schools are now requiring, as a minimum for entrance, two years or more of work in a college of liberal arts in addition to a four-year high-school education. The years, respec- tively, when for each collegie the one-year and the two-year require- ments became effectii'e, and the rating of each college, are as follows: ALABAMA. One Two College year. years, rating. University of Alabama School of Medicine 1914 1915 .g ARKANSAS. University of Arkansas Medical Department 1915 1918 B 74 BIENNIV. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. fir CALIFORNIA. One Two College year. years. rating. College of Medical EVangelists_ 1914 1915 B University of Southern California Medical Department____ 1914 1916 B Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine 1909 A University of California Medical School 1905 A COLORADO. University of Colorado School of Medicine 1910 A CONNECTICUT. Tale University School of Medicine 1909 A DISTIIICT OF COLUMBIA. Georgetown University School of Medicine 1912 A George Washington University Medical School 1914 1918 A Howard University School of Medicine 1910 1914 A GEORGIA. Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta 1914 1918 A University of Georgia Medical Department 1914 1918 A ILLINOIS. Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery School of Med- icine of Loyola University 1915 1918 B Hahnemann Medical Cdiiege and Hospital 1914 1916 B Northwestern University Medical School 1908 1911 A Rush Medical College (University of Chicago) 1904 A University of Illinois College of Medicine 1913 1914 A INDIANA. Indiana University School of Medicine 1909 1910 A IOWA. - I State University of Iowa College of Medicine 1909 1910 A State University of Iowa College.of Homeopathic Medicine_______ 1910 A KANSAS. 4 University of Kansas School of Medicine 19(19 A KENTUCKY. University of Louisville Medical Department 1914 1918 A LOUISIANA. Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine________ 1910 1918 A . MAINE. Bowdoin Medical School 1912 1918 MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 75 MARYLAND. One Two College year. years. rating. Johns Hopkins University Medical Department_ 1893 A University of Maryland School of Medicine and College of Physicians and Surgeons 1914 1918 A MASSACHUSETTS. Boston University School of Medicine 1914 1916 A Medical School of Harvard University 1900 A Tufts College Medical Schubl 1914 1918 A MICHIGAN. Detroit College of Medicine and Sur,ery 1914 1918 A Univergity of Michigan Medical School 1909 A University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School 1912 1916 A MINNESOT'A. University of Minnesota Medical School 1907 A University of Mississippi School of Medicine 1914 1918. A MISSOURI. St. Louis University School of Medicine 1910 1918 University of Missouri School of Medicine 1906 1910 A Washington University Medical School 1910 1912 A NEBRASKA. John A. Creighton Medical College 1914 1918 A -University of Nebraska College of Medicine 1908 1909 A NEW HAMPSHIRE, Dartmouth Medical School 1910 A NEW YORK. Albany Medical College 1914 1918 A Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons 1910' A Cornell University Medical College 1908 A Fordham University School of Medicine 1911 1918 A Long Island College Hospital 1914 1918 A New York Borneo. Med. Coll. and Flower Hospital 1915 1919 B Syracuiie University College of Medicine 1909 1910 3 A University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College 1912 1918 A University of Buffalo Department of Medicine 1914 1918 A NORTH CAROLINA. Leonard Medical School 1914 B 'Wake Forest College, School of Medicine 1908 A University of North Carolina School. of Medicine 1910 1917' A NORTH DAKOTA. University of North Da4ota School of Medicine 1907 A 76 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. ve' opno. One Two College year. years. rating. Electric Medical College_ 1915 1918 B Ohio State University College of Medicine 1914 1915 A Ohio State Univ. Coll. of Homeopathic Medicine 1915 1916 B Vniversity of Cincinnati College of Medicine 1910 1913 A Western Reserve University School of Medicine 1901 A OKLAHOMA. University of Oklahoma School of Medicine. 1914 1917 B OREGON. University of Oregon Department of Medicine 1910 1915 A PENNSYLVANIA. Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital 1914 1917 A Jefferson Medical College 1914 1917 A Temple University Department of Medicine 1914 )918. B University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine 1909 1910 A University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine 1911 1913 A Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania 1914 1915 A SOUTH CAROLINA. Medical College of the State of South Carolina 1914 1916 A SOUTH DAKOTA. University of South Dakota College of Medicine_ 1908 1909 A TENNESSEE. Meharry Medical College' 1914 1918 B Vanderbilt University Medical Department 1914 1918 University of Tennessee College of Medicine 1914 1918 A TE.AS. Baylor University College of Medicine 1913 1918 A University of Texas Department of Medicine 1910 1917 A UTAH. University,df Utah School of Medicine 1909 1910 A VERMONT. University of Vermont College of Medicine VIRGINIA.. 1912 1918 A ddv C Medical College of Virginia 1914 1915 A University of Virginia Department of Medicine 1910 1917 A WEST VIRGINIA. West Virginia University School of Medicine______ 1911 1917 A WISCONSIN. Marquette University School of Medicine 1913 1915 University of Wiaconbin Medical School 1907 A 1 MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 77 COEDUCATION IN MEDICINE. The world war has given added impetus to the tendency on the part of medical colleges to throw their doors open to women students. During the last three or four yeais this action has been tAken by several of the largest medical schools in the United States and Can- ada : In 1914 by the Medical School of the University of Pennsyl- vania; in 1915 by the Tulane University of Louisiana win 1916 by the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons; in 1917 by the University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College,. by the Uni- versity of Maryland, and the Medical College.of Virginia; and in the present year by Harvard University Medical School and by the Medi- cal Faculty of McGill University. The idea of granting equal op- portunities for the two sexes in medical schools, however, had already made rapid advancement before the world war. Over 40 years ago the University of Michigan made its courses in medicine coeduFa- tional and practically all State universities have followed the exam- ple. From the time of its organization in 1893, the Medical Depart- ment of Johns Hopkins University has admitted women students. In New York City the Women's Medical College of the New York Infirmary closed its doors only after Cornell University in 1898 had established its medical school and admitted' women students. In 1902 Rush Medical College, which had formed a close affiliation with the University of Chicago, became coeducational. At the present time, # therefore, of the 90 colleges existing in the United States 60 admit both sexes. MEDICAL EDUCATION AND THE WAR. The reforms in American medical education were largely .com- pleted before this country was drawn into the World war. For the past six or-sevn years the majority of medical schools have not only been enforcing the higher entrance standards but also have been operating under greatly improved conditions in other respects. The majority of students graduating in the past several years, therefore, have received a medical training equal to that obtainable anywhere Furthermore, it is these recent graduates who, in larger proportions,\ .gave entered the Government medical services and who will be largely responsible for the medical care of our American soldiers and sail- ors. It is evident, therefore, that tkose fighting for the preseriation of America and American ideals now have as skilled medical care as is obtainable anywhere. That thisian be said, is due to the energetic, campaign to improve medical education that has been carried on during the past 15 years.. The war has affected the supply of physicians for civilian needs, even as it has reduced the supply of those in other technical occu- Lamm."'--. 78 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, potions. Statistics show that this country has one physician to every 739 people, as compared with one to every 1,500 to 2,500 people in the countries of Europe just before .the war began. In recent years, however, the demand for medical graduates' to fill .positions as hos- pital internes, health of medical inspectors,- medical teachers, and other positions of responsibility has been greatly increased. This increased demand is due, not to any scarcity of medical gradu- ates, but to the improved qualifications of those now graduating from our medical schools. In earlier years this.denumd was not so great because few of the graduates then turned out were sufficiently qualified, educationally or professionally, to occupy the positions now open to them. The increase in the demand has been in direct proportion to the improvements in preliminary and medical educa- tion. Even for the army there, is a greater demand than in previous times for those of highly technical and special training. Educators are ogre'', therefore, that present conditions call for the mainte- nance of the present entrance requirement of two years of college work; for further improvements in laboratory and clinical equip- ment; and, particularly, for improved methods of teaching in all medical schools. It is only by maintaining these fair standards that the demand will 4 supplied, since in the better medical schools, the number ,of graduates has steadily increased each year for the past five years,. and the decrease in the total has been at the expense.of the lower-grade colleges. MEDICAL .EDUCATION AND THE SEL'ECTIVE SERVICE. When the selective-service law was "passed in May, 1917, it made no provision for the exemption of medical, students. A study of the effect the draft Would have on the enrollnienta of medical schools showed that from 50 to 65 per cent of the students would 'be taken in the first three calls, which would force the majority of me4ical schools to suspend. If the war lasted. any considerable time, the result would be to seriously diminish or cut uff the annual supply of medical graduates; hospitals would be without internes, and there would soon develop a serious shortage of physicians for both mili- tary and civilian needs. .The solution to the problem was found in the National Defense Act of 1915, which provided for the Medical-!Reserve Corps of the Army. Under the proVisions of this law midi* students were permitted to eficoll in the Medical Enlisted Res#ve Corps. This Made them subject to call at any time should "tie:me emergency require it. It was the stated policy of the Government, however, to leave these students on an inactive status until, they should corn- , MEDICAL EDUCATION, 19.16-1018. 79 plete their medical course and secure their hospital training. It was believed that they could render' the country a better service by fin- ishing their training and becoming efficient medical officers than by entering at once on active service without that training. The pro- vision for the Medical Enlisted Reserve Corps relieved the uncer- tainty in regard to the enrollment of medical students, so that med- ical classes have been retained at'a normal statusthe only loss being of those students who voluntarily enlisted' for military service. Provision was still necessary,. however, for the students in the premedical classes who would arrive at draft. age before becoming bona fide medical students. The calling into service of such stu- dents would prevent the medical schools from obtaining medical students and would eventually be as serious as if the medical students themselves were called to service. There also arose a serious problem as to medical teachers. Those in the draft age were being called into active 'service and others were vulunteering, even though strong efforts were made to induce them'th remain at their teaching duties. It appeared that many of the colleges would have to suspend because of the depletion of.the ranks of their teachers. In an effort to solve these problems, at the call of the Siirgeon General. a conference Of representatives of medical schools was held in Chicago June 11, 1918. At this conference an advisory com- mittee on medical schools,' made up of representatives of medical colleges and licensing boards, was chosen to cooperate with the standing committee On medical education of the Medical Department of the Army, for the prompt, solution of such problems as might arise in connection w'th medical education. At tt.meeting of the two com- mittees on lay following the Chicago conference, attention 'was called to th sion made for the Student Army. Training Corps, suggesting a solution for the exemption of premedical students. It was also urged that premedical 'and medical. students _as well as medical teachers be given Government recognition bw being placed in uniform and that the teachers be granted suitable rank. Another conference of the two committees was held in. Washing- ton, July 21, 1918. The arrangements for the Student Army Ti'aining. Corps had made progiless under the War Department's committee on education and special training. Through the Student Arm Train- ing Corps it. was provided khat all students enlisting be retained in p I This committee consisted of Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur. president of Leland Stanford University, chairman, De William J. Means, president of the Association of American Medical Colleges; Dr. Samuel W. Lambert, dean of Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons; Dr. J. Whitridge Williams. dean of Johns RoptIns Uni- versity Medical Department ; Dr. Theodore Rough, dean of the University of Virginia Department cif Medicine; Dr. John M. Baldy, president of the Pebusylvania Bureau of Medical Education and Licensure; and Dr. N. P. Colwell, secretary of the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, secretary. 80 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-018. the colleges until their special training be completed. On arriving at draft age, the student would be required to register under the se- lective service law. When called by his local board, each- student's record would be examined and it would be determined whether he would be called in active service. she stated policy of the Govern- ment, however, was that students 'who were making satisfactory head;' way in their studies would be retained in college until their training had been completed. The Students' Army Training Corps clearly provided for the training of medical officers as well as of. engineers and officers in other special lines. As to the threatened dearth of medical tep.hers due'to losses by enlistment., a solution of theprob- lern was fouivi i.n.the rule providing for the exemption of those en: gaged in." essential industries." Each college was requested by the Surgeon General to furnish a list of its essential teachers who, it was planned, would not be called to active duty even though they should enlist, but should be left at their teaching duties on the ground that they were engaged in an " essential industry." A NATIONAL coNTRaL soF MEDICAL EDUCATION. Through the Medical Enlisted Reserve COrps, a large majority of the medical student enrollment throughoutibthe United States has come under tl}e control ofthe,Surgeon General of the United States Army. This eontrol of the student body, coupled with the measures made necessary to retain in each college an adequate. corps of medical instructors, brought the medical schools also to a large extent under the same national. control. It became, necessary, therefore, soon after a state of war. was recognized, for the Surgeon General to designate what Medical schools were worthy of 'recognition and to establish rules for.thct satisfactory conduct of such colleges. Since the legal control of medical education had previously rested with State medical licensing boards, it was determined to consider as " well recognized medical schools" those which were recognized by the majority of State licensing boards. Of die 90 medical colleges now existing, 81 are well recogniied. . - The unusual demand for physicians as medical officers_for the tremendous armies being organized made it necessary carefully to ascertain the present supply of physicians, the future annual output which should be maintained from the medical schools, and the edu- cational standards and other measures which should be enforced, at the some time guaranteeing an adeqbate supply of physicians for civil and military needs. One of the earliest, decisions rendered, which has since been adhered to, was that the present reagThable standards of preliminary education, namely, two years Of 'work in . an approved college of arts and sciences or its 'actual equivalent, MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1918-1918. 81 should be maintained.' 'In fact, this standard of premedical Tub- fications was considered sufficiently important that all " well recog- nized " medical schools were instructed to enforce that requirement .of all'students admitted on and after October 15, 1918. Nieful consideration has also been given to the question of requir- ing -continuous sessions in medical schools so they- might propiptly and intelligently be put into effect should the emergency demand it. Looking toward this possibilityda feiv of-the medical schools which were properly equipped to do so, have already put that measure into. effect. . IMPROVED STANDARDS OF LICENSING BOARDS. In previous reports reference has been made to the adoption by State licensing boards of higher requirements of preliminary educa- tion. A. review of the various Medical practice acts, published during the present year, shows when any requirement of.preliminary educe. tion 'was established in each State, and when, mspectively, a four- year high school education or higher standards were adoptbd. The accompanying chart (Chart 24- shows the progress made d*ing past 18 years. In 1900, it uppears.thatonly six States had made pro- vision for preliminary educattoli in their practice mks, and in only one of these was the standard fixed at a four-year high school edu- cation or its equivalent. Since 1900, however, progress has indeed been rapid, following closely the progres in entrance requirements of medical,colleges. At the beginning-of...its campaign in 1904, the Council on Medical Education advocitted two standards, one for im. 'mediate adoption which recommended a four-year high school course and another, the " ideal standard "which suggested one year of, college.work including physics, chemistry: and biology. The latter was urged for adoption' by January 1, 1908, but the time was ex- tended till January,l',.1910, and was rhade a requirement for the Class A rating Januaryl, 1914. The harts show more marked 'changes in these- than in other years. By 1E 0 the number of States providing for prelimindr,y education had increased to 36, in 28 of which a four-. year high/school course was required. By 1910 when the Carnegie Foundation -for the Advancement of Teaching published its report on medical education, marked improvements had already been made both by medical schoola and by State licensing boards, but that report did much to.arouse public interest in the campaign fOr impiovement provide against a resulting shortage of medical officers. en intensive course of in- struction for admission to the study of medicine was promulgated in October, 1018, by the committee on education and special training of the War Department. This course crowded Into fpur quartets of three months each, or a total of twelve months, a quantity of work equal to that usually stqt,rtitsda quarters of three months each. The continua. Don of this course was made min ry by the signing of the armistice. 17.1020*-21Bull. 88-8 6 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. to. 'lle.light and heavy dotted lines indicate the number of boards each successive year wliic.h have adopted respectively one and two years of collegiate work in addition to a four-year high-school education as the minimum preliminary qualification for the license in those States. The increase in the number of States adopting the higher prelimi- _4.7-4.;,,i. < 4 ,.. ,.. ... . , m t 4- : .. al ;:. ... CO Bcpz v 11-,, ,.:1 .. ....... ..L. f.. 7.1.. ,- a. al .7,,,, f.. ...- : .00 CI 0 . , ''' :a E C0 e- 0 0 C ' t, c': 7. r 0 C -§ g 6 `rm. " ::..c?., ..,., vc, 2/44 . 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The dotted lines'show when the requirements affected students matriculating in Medical colleges; the increased requirements did not become effective for griduates until four years lateli- hence the portions of the clout . . d h0 0 0 10 ay 00 0 0 0 0 0 a 11111111721--=t----_ 11111111111111'111111111.141 1111 N1'1111111 111111111111111 111111111,141,X 1 11111111 '111111111111111 1111 1111111111h NIV111111,161i111,1111111111111111'11111111:=._ 1111111111111111111!111 111111'1411111. 7_ 11111&111111111,11111111111111111,1111 'III: 1 _ 1111r=111111N11111111111' 11111111: {ill:: 1111 '"111 111111 11111111;111,!111111! MIL ,!111111,111111,1:11111111111311 1111111111U 1111 11111111O11 'Alh 1,11111111111111ii:: .111111r.11V%;1111111111111111111t smimmeLn-..1111111111i 1111111111111:11111111 111111111111111116,..:1111.11 1111111111111111:,0 111111111111111Iligi' 111111111111111111:' C1 C1 000 0 0 04 3 2 0 V. 00 0 0 V. 0 10 V/0000, - 1141.00 0 P ; O.000. :44 :; ,:=-et . 1 ...b. MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1218, shown by the vertical and the heavy shading indicate for each year. the number of States in which, respectively, one year and two years of college work were required of all applicants 'seeking licenses to practice in those States. 83 STATE REQUIREMENTS OF PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. There are DOW 40 States which have adopted requirements of pre- . liminary -education in addition to a standard four-year high-school education. These States, the number of college years required, and the time the higher requirements became or become effective are as follows: State requirements of pretim inert, education. State examining board of One year of *begs work. Two years of college wait. Affects students ukatricaleting. Affects an graduates. Affects students matriculating. Affects 'ail Irraduate. Alabama. 415-16 1919 Alaska 1914-15 1918 1918719 1923 Arizona 1914-15 1918 1918-19 Arkansas_ 1915 =16 1919 1918-19 1922 California 1915-16 1919 Colorado 1908-00 - 1912 1910-ll 1914 Connecticut 1911-12 1915 Delaware Diurict of Columbia Florida.. 1914-15 1918 1918-19 1922 Georgi a 1918-19 1922 Idaho Illinois 1915-16 1919 1918-19 1922 Indiana 1910-11 1914 1911-12 1915 Iowa 1911-12 1915 Klima& 1910-11 1914 1918-19 1979 Kentucky 1914-1Z 1918 Louisiana 1915-16 1919 1918-19 1922 Maine 1915-16 1919 Maryland 1914-15 , 1918 1918-19 1922 Massachusetts f Michinn- 1914-15 1918 19165I9 1922 Minnesota. 19081-02 1912 =1 1915 -16 1919 1919-20 . 1923 Montana 1914-15 1918 1918-19 1922 Nehrukai Nevadi 2. ....... New Hanwhire 1914-15 1918 -1915-16 1919 New Jersey New MegJou 1915-16 1914 -15 1919 1916-17-1918-19. 1920 1921 New York . 1917-18 1951 19119 'WU North Carolina. 1914-15 1918 018-6-19 North Dakota. ... ........ . 1908-02 1912 Ohio Oklahoma. 1914-15 1918 1917-n 1921 1=y;vanir 1914 -15 1918 Rhoda Island 1914,15 1918 1911-19 Booth Carolina South Dakota. twe-oi 911 1 1916-11 1911-11 Tanneseer. 1916-17 1910 1918119 1921 A'axas 1914-15 191 8 Utah. 1111-14. 1917 Vermont 1911-14 1917 1918 -19 Virginia. 1919-15 1918 1917-111 1914-18 2911919 1$92 Vilit Wlsoondn. 1917-18 MI 1915 -16 1919 Wyoming a Mem** a tordioeu bleb-mad edualtlois arils aquhskat, I. .114. tieflied stadsrd. 84 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. CONFUSION FROM MULTIPLE BOARDS. Besides the increase inthe standards of-preliminary education al- ready referred to, much progress has been made-by medical licensing boad-S---aiiing the last 18 years. In 'regulating the practice of the healing art, however, much confusion exists in some States because the authority to license those who 'are to treat the sick has beef di- vided_between two or more'separate and independent.boards. After excellent practice acts have been adopted, providing fir fair stand- ards of preliminary and medical education in Wiese States, other laws are passed allowing certain groups of practitioners to secure licenses on lower educational standards. Some of these laws were secured through the misapprehension on the part of legislators re- garding the first essential for the practice of the healing art, namely, the necessity of making a diagnosis, which implies a thorough train- ing in the fundamentals of medicine. It is evident that unless a practitioner knows the difference between normal and abnormal con- ditions and unless he knows whit particular disorder the patient is suffering from he is not in popitign to apply any kind of treatment. The plea of certain healers that they were "not practicing medicine" led to the adoption of special laws 'providing for the licensing of such practitioners under lower educational'qualifications than were required of physicians, although in some States thecy were granted full authority to practice as physicians. Some of These laws pro- vided for special boards without mentioning educational standards; others provided for lower educational requirements, while still other laws. (or amendments) merely exempted these practitioners from the requirements of the medical practice act. So many different boards have been established that at present in the 50 States, including feltiska and the District of Columbia, there are 94 separate, and dis- tinct boards having to do with licensing those who are to treat the sick! Th#re are 20 States which are fortunakte in having only onp board eachthe State medical board. Including both medical boards and boards representing various " systems " of heating, there are 19 States having 2 boards, each; 7 hiving 3 boards; 2 having 4 boards, each, and 1 StateArkansas--having 6 different boards. It can be seen at once that with the authority so divided it is impossible to provide efficient protection of the public against uneducated and incompetent practitiqners oi the healing art.. 0 SIMPLIFYING MEDICAL LICSNSURE. . State governments, however, are now trying to avoid multiplicity of.boards and at the same time to guarantee that all who atoto treat the sick shall hays secured an adequate education. Several States, 4.0 . . . .... MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 85 by legislation, during the past few years, have placed the licensing of all practitioners under a single medical board. Some States demand that all practitioners alike be required to possess the minimum edu- . rational qualifications, after which they are given a physician's li- cense and may practice as they please. The most recent scheme in the licensing of Chose who are to treat the sick is that adopted in Illinois, through the new consolidation law. The Department of Registration and Education in Illinois has in charge not only the licensing of physicians and other practitioners of the healing art, but also dentists, pharmacists, midwives, and those in other licensed oc- cupations. More encouraging, however, is the fact that the enforce - ent of the new law in Illinois has been placed in the hands of edu- l'cators of unquestioned ability: It is noteworthy that even poor laws adMinistered by able men bring better results than the best laws ad- , ministered by inefficient men. The chief point to be considered in measures similar to that adopted in Illinois is to see that, to enftarce the laws, those are appointed whO will keep in close touch with the progress and needs of general and medical education. PRACTICAL AND CLINICAL EXAMINATIONS. There has been much improvement in the character of the licens- ing examination in some States. A larger number of States have es- tdblish:ed an efficient examination (including practical laboratory and clinical tests) of those who are to practice the healing art, and in this way they are better protecting the public from ignorance and incompetence. Educational and technical efficiency can not be ac- curately measured by a written examination alone. A student's fit- ne& to intelligently diagnose and treat human disorders can be brought out only by testing his ability to differentiate between normal awl abnormal conditions, in the lltboratory as well as at the bedside. , An agency haS-reeently been establislieathe National Board of Medical Examinerswhich has been demonstrating how these prac-, tical and.clinical examinations should be condtidted. This board is now holding its examinations,. at freqdent intervals in prominent hospitals in various large cities throughout the country, and members of State boards have been incited to attend them. The spirit and purpose of the examinations, as well as the ease and facility with , whiCh they are conducted, age so. evident, that State board members will doubtless be encouraged la adopt theni in the regular examine- tion for licensing physicians. 86 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. NATIONAL BOARD OF MEDICAL EXAMINERS. The National Board of Medical Examiners, just referred to, was organized in 1915. It consists of 15 members, including the Surgeon Generals of the Army, Navy, and Public Health Services, and one other representative of each of those services; three representatives° of the State medical licensing-boards., and six members appointed at large. Its establishment on a high plane was made possible by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which made an appropriation of $15,000 per year to cover the expenses of the board until such 'time as it might be placed on a sklf-supporting basis. Six examinations have been held by the board, the first and second at Washington, respectively, in Octolier, 1916, and in June, 1917; the third at Chicago in October, 1917; the fourth at New York City in January, 1918; and the fifth at Fort Oglethorpe, Ga., and Fort Riley, Kans., in April, 148. At these five examinations altogether 93 applicants were examined, of whom 72 passed and 21 failed, the percentage of failures being 22.6 per cent. Date of examination. Where held. Total examined. Passed. ercentage Failed. P failed. October, 1916 Washington 10 5 S 50 June, 1917 WashIngtca 12 9 3 33.8 October, 1917 Chleago 28 23 6 21.5 January, 1918 New York 20 18 2 10 Aptil, 1918 Port Oglethorpe 1Fort Alley } IS 5 21.7 Total 93 72 21 22.6 The educational requirements of applicants are : (a) A four-year high-school course; (b) two years of acceptable college work, in- cluding courses in physics, chemistry, biology, and a modein lan- guage; (c) graduation from a medical schoOl rated in Class A by the. American Medical Association; and, (d) a yeai- spent in an ac- ceptable hospital as an interne or in laboratory. These require- ments apply to graduates of medical schools 'in 1912 and thereafter. The board may accept equivalent credentials of applicants who graduated prior to 1912. Credentials must be presented to the board prior to the examination sufficiently early to permit investigation. The only fee is $5 for registration. There is no examination fee. . This board is a voluntary organization, its object being to conduct examinations of physicians so thorough as to prove without a doubt their qualiflcitions for the practiett of medicine. The iklue of its certificate, aside from being a quialification of merit, depends on the recognttion give to it by State medical licensing boards. Such rec- ogiiition'has aThAdy been given, or assured, by the licensing boards of the 12 folloitg States: Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Ken - t- MEDICAL EDUCATION,' 16-1918. 87 tucky, Maryland, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont. When the permanency of the national board ins established and the high character of its examinations is more generally .recognized, ., certificates will doubtless be recognized by the licensing boards of a larger number, if not all States. It will also furnish tt credential by which reciprocity in medical licensure with other countries may be established. A successful applicant inay enter the regular medi- cal corps of either the Army or Navy without further professional examinations if his papers are passed and are satisfactory to a board of examiners of those services. PREMEDICAL COLLEGE WORK. Since, in 1916, two years of work in an " approved" college had been so generally adopted as a minimum educational requirement for admission to medical schools in the 'United States, it became impor- tant to prepare a schedule of the subjects taught in the first two years of recognized colleges which would best prepare the student for his subsequent medical work. A circular letter was sent out by the Council on Mddical Edbcation to presidents of one hundred or more of the leading universities, as well as to registrars and univer- sity examiners: who were skilled in the evaluation of credentials of work done in various eilucational institutions. In thig way an abun- dance of data was collected. A special commit* was appoirited to study the problem and to develop a schedule of required and elective subjects which make up the GO semester hours required, and to have this schedule conform as nearly as possible with the regular curricula of colleges of arts and sciences. The committe* which was selected and began the work in 1916 and was ratified by the council in Felpu- ary, 1917, is as follows: Dr.- Kendrick C. Babfack.. Urbana, Ill., chairman, formerly specialist in higher education of the United States Bureau of Education; now dean of the college of liberal arts mid sciences of the University of Illinois And intimately identified with the work of the North Central Associatimi of Colleges and Sec- ondary Schools and tlie ,-lossocitition of American Universities In standardizing colleges of arts and sciences. . Prof. George Galley Chambers, director of admissions, University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia, representing the Associltion of American Universities. Dr. NV. F. It. Phillips, professor of anatomy of the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. Charltston, representing the Association of American Medical Colleges. Dr. Theodore Hough, dean of tile University of Virglhia Department of Medi- cine, Charlottesville. Dr. N. P. Cohvell, secretary of Council' on Medlciil Education of the American Medical Association, Chicago. A preliminary report of this committee was prepared and pub- lished in August, 1917. It was presented for discussion at the annual . 88. RI NNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-I9IR, congress -on medical education and licensure which was held in Chi- cago in February, 1918, following which the committee ttompleted. this report which, as'finally adopted, is as follows: 4 I. HIGH-SCHOOL REQVIREMENTs, (a) For admission to the two-year premedical college course, students shall have.completed a four-year course of i)t least 14 units (15 after Jan. 1,020) In a standard accredited high school or other institution of standard secondary school glade, or have the equivalent as demonstrated by examinations con- ducted by the College Entrance Examination Board, or by the authorized ex- aminer of a standard college or university which has been approved by the Council on Medical Education. Unless all the entrance units are obtained by examination, a detailed statement of attendance at the secondary school, and a tradscript of the student's work. should be kept on file by the college authorities. This evidence of actual attendance at the secondary schools Mould be obtained, no matter whether the student is admitted to the freshman or to higher classes. (b) Credits for admission to the premedical college course may be granted for the subjects shown in the following list and for any other subject counted by a standard accredited high school as a part of thl requirements for Its diplOma, provided that tit least 11 units must Is offered In Groups I-V: Schedule of eubjects required or accepted for entrance to th.c premedical college course. Subjects. GROUP I, ENGLISH Units. Required. Literature and composition 3-4 3 Geom. H, FOREIGN LANGUAGES Latin .. 1-4 Greek French or German 1 -3 1-4 2 Other foreign languages_ 1-4 GROUP HI, MATHEMATICS-- Elementary algebra_ I Advanced algebra 1/2-1 Plane geometry 1 1 Solid geometry L % Trigonometry % GROUP IV, HISTORY . . Ancient history 1/2-1 Medieval and modern history 1/2-1 . English- history 0- 1/2-1 1 1 American history %-1 Civil government %-1 Glom- V,'Scartcs-- Botany 1/4-1 Zoology 41- , 1/2-1 Chetoretry 1 Physics t 1 Physiography , . %-1- Physiology %-1, Astronomy r % GeOlogy _ ,. 1/4-1 o MEDIcAI. EDUCATION, 1910 -1918. *1° Subjects. GROUP VI, MISCELLANEOUS-- Agriculture Bookkeeping_ Business law Commercial geography Domestic science Drawing, freehand and inechanialid Economics and economic history__ Manual training Music: Appreciation or harmony_ 89 Units. Required. 1-2 NOTE.A unit is he credit value of at least 36 weeks' work of four or five recitation periods per week, each recitation period to be not less than 40 min- utes. In other words. a unit represents a year's study In any subject In a - secondary school constituting approximately a quarter (f a full year's work. A satisfactory year's work in any subject can not be accomplished under ordi- nary circumstances in less than 120 sixty-minute hours or their equivalent. Both of the required units of foreign language must be of the same language, but the two units may be presented in any one of the languages specified. Of the 14 units of high-school work (15 after Jan. 1, 1920), 8 units are re quired, as indicated in the foregoing schedule: the balance may °be Made up' from Shy of the other subjects in the schedule. IT. PREMEDICAL COT.I.EGE COURSE. (c) Beginning January 1, 1918, the minimum requirement for ad- mission to acceptable.medical schools, in addition to the high-school work specified above, will be 60 semester hours of collegiate work, extending through two years, of 32 weeks each, exclusive of holidays, in a college approved by the council on medical education. The sub- jects included in the two years of college work should be in Record- juice with the following schedule : Schedule of subjects of the two-year premedfealepe course. (Sixty semester hours required.) Semester hours. Required subjects: Chemistry (a) 12 Physics (b) _ . 8 biology (c) 8- English composition and literature (d) e Other nonecience subjects (e) 12 Subjects strongly urged: French or Gernian (f) 4d 6-12 Ir Advanced botany oradvanced zoology . 3- 0 Psychology 3- 6 Advanced mathematics, including algebra and trigonometry 3- 6 Additional courses in chemistry___ 8- 8 90 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Other suggested electives: English (additional), economics, history, sociology, political science, logic, mathematics, Latin, Greek, drawing. Nara. A semester hour is the credit value of 16 weeks' work consisting of one 4.ture or recitation period per week, each period to be not less than 50 minutA.: --wet, At least 2 hours of laboratory work to be considered as the equivalent of one lecture or recitation period. SUGGERTIOVS REOARUI NO INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTS. (a) Chemistry.Twelve semester hours required' (eight until January 1, 1920) of which at least eight semester hours must be In general inorganic chem- 1017, Including four semester hours of laboratory work. In the interpretation* of this rule work in qualitative analysis may be counted as general inorganic chemistry. The' remaining four semester hours (required after January 1, 1920).may Cbasist of additional work in general henkistry or of work in analytic or organic cheMistry. t (b) Physics.Eight semester hours required, of which at least two must be laboratory work. It is urged that this course be preceded by a course in trigo- nometry. This requirement may satisfied by six semester hours of college physics, of which two must be laboratory work, if preceded by a 'year (one unit) of high-school physics. (c) Biology. Eight semester hours required, of which flu. must consist of laboratory work. This requirement may be satisfied by a ourse of eight semes- ter hours in either general biology or zoology, or by courses of four semester hours each' in zoology and botany. but not by botaity atone. The requirement may also be satisfied by six semester hours of college biology or zoology, of which three should. be devoted to laboratory work if preceded by a year (one unit) of high-school biology or zoology. (d), English composition and literature. The usual introductory college course of six semester hours, or Its equivalent, is required. (e) Nonscicnce subjects.Of the 60 semester hours required as the measure- ment of 2 y rs of college work, at least 18, including the 6 semester hours in English, sho ld be in subjects other than the physical, chemical, or biologic sciences. (0 French or German.A reading's knowledge of one of these Ilinguages is strongly Urged. If the reading knowledge is Ma' of these languaes is ob- tained on the basis of high-school'wok, the student is urged to take'llie language in his college course. It Is not considered advisable, however, to spend more than 12 of the required 60 semester hours on foreign languages. In case a reaping knowledge of one language is obtained by 6 semester hours of college 'work another 6 seawater hours may be well spent in taking the beginner's course in the other language. If this is followed up by a systematie reading of scientific prose a reading knowledge of the second language may be readily acquired.. When a student spends more than two years in college he may well spend 12,semester hours of his allege work in the second language. NEED.OF A LIST OF APPROVED COLLEGPS OF ARTrAND SCIENCES. The most imperative present need .in medical education in the United States is' a reliable list of colleges of arts and sciences which has been approved by some competent standardizing, agency. This , or. MEDICAL EDUcATION, 1916-1918. 91 ise isvecally needed if the present standards of education preliminary . to the study of medicine are to be properly enforced. There are a thousand or more institutions in this country bearing the name of "college" or a university" which vary widely in their entrance stand- ards; in the number and character OY their teachers; and in the quan- tity and quality of their instruction. They range from the highest educational institutions to be found in any country down to the institutions which are entirely lacking in educational merit or which may be actually engaged in the sale of diplomas. Prospective Lol- lege students at present have no reliable list to guide them in the selection of a college. The 17 are frequently at the mercy of those who insert pretentious advertisements in popular magazines or flood the mails with circulars settiig forth in' glowing terms the merits of their respective schools w en, as a matter of facts such schools may have no moral right to be referred to as educational institutions. Lists of approved colleges have been established by two prominent educational organizations the Association of American Universities and the North Central Association of Colleges and 'Preparatory Schools which ate fairly reliable so far as they go. The former asso- ciation, however, has, not taken into consideration a large number of colleges and " junior colleges" which are in position to furnish a satisfactory training in the subjects included in the first two years of college Work. The latter does include such institutions, but, un- fortunately, its jurisdiction covers Only 17 States. The 'Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern states, Which covers 14 otter States, requires a minimum standard of the colleges in membership and is about to establish a list of approved colleges similar. to that of the North Central Association. Then its list of ap- proved colleges will doubtless include a much larger number than are at present indicated in its membership. There is need of reliable standardizing agencies which will establish lists of approved col- leges in 7 Western States and in 10 NM* Atlantic' and New Eng- land States. It is hoped that such agengesill soots be inaugurated; that all the agencies will be affiliated or merged so as tq. establish Uniformity of standards, and that a nation-wide list of approved colleges may be established. In the investigations to be made here- . after by all these standardizing agencies, in the interesV of abetter medical educatiori. it is hoped that special attention will be given to the equipment an& facilities available for the teaching of the essen-. tial premedical sciences, physics, chemistry, and biology, inclUding both didactic and laboratory.instruction. . it Is 'announced that the Association of Colleges and Preparitory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland has decided to establish a list of the' approved colleges and Ander colleges located In that district. 92 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, ITEMS CONCERNING MEDICAL EDUCATION. Arkansa.8.The new,Isaac Folsom Clinic, clinical building of the University of Arkansas,.Medical Department, hits been completed at. a cost. of $35,000. The old medical. school building is being equipped as an isolation hospital tit a cost of $6,000, this sum having been ap- propriated for the purpoe by the State. Cali forma. e College of Physicians and Surgeons, Medical, De- partment of the' niversity of Southern California, Los Angeles, will . require the hos ital interne year for all students entering during .1918 -19 and thereafter. The College of Medical Evangelists during the last 12 months has established its clinical department in Los Angeles. A city 12locic has been purchased on wilich five buildings including a 75-bed hos- pital, -a dispensary, two dormitories, and a .hydrotherapy buiJ ling Shave been completed at a cost of approximately $100,000: A school for the intensive training of medical officers for the United States Army was established in San Francisco, March 15, 1918, under the direction of the medical faculties of the University of California and Stanford University. Colorado.The Colorado Legislature voted a special appropria- tion of $150,000 a year for the next 10 years to be used on buildings for the University of Colorado. The school of medicine will secure new buildings from this fund. Contecticut.During the past year Yale University has secured an endowment of $2,500,000 for placing the departnientsof medicine, surgery, obstetrics, and gynecology on a full-time clinical tlasis. A contract with the New Haven General Hospital gives the medical school complete control of the public wards. gale University School of Medicine is gloing its part in solving problems connected with the war. Its departments of physiology, pathologic chemistry and 'pathology, particularly, have been aiding the Government in providing gas. masks far the American troops and in conducting experiments leading to the reduction of fatalities from gas warfare. Georgia.Emory Univefsity .School of Medicine has received $5,000 by Pie will of J. B. White, Augusta, to establish a camp for the treatment of tuberculosis.. /ainoi.4.University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, has adOptedWiFiiiitidiamester system by which each 12 monthm is di- vided into terms of four months each. Under this arrangement stu- dents may begin the study Of medicine at the beginning of any one of the three tern* Indiana. --=The Indiana University School of Medicine is erecting a new medical building on the property adjoining the Robert W. NIEDIZ'AL EDVCATION, 1916-1918. . 93 Long IIovital, Indianapolis, at attppproximate cost of $400,000. The new building will consist of four or five stories and be of mate- rial harmonizing with the hospital buildings. About $150,000 of this sum will be realized from the sale of the old medical building. Maryland.The Maryland Legislature, at its recent session, ap- propriated $25,000 annually for two years for the University of Maryland Medical School. The medical .school has received as a gift the medical library and surgical instruments of the late Dr. Charles I'. Bevan. The medical icliool has also voted to admit women students. Johns Hopkins hospital has received $100,000 from the will of Jennie Gil lender and $300,000 from the estate of .Tames .Buchanan Brady. . Ma.sachusett8.-1-larvard Medical School has voted to admit women students. This has been due to the heavy draft of the war on the medical profession. Boston University School of Medicine announces that it has be- comenonsectaria'n and will offer courses in regular materia medica, thApeutics, and practice. Michigan.The Detroit. College of Medicine and Surgery has been taken over by the city of Detroit and placed under the control of the board of education. It will hereafter be maintained as a municipal institution. .11Innelota.A Navy Hospital Corps Training Schbol has been established in connection with the University of Minnesota Medical School. It was formerly opened on October429. 1917, with an initial attendance of 100 men, Nebraska.The University llespittil, erected on the campus of the College of Medicine of the University of Nebraska, was formerly opened in October, 1017. It consists of 120 beds and was erected at a total cost, for the building and equipment, of $210,000: A new library building, an exact duplicate of the present library unit, is being erected en the medical campus which will house the department of physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry. The funds were provided by the legislature which also appropriated $100,000 for maintenance for two years. New Fork. Columbia University College of Physicians and Sur- geons has added a fifth clinical year to the medical ,Course to be required of all students matriculating in and after September, 1914 The college has also opened' its doors to women students. This was made possible by a gift a $50,000 from George W. Brecjtenridge, San Antohio, Tex., and a gift of $5,000 from an association of women physicians, and $18,000 from other doriations. A new building for the use of women students will be erected and additiinal laboratories provided. . 94 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-i918, Corhell University Medical College has established a clinic fon' the functional reeducation of disabled soldiers, sailors, and civilians. This constitutes practically a new branch of medicine. Long Island College Hospital, Brooklyn, has received $265,000 from the estate. of Charles W. West. University of Buffalo Medical Department has begun a campaign for funds for a new medical building and- laboratories. A gift of $10,000 has been obtained to go toward current expenses for the year. Ohio. University of Cintrinnati :college of Medicine formally dedicated its new medical-eon ilding on March 25, 1918 Sub- scriptions were raised for this 1f1lTlRing aggregating' $555,000. On January 1, 1918, under the new charter for Cincinnati, all of the medical and scientific nursing work of the Cincinnati General;. Hospital was placed under the direction of the University of Cincirke nati. The staff Will be made up of members of the medical' gtchool faculty and secures for teaching purposes the facilities of the hos- pital. alalionbi.The legislature appropriated $200,000 ) a State hos- pital at Oklahoma City, to be .under she come .'. of t o Oklahoma University School of Medicine. The building is rapidly approach- ing completion. The school of medicine has completed a new chem- istry building at Norman, which has now been completed at a cost of $33,000. Oregon. The University' of 'Orem Medical School dedicated Mackenzie Hall, the first unitof the new group of medical buildings, on May 1;1918. The building was erected at a cola of $117,000. It is on the new campus of 21acres which provides space not only for other medical school building's, but also for hospital sites. Pennotvanict.-4The University of Pennsylvania has received $50,000 from the will of Dr. William C. Goodell. The board of re- view has awarded damages of $714,000 to the University of Penn- sylvania. for the old Medico-Chirurgical College and Hospital prop- erty taken by the city. The Medico-Chirurgical property-had been fl'ansferrdd to the University of Pennsylvania with the merger. two years ago.4 , The Unfversity of PittsbUrgh Sctool of Medicine is receiving $100 annually from the Pennsylvania Association for the Blind to be used as a prise to the member of the senidr class who writes the best lessay on the 'prevention of tlindness. 'Tennessee.--LMehltrry Me 'cal College dedicated the new Anderson Anatomical Hall on October 19, 1917. The $10,000 used its erktiop was the gift of Dr. John W. Andwon, of Dallas.'Tex. Tezds.During 1917 an attempt by Gov. Ferugson to secure' polit- . jail. control of the University of Texas and its medical department MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-NOR. 95 aroused a vigorons protest. ,A special session of/the legislature was calltd; Gov: Ferguson was impeaelled;. an appropriation of $1,629,4137.17 for the university, including $197,500 for the medical depaytment, which tit 4v. Ferguson had vetoed, was again passed; and three regents of the university named by Gov. Ferguson were replaced by those selected in the interests of the university. Virginia.--The Medical College of Virginia has voted to admit women students. A new three-storyhospital building is to be erected as a part of the new group, of buildings for the Memorial 'Hospital, This first building will cost about $40,000 and will be used for con- tagious diseases. The money was donated by Maj. James FL Dooley. ll'iwomin.---The University of Wisconsin has received gifts amounting to $100.000, which, with an appropriation of $50,000 from the legislature of 1917, will be used to construct a new infirmary for the medical school. Marquette University School of Medicine is conducting a cam- paign to raise $1,000,000 for endowment. Andrew Carnegie has ,agreed to give one-third of this sum provided he university raises the balance. The first evening of the campaign $175,000 was raised. A gift of 1,000 volumes to be added to the libriry has been received from the late Jo lth L. C. Cronyn, of Buffalo. DEVELOPING MEDICAL EDUCATION IN CHINA. In the spring of 1914, the China Medical Commis sion, represent- ing the Rockefeller Foundation, was sent to China "to inquire into the condition of medical education, hospitals, Irnd public health in China." This commission recommended Peking as the place where the first medical educational work should bt: organized. The China Medical board was then organized, which took over the property of the Peking Union Medical College.. The terms of the transfer pro- vided for a board of trustees consisting of 13 members, one to be ap- pointed by each of the six Missionary organizations previously main- taining the college, and seven by the China Medical Board. Full support of the college was assumed by the China Medical Board on July 1, 1915. . The Peking Union Medical College was founded early in 1906 by various American and English boards of missions, following 'the Boxer outbreak. Substantial contributions toward the building fund were obtained from the Empress Dowager of China., The Chinese language was-the medium of instruction. The college rendered val- uable service in 1910-11 in connection with the serious outbreak of pneumonia And the epidemic of the plague. As a result of their work three members of the 'college staff were decorated with the Order of the Double Dragon. The college staff also rendered vain- i. 96 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. able military surgical work with the Imperial forces during the revo- lution of 1911. The announcerneht of the new 'Peking Union Medical College, Peking, China, for the session of 1918-19, has recently been sent out. It contains a perspective view of the new medical school and its group of hospital buildings. These, .when completed. will consist of 17 buildings, connected by covered corridors, and will occupy the space of about four city blocks. All but four of these buildings and two prospective wings of the medical school have already been com- pleted. A premedical school was opened in September, 1917, and the medical gehool will be open for students in September, 1919. Graduation from an approved middle school of China, or its equiva- lent, in addition to 108 credit (semester) hours of college work, is required for admission. The premedical work includes courses in English, Chinese language and literature, algebra through quadra- tics, plane geometry, biology, chemistry, physics, Chiritse and uni- versal history, and drawing. The teaching year begins September 17 and will end June 20 of the following year. The announcement contains floor plans of the various college and hospital buildings. M CHAPTER III. ENGINEERING EDUCATION. BY F. L. Btititm,, Dean, School of Engineering, Unirersity of Pittsburgh. Engineering schools in common with other educational institutions have been confronted with many unique problems since the outbreak of the European War in 1914. Previouto that time an increasing number of men who entered colleges and universities elected subjects pertaining to commerce, business management, finances, etc. The growth of the schools of commerce, both as regards the number of such schools and the attendance in them, is a striking proof of this tendency. During the same period the attendance at engineering schools had in most cases decreased with the resulting decrease in new equipment, faculties, etc. This is partly accounted for by the financial crisis of 1907 but is undoubtedly due largely to the fact that the opportunities offered college graduates in purely cosmercial pursuits were greater than those in purely industrial work where the demand is for.men having a high degree of engineering skill and a wide knowledge of applied science. With the demand on American manufacturers for war supplies for the Allies, there developed a need for a very large number of scien- tifically and technically trained men for use in designing new machin- ery, developing new processes, etc. It was then the country realized that the number of men who had been trained in applied science was woefully small in comparison with the population of the country and the magnitude of its industries. Even before this.time the engineer- ing graduate received numerous bids for his services. In spite of this . the idea was prevalent that the supply of engineering graduates ex- ceeded the demand. The increasing number of mechanical appliances developed as a result of the European War, necessitating an increased number of trained men in applied sciences, immediately reacted upon the en- gineering schools in two ways,first, the number of men entering engineering schools increased materially, and second, the professors and instructors in these schools were in demand by the indus- tries at salaries which it was impossible for educational, institutions to meet. For the latter cause many of the teachers left the engineer- ing schools and their places had to be taken in mostcases by inexpe- 171029°,-217-sus. 88-7. 97 98 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1916-1918. rienced teachers and almost without exception by men with less technical ability than those who had left. This movement of engineering teachers was further accelerated when the United States declared war on Germany, due to the fact that many members of engineering faculties were called into-active service as members of the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the United States Army. No better tribute can be paid the personnel of the teachers in engineering schools than their immediate response to their country's call. The entrance of the United States into the war affected the student body in two waysfirst, an increased attendance in the freshman class; the second and Most striking was the large number of students who immediately volunteered in the various branches of the service. This depletion of the student body of engineering schools through its members volunteering for active service in various branches of- the Army and Navy was a matter of grave concern not only in educational institutions and the industries, but also to the War Department. It had been recognized from the very beginning of the war, not only by the Secretary of War but by other officials in Washington, that the successful outcome of the war for the Allies was dependent upon the services of technically trained men. If the war were to last a year or perhaps two, all were agreed that gsery student should do his part by dropping his school work temporkiily, but if the war was to be of longer duration, then it would become absolutely necessary for engineering students to continue in school to complete their courses in order that an adequate supply of such men should be avail- able during the war and for the reconstruction period which must of necessity follow. The matter became so pressing that it was taken up by the Council of National Defense and a committee on engineering education was appointed by Dr. Hollis Godfrey, a member of the advisory com- mission of the Council of National Defense ender whose general direction came all matters pertaining to education. The members of this committee were Charles S. Howe, president, Case School of Applied Soience; Milo S. Ketchum, dean of the-college of engineering, University of Colorado; C. R: Mann, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching;'S. P. Capon, specialist in higher education, United States Bureau of Education; and F. L. Bishop, dean, school of engineering, University of Pittsburgh. This committee, cooperating with the national engineering socie- ties, the special war committee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education and other qrganizations, presented the matter tp the Secretary of War, who modified the Selective Service ENGINEERING EDUCATION. 99 Regulations. On December 19, 1917, the a following regulation became effeotive: Under such regulations as the Chief of Engineers may prescribe, a proportion of the students, as named by the school faculty, pursuing an engineering course in one of the approved technical engineering schools listed in the War Department may enlist in the enlisted reserve corps of the Engineer Department, and thereafter, upon presentation by the registrant to his local board of a certificate of enlistment, such certiticate shall be filed with the questionnaire and the registrant shall be placed in Class V, on the ground that he is in the military service of the United States. This regulation permitted students to enlist in the Engineers' Enlisted Reserve Corps and to remain in school until they completed their courses. It remained in force until superseded by the estab- lishment of section A, Student Army Training Corps, and tended very materially to stabilize the student body in eng ering schools, thus providing properly trained men not only for the Depart- ment, tut also for the industries. . The war also had a decided effect upon the curricula of eng er-. ing schools. While educational institutions, as a rule, are very conservative and slow in making changes in material and methods of instruction,* the engineering schools responded quickly to the many new factors which were developed by the war, and important changes in the cu'rriculum v.cre put in force. Most of these changes had to do with methods of instruction of specific subjects, such as matheAuttics, thermodynamics, etc. There were, however, two general changes which might well be mentioned at this time. These ---"ere the applications of economic principles to the industries and some form of. cooperative system- by which the student secures aotual engineering experience before graduation. The most universal of these is the greater attention which is given to the application of economio principles to industries, engineering research, and the discussion of the problems of sociology sometimes placed under the broad title of human engineering. Formerly the engineer was supposed to deal only with the material and forces of nature, but recently an entirely new factor has enteredi. e., the human factor,and, in many oases, this isithe all-controlling element with which the engineer must deal. Hence it becomes increasingly important to teach the prospective engineer as much as possible conoerning the fundamental problems of psychology, sociology, etc. It has also been demonstrated that the engineering student must during his course secure the fundamental knowledge of the engineer-- ing profession through actuta practice in engineering work in the industries if ho is to grasp properly the instructional work as given in the school. This has led to the adoption of the so-called coopers- 'live system 11,y which the student spends a portion of his time in the industries under the supervision of the faculty of the school in 100 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. which he is enrolled. This differs very decidedly from the old process in which the student worked summers at any kind of a, job whioh he might select in any place without supervision. This cooperative work was discussed by Dr. Mann in the annual report of the commissioner off Education for 1916. Ab a result of the war courses, some teachers discovered for the firstAime that students will study and work if tliey are interested. The tendency for the engineering student to become so absorbed in his work as to neglect the college social and athletic activities has been of long standing, and during the past few years has been much discussed with beneficial results. When this tendency is properly controlled and directed it provides the incentive by which a young man may be trained mentally without detriment to his social develop- ment while in college. Scholarship is not incompatible with breadth of view or a desire to take a normal part in college activities. In fact, the latter ought to be so regulated that sound scholarship would be essential to participation in them. 'Those who had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the kind of men who were required to fill the responsible positions in the world war were alole to appreciate the fact that sound scholarship was an essential prerequi- site for their participation in the war work. The discussion of the.changes in curriculum brought about by the war tended to emphasize the different criticisms which have been expressed in regard to engineerink education and engineering schools for a considerable period of time. It is felt by many that these schools were producing well-trained men for certain highly technical phases lof engineering, but were failing to produce an all-round engineer required for the proper development of the resources of the country. This discussion lead even as far back as 1907 to the appointment of a joint committee on engineering education. The report of this committee, which has become available during the past year, is the result of several years of investigation of engineering schools by Dr. C. R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The report undoubtedly marks an epoch in engineering education because it embodies not only the investigation of a single able investigator, but the result of Dr. Mann's 1nvestion has been discussed repeatedly as the work progressed before agineering societies, especially the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education. Thus the report represents to a .con- siderable extent a composite idea of the present standing of engineer- ing education together with an outline of the probable future developments. While the report does not advocate any specific change in the curriculum, it does in a broad way indicate the most probable form of development which engineering schools must take if they are to 4* ENGINEERING EDUCATION. 101 meet the requirements of the industries and produce technically trained men who will compete with those from other countries. The report emphasizes the fact that we can find a proper type of training for men for the industries only through long continued experimentation in different types of schools. It calls attention specifically to the experiment in engineerilig education which has to do with the introduction of cooperative work and the elimination of the practice shop from schools. That greater emphasis must be laid on the correlation of industry with the schools is one of the funda- mental conclusions of the report. Given the results of this long investigation and its discussion, the question immediately arises as to what type of experiment in education will be most fruitful in the development of the proper type of men for the industries. A survey of the situation by any one familiar with industrial needs seems to point clearly to the necessity in this country of developing two different types of men for use in the industries. First., a man who may be called a technician, who is highly trained in science and mathematics, who possesses the instinct of the research man and who can devote his entire time to highly technical research problems, either in the research labor Ties which are now rapidly being developed in the large industries,tr by applying the results of his research to engineering science. For the training of this type of men, there is needed the best of scientific equipment, the members of the faculty must be those who are intimately interested in research problems, and the student himself must have what is sometimes called a mathematical mind. It is doubtful if this type of a man can be developed in a four-year course under existing conditions. In fact, it is probable that such a man can be developed only in a school which has a thorough graduate department devoting its energies primarily to research but giving instruction in the funda- mentals of science and mathematics. The second type which seems to be demanded by the industries is the man who has a broad general knowledge of engineering subjects and can apply that knowledge in an effective way in present engineer- ing problems. .H9 must have ability to command men, a knowledge of the app cations of economic pi.inciples t9 industries, and a broad training in the so-called humanities, since he is the man in contact with men of other types in other fields of human activities. He should not be a research man; his training in mathematics need not be of necessity so extensive as that of the research technician, but his understanding of engineering problems should be extensive. Such a man can not be trained in the ordinary schools because of the artificial conditions which of necessity cxist in academics institutions. He must become familiar with the industries while yet a student in order that he may undeptand thdloughly the applications of his' .1 102 BIENNIAL SURAT' OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. theoretical courses in school and their application to industries and- also that he may become familiar in the formative period of life with the problems of labor and the human factor in engineering. It is in the development of this type of man, who is to become the manager and operating head of our large manufacturing industries, who needs more than any other the advantages to he derived from the coopera- tive system. It is unfortunate that in this country we have no institutions with sufficient funds to develop a complete school of applied science, (1) having as its .foundkitien a modified standard four-year course of instruction, (2) accepting young men for the course upon gradua- tion from the high schools, (3) coordinating with this a proper cooperative system, and (4) having a graduate school devoted to instruction of graduates from a four-year course not only in the applications of science, but also of economic:principles to industries. This graduate school should be in close coordination with the research department, corresponding in many ways to the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research at the University of Pittsburgh, where problems in the application ofscience to industries are studied at first hand under ideal co,n(litions, and later the results of these investigations are applied directly to the solution of problems of industry. ,The graduate student. would thus have the opportunity of taking his science and mathematics in an atmosphere that would +be oonducive to the development of the best type of man for research. The Civil War was the crystallizing process which brought forth the type of engineering schools which are now common in this country. The result of the world war, in the same manner, vill be the crystallization of the ideas now prevalent in regard to technical and scientific training. We shall have in the near future an engineer- ing school of a type quite distinct from that in existence at the present time. It is only necessary to mention it to bring to mind the failure of this country to provide for a school of engineering which has a faculty, buildings, equipment, and resources comparable with similar insti- tutions in Europe. In this c try we have schools of engineering which offer excellent courses fo undergraduates. We have one or two schools like Colum- bia University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology which offer graduate courses to some exteilit. We have certain other schools like the University of Illinois,. the `Ohio State University, etc., that conduct research and engineering experiment stations supported by the State. There is, however, no single school which combines in an effective way all throe factors which go to make a complete engineering school, namely, undergraduate courses, graduate courses, and research both pure and applied. I propose to outline briefly ENGINEERING EDiTCATION. 108 some d the factors which must be taken - into consideration in estab- lishing such a school. The engineer must be a man of culture and broad training such as can best be secured in the atmosphere of a large university. Also it is only at a university that there are available libraries and labora- tories especially of science and economics, which are essential to the student of engineering and especially to graduate and research men. The university which has such a scItool as a part of it must be located at the center of a great industrial district where all types of engineer ing are available for study at first hand by the students. In its undergraduate department the functions of such a school would be to train young men to enter engineering industries in which t esent graduates from our best 4ngineering schools now enter. In i graduate department the function would be to train men to enter the research division of engineering industries and to supply the ever increasing demands made by the National and State Gov- ernments for trained investigators. In its research department the function would be two-fold: First, to develop through 'pure research the fundamental principles upon which all engineering is based and to obtain standard data pertain- ing to the various materials employed in engineering work; second, the investigations of specific problems, solutions of which are de- manded by individuals, firms, or corporation. An estimate of the faculty, buildings, equipment, and resources which would be required for such an institution shows that an endowment of $20,000,000 would be needed. Such a school should operate in close connection with the municipal, State, and National Governments in addition to its close cooperation with the industries of the country. Since it seems at the present time impossible to seem* adequate funds for such an institution it is highly desirable that different institutions in the country should devote themselves to the solution of specific problems and thus each one become an experimental laboratory-tor the benefit of engineering education. r. CHAPTER- IV. 'COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. By- FRANK V. THOMPSON: Superintendent of ON School., Bolton, Vass. t. CotelTerrs.Development of commercial education in public schools Federal !loud for VoeritIon al Education: Provision for commercial education--Reportof the Comm it tee on lizismc,s Education: s Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary EducatiunSchool surveys and commercial education Conclusion. 0 The influence of industrial vocational education is having its effect upon practices and methods of commercial education.. The practice of industrial education of analyzing a curriculum of subjects containing values of vocational work, related vocational, ant non- vocational subjects_ is causing us to examine commercial education with a view to a more careful practice with respect to like items. We are accustomed to note a large proportion of our high-school pupils as pursuing commercial education. More strictly speaking, however, commercial pupils in our high schools are those pursuing general academic education with one or two commercial subjects, usually of clerical character. There has been little related com- mercial work required of our so-called commensal pupils and the nonvocational or general academic subjects have been taught with complete disregard for the special needs of. commercial pupils. A review of the historical development of. commercial education easily explains the present situation. In the early days before the period of vocational education, no prevision was made in educational curriculums for the training of bp and girls for office work or other commercial occupations. The private business school was first to see the need of a new train- ing and to effect an organization to meet this need. These institu- tions offered short intensive courses in bookkeeping and later in typewiiting 'and shorthand. The history of the private commercial school is well known. This type of school rendered a real service at a time when the public-school authorities were either ignorant of the need or unwilling to meet it. The original commercial courses in public high schools were short intensive courses. This kind of organization. immediately called down upon commercial 'educators severe criticism from those who were charged with the' responsibility of administering public education, and from the public. general which was at that time quick to reflect. the idealism and aloofness .1051, 106 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. from life character of all ducational enterprise. The natural result of this widespread criticism Was to shake the faith of the commercial teachers in the type of training which they had receivedthat is, private commercial school trainingand were recommending for the public school. It was nIt, long before these teachers of commercial.. subjects began to play 4 to the academic standard so esteemed the new educational fields in which they were workers, with the ultimate result that in the average high school commercial educa- tion simply represented a number or commercial elective subjects grouped with academic electives and distributed throughout the four-year program. Under the average conditions of high school's a few of these commercial subjects could be taken, and under the most favorable conditions many such subjects could be elected.' It can be seen readily that this elective plan could effect no standard of commercial instruction, and us a result the product ranged all the way from reasonably efficient to wholly inefficient. Commercial pupils under this plan lacked the thoroughness and attention whichvocational pupils in more modern vocational courses attain. By the com- promise described commercial educators succeeded in winning a place among educators in general, and were able to advance the cause of commercial education in a system not attempting any other kind of vocational work. In a subsequent period of educational development two years of commercial work were offered at the end of the high-school course. Only those who were able to continue through the four-year program were permitted to get commercial training. The result of this type of commercial course was that the large majority of boys and girls who had any laim on public commercial education.were denied the privileg etting it. The private commercial school waxed fat on this public-school program. The evolution of commercial education seems to be bringing us at this moment to a ne* and better conception of proper procedure. We are now.,attempting to meet the needs of boys and girls who attend high school in large numbers for the first years, and who desire instruction in commercial subjects, by placing commercial work At the beginning of the course, but adapting this work to the ,stage of maturity of the younger pupils., The more technical and difficult commercial subjects are postponed to the latterikart of thg_ high. school course. Slich a plan seems to meet more adequately the needs of all the pupils who resort to oui high schools looking for the advantages possible under the limitations of time, capacity, and maturity. Our first-year high- school commercial work consists mainly of commercial . arithmetic, penmanship, and elementary bookkeeping. In our am:owl-year work are found more Advanced bookkeeping, COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. 107 typewriting, and simple. Office proceduW. Stenography and still . more advanced bookkeeping are reserved for the third and fourtli years.. In junior high schools commercial subjects are generally taught upon a prevocational basis. Many junior high schools in their efforts to furnish fullest opportunity for tho;:e pupils who will not proceed to the senior high school are offering somewhat technical and advanced courses in stenography and bookkeeping, too advanced foi the pupils who pursue the courses. To summarize the present stage of development of commercial education in our public high schools, it may be said that the present is a peliod of earnest; and rapid readjustment. Mistakes and failures of the past are recognized, and earnest effort is made both to mako the courses suitable to the ages and capacities of pupils and for tip purpose of making most valuable the opportunities for commercial instruction for all pupils, irrespective of their eduCational limitations and vocational destinies. One of the most hopeful signs of a more adequate conception of the province of commercial education is the recognition that there are many commercial occupations other than those of bookkeeper and stenographer; that no boy or girl should be encouraged to apply for, or to accept., any position for which he or she is not qualified by matu- rity, general education, and special training; that the special apti- tudes of boys ,Liid girls should be taken into consideration in deter- mining the kind of position for whilocji each one should be trained, and that new types of commercial education must be developed to meet newly discovered needs in the field of business training. As an illustration of the recognition of commercial occupations other than clerical may he mentioned the subject of rani' selling. In no field of commercial education is there greater activity or need for educational facilities than in that of retail selling and retail store service. In the immediate inane plans for meeting this need should be developed. This attempt will moan the development of a new department of business education, with specially qualified _teachers and with methods of procedure specifically adapted to secure the ends sought. At the present time many cities are experimenting with courses in salesmanship, or, better named, retail selling. It would appear that the Drocedure of industrial vocational education had-inorg in the way of suggestion frr courses in retail selling than have our'older courses in clerical pratti: e. We have seen th our long - established commer- cial education has followed the acad is procedure of the high school in teaching commercial subjects witl out field practice. Those best qualified to judge consider that salesmanship can not-be effectively taught from textbooks alone unsupplemented by actual practice un- der supervised conditions. We can not expect that salesmanship can I . 108 BINITNIAL arravEY OF antiorriow, 1915-1918. develop as rapidly and with the same facility that clerical commercial education. has shown. During the conditions of war and the stimulation of the labor market, the need for clerically -traiged commercial workers has been more apparent than that of othk commercial occupations. The wages offered for clerical workers has grown with the unusual de- mand. This condition may be expected to retard for the present the development of tlie teaching.of salesmanship. Even under normal conditions the teaching of salesmanship, has been involved in the social prejuilice which seems widespread, namely, that the commercial emplolment of seUing goods does pot equal (in the minds of pupils and parents at least?) the social grade that clerical workers enjoy. Particularly with girls the vocational motive is as apt to be found in social esteem as in the wage offered. Employers of labor seeking trained sales people will toedlo do much in the way cif affecting public opinion concerning the worth and dignity of the sales person before our pupils in public schools may be expected to elect training in sales- manship in preference to the present esteemed lerical occupation. Various investigations such as Cleveland and Minneapolis have shown that selling is morerseasonal in character than in clerical work. How- ever, any analysis of the process of selling will show that itis an art for which training may be offered as truly as that of clerical occupa- tion, belt as long as there is .keen competition both in wages and in social esteem among various commercial occupations, we may expect that boys and girls will still resort in greater numbers to the long established and tried clerical occupations. FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. PROVIS: 3N FOR COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. Among the several assistant directors for various types of voca- tional education is found provision for a specialist in commercial education. F. G. Nichols, formerly &rector of commercial education in the city of Rochester, N. Y., has been appointed to carry oft this function. Commercial edileation tri4y. expect from a new national ift) woe advice, guidance, and assistance, limited heretofore in this country. It is expected that a State supervisor of commercial education vrill.be appointed in each State; such a supervisor .to be accountable to the assistant director of commercial education on the staff of the Federal Board for'Vocational Education insWashington. We may expect that the character of teachers' qualifications may be formulated as the result of the new organization .of forces. A better training for commercial teachers would seem probible .both as the result of stiniutation and advice of the national director, and also from'the peostibility of national funds which seem possible under COM NIEECIAL EDUCATION. 109 the Smith-ThIghes law. We are informed that certain kinds of commercial work where the vocational conditions are assured may receive the same subvention. that does inchistrial vocational work. For example, connuercial pupils who take cooperative courses and work at intervals in the school and in the vocation under'conditions of approval as to the character of the course may constitute a group for whichnational moneys can be granted. Courses in salesmanship, such as those maintained in Boston and Cleveland, may petition and likely receive the same proportion of national funds for such kinds of commercial education as do courses in improved industrial *cation. REPORT Ot' THE COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS EDUCATION. COMMISSION ON TUE ,REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. 19143 the National Education Association issued a brief report 4° commercial ommercial education, the chief feature of which was a recorn- mndation of a commercial curriculum for general high schools. Since that date the association has offered no formal statement upon the subject of commercial education. . Two years ago a committee consisting of N. Cheesintin A. Herrick, president of Girard College, Philadelphia; F. G. sSichols, formerly director 'of commercial education, Rochester, N. Y., now assistant director of commercial education, l'ederal Board for Vocational Education; and F. V. Thompson, superintendent of'schools, Boston, formulated a report now under revision by thefteviewing committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the National Education Association. The report emanating from this committm can not fail to receive marked attention, due to the keen interest in the question of read- justment of commercial education now dominant in the minds of our administrators'of secondary schools. i No one who. is familiar with the pronouncement of The National Education' Association, in 1903, regarding the course of study can fail to see the progress and expansion of commercial edueatiorovhen comparing the single inflexible, largely academic course of' 1903 with the manyfold flexible courses formulated at the present time. As an illustration, bt the modern development of commercial courses ,---- of study, the commercial curriculuni for cosmopolitan hjgh schools, adopted by Boston in 1917, is offered below. It will be noted that the comrperciar curriculum is divided into three distifict sections in the third and fourth years of the course. Commercial pupils by such a curriculum can specialize either for the accounting or bookkeeping side of commercial occupations, or for the stenographic, or for the yooation of selling. r. 110 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1816-191$. COMMERCIAL CURRICULA. (To meet all requirements for commercial certificate.) . Required subjects. FIRST Points. yam!. Elective subjects. Rhysical training I 2 History I Choral practice 1 Foreign language I Hygiene 1 Biology I English I 5 Introductory science c Bookkeeping I 4 or 5 Drawing I (freehand) Domestic art I SECOND YEAR. Pants. 3 or 5 5 3 or 4 3 3 3 Required subjects. Points. Elective subjects. Points Physical training II 2 I Choral practice II 1 English II 4 or 5 Histo.ry of commerce 3 Bookkeeping II 4 or 5 Foreign language II 4 or 5 Commercial geography 3 Mathematics I 5 Biology II 3 or 4 Drawing II (freehand) 3 Domestic art II* 3 TRIRD YEAR. Nors.At least one elective in the third and fourth year must be a "Controlled Option" (a related vocational subject taught in a homogeneous division). Accounting. Required subjects. Points. Physical training III .2 English III 3 or 4 Bookkeeping III 4 or 5 Elective subjects. Choral practice I I I 1 Phonography I 5 Typewriting I . 3 Merchandising I 4 or 5 Civics 3 History III. 3-, 4, or 5 Foreign language III 4 or 5 Physics I 3, 9, or 5 Chemistry I . r 5 Drawing III ,..717-e 3 Domestic art III 3 iferchandssing. Required subjects. Points. Physical training III 2 English III 3 or 4 Merchandising I 4 or 5 Elective subjects. 'Choral practice 111 1 Phonography I 5 Typewriting I 3 BookkeepingJll 4 or 5 Secretarial. 4 Required subjects. Points. Physical training III 2 English Ill 1 or 4 Phonography I 5 Typewriting I. ., 3 Elective subjects. Choral practice III. 1 Bookkeeping III 4 or 5 Merchandising I 1 or 5 3 History III , 3. 4. or 5 Foreign language III 4 or 5 Physics I . 3. 4, or 5 Chemistry I. ' '3, 4, or 5 Drawing III 3 Domestic art III 3 (Retail selling.) Elective subjects. Points. Civics 3 History III 3 4, or 5. Foreign'language III II 4 or 5 Physics I 4. or 5 Chemistry I 3, 4, or 5 Drawing III 3 Domestic. art III 3 Accounting. Required subjects. OOMMEECIAL POURTE Points. EDUCATION. YEAR. Secretarial. Required subjects. Ill Points. Physical training IV 2 Physical training IV 2 English 1V 3, 4, or 5 English I V 3,4or5 Commercial law' 3 Phonography II 5 Bookkeeping IV 4 or 5 Typewriting II 3 Office practice 2 or 3 Electivesubjerts. Elective subjects. Choral ptactice IV 1 Choral practice IV 1 Phonography II 5 Commercial law' 3 Typewriting II 3 Bookkeeping IV 4 or 5 Merchandising II 4 or 5 Office practice 2 or 3 Economics' 3 or 4 Merchandising II 4 or 5 Foreign language IV 4 or 5 Et-onomics 3 or 4 History IV 4 or 5 Foreign language 4 or 5 Civil service 3 History IV 3 Drawing IV 3 Civil service 3 Domestic art IV 3 Drawing IV 3 Domestic art IV 3 I i Merchandising. (Retail *eking.) Required-subjects. Physical training IV English IV 3 Merchandising II Points. 2 4 or 5 4 or 5 Elective subjects. Phonography IV Typewriting 11. Economics' Points. 5 3 3 or 4 Elective subjects. Choral practice 1V 1 Foreign language IV ...., History IV . 4 or 5 4 or 5 Commercial law', 3 Civil service 3 Bookkeeping 1V 4 or 5 I Drawing IV 3 Office practice 2 or 3 Domestic art IV 4 COMMERCIAL COURSE CERTIFICATES. A candidate for a commercial certificate must have completed a full course of train ing in at least one of the three vocational groupsi. e., accounting, secretarial or mer- chandising, with a grade not less than B in any subject of the group. SCHOOL SURVEYS AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. Since the last report of the Commissioner of Education on com- mercial education, a number of surveys have been made, notable among them being those of Cleveland, Minneapolis, and Indianapolis. In general, these surveys bear out the position of the Commissioner of Education's Report of 1915-16. As an instance ot this, the survey in Cleveland draws a parallel between the actual commercial voca- tions found in that city and the public provisions for training workers in commercial occupations -itethe public high schools of the city. The situation depicted contains no stirprises for those who are familiar with what was revealed in New York City by the Hanus inquiry of 1912. la school. raqiiirina both commercial law and wationstes. theformer may be takes In the third year. 112 BIENNIAL sum:1:1 OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Briefly stated, the Cleveland survey shows what any survey invariably doesthat commercial education in our public high schools pursues a policy quite independent. of the business needs and conditions of the community under consideration. Commercial ed ucation has been a thing of school credits and academic standard conducted in.accordance with college entrance requirements or with abstract scholastic procedure. Commercial educators have neither seen nor apparently cared for the actual conditions of employment into which their graduates may go. The school prepares-a certain prod- uct which buSiness must take or leay.e just as it chooses. The Cleve- land survey makes a distinct point of the fact that boys and girls are trained alike for the same kinds of commercial occupations, whereas an actual surv-ey of business conditions shows that the sex conditions of employment are quite different, males being found in excess in certain commercial employments and females in other kinds of employment. Another pertinent criticism of the Cleveland survey is to the effect that commercial employments are taught simultaneously to the same pupils; that is, our public high schools train our boys and girls to be both good bookkeepers and good stenographers, whereas business employment shows that the demand is for specialized workers in one field or the other. Figures pertinent to this point are as follows: In Cleveland, in largo business concerns, it was found that the dual capacity of stenographer and bookkeeper was found in one instance in a thousand; in small businesses only in sixty instances to a thousand. . The findings of this survey, as well as the findings in other like surveys, illustrate beyond dispute that commercial education in our public high schools has followed wholly the traditions of the school. and has been oblivious to the field conditions .of the vocation. There is a growing body of evidence, however, that there is a willingness to change our procedure. We may expect within the next five years to see sweeping and radical changes characterize commercial courses in our high schools. CONCLUSION. In general, the better type of four-year commercial course will continue to fulfill a real need and should be encouraged. The short- unit.course will be found in part-time, extension, and preparatory day-school courses for boys and girls already employed. Evening school commercial work should be -put on a practical and vocational basis, having in mind definite needs of definite groups of people; foreign-trade courses; in centers ere such courses should be encour- aged, should be organized and iven wide publicity; retail-selling education of a high character, both in connection with the four-year commercial course and the part-time evening school classes, should COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. 113 he made available; more intelligent rules for the licensing of teachers should be worked out; adequate commercial teacher-training facili- ties that will insure the training of commercial teachers along the newer lines of commercial vocational education should be set up in every State; and the whole field of commercial education should be reorganized where necessary on the basis of vocational needs, individual aptitudes, and local requirements. 1'tio29°-21Bull. 88-8 CHAPTER V. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN Tilt CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES. CO \ TESTS.i. The larger cities: IntroductoryAmericnnizationElimination of German and the teaching of foreign languagewJunior high schoolsVocational education The Gary SchoolMilitary training In the schoolsWar activities In the schools Conclusion. The smaller cltles.: Administration-- School board rules and regu- lationsThe superintendentThe survey in school administration Salaries and promotions of teacher -- Duplicate schools--Supervised studyThe war and the small city schools. I. THE LARGER CITIES. By J. H. VAN SIOUX, Superintendcni of Schools, Springfield, Moo -s.. and Jour; WHYTE, Neu. lurk Long before America's entry into the great war, education, in the larger cities, in common with every other aspect of our national life, was reacting to the great conflict across the seas. Our educational authorities were watching carefully the effects of the watt upon European edueation, with a view to appropriating for oar p rposes the educationally fruitful ideas that were coining from the cataclys- mic struggle, in which we had as yet no part: but as the months passed and the inevitability of our being drawn into the struggle became apparent, theoretical discussion as to the wisdom of this or that educational innovation of England or France gave way, to the immediate consideration of the relation of the schaols to the prob- lem of war itself, in the event of our enTering it. The schools were analyzed as to their part in a great preparedness program. and every phase of educational activity was scrutinized as to its potential con- tribution for service to a country at war. With the entry of America into the war, the slogan for the schools became "Win the War," and the solution of all the school problems was approached from that angle? for it was soon realized that the schools had become an essen- tial part of the very machinery of modern war. That slogan is still, after 18 months of America's participation in the war, the determin- ing factor in any consideration of educational problems, but already the problem of reconstruction is forcing its attention on the schools with an emphasis that is sure to beano more and more insistent. And rightly so, for it is very appareti that a great many of the 115 116 BIENNIAL. SITRVE,Y OF E61.TCATION, 1916-1918. 'educational problems of a country at war are and will be the prob- lems of a country at peace, with the exception that in war their seri- ousness is accentuated and their immediate solution demanded. Hence it is frequently possibleand where it is possible, it is surely the part of wisdom to act accordinglyto unite the discussion of the best educational measures for a Win the War" policy to a discus- sion of the applicability of those measures to post-war programs. By so doing we shall be proceeding along the lines of the warring European nations (particularly England and France), who under the compulsion of the times have adjusted their education to war and at the same time have not neglected planning and even executing in part such a revision of their whole educational policy as will best make up for the derelictions of the past and insure the future. Un- less we proceed similarly, it is likely that after the war, when our problems seem less acute, lacking the stimulus of a great catastrophe, we shall try to some them in the same haphazard, indifferent way that has characterized our attempts at this solution in the past. The latest example of the long look ahead toward the closer rela- tions, commercial -arid otherwise, which are sure to obtain between the allied nations is furnished by France, which through the Frefich high commission has arranged to send to the High School of Com- merce, of Springfield. Mass., for an intensive course of two years in American business pra6tice, 35 young women, about 18 years of age, ----who- have-hail -a-preliminary_edinairion euiyalent to that of a grad- uate of an American secondary school. These are daughters of French officers who were killed in the war. This is probably but the vanguard of a larger delegation of young women who, if the initial 4. experiment is successful, will be sent to this and other similar insti- tutions in this country for preparation to carry on work in French business houses. It will be necessary for them, after the war, to take the places of men who have lost their lives or been incapacitated by their injuries. The advantages of the plan. while marked on the side of commercial relations, are equally significant on the social side. It is the wish of the members of the French high commission to have these girls made acquainted with the home life of the people of America, and to this end arrangements have been made by which they are to be taken into the honies of representative people of the city and treated not as boarders but as members of the families in which they may be placed. It has been suggested that after the termination of the war a reciprocal arrangement may be made for the exchange of pupils be- tween France and this country, and this may 4orove.to be one of the factors that will bind together more firmly than ever the people of these two Republics. PUBLIC EDUCATIoN IN THE CITIES. 117 AMERICANIZATION. In the category of problems that has been thrown into especial prominence by the war, but whose solution belongs not only to war but to the future, is the great problem of the Americanization of the immigrant. Before.the war it was a problent that engaged strenuous efforts only on the part of welfare and settlement workers and sociologists and remained in the eyes of a great ninny educators a more or less academic sentimental issue. To be sure, some provision had been made for certain aspects of the solution of the problem, e. g., for the teaching of English; and sotbe States, such as Massa- chusetts, had even demanded compulsory attendance at evening school of minors of 16 to 21 who could not read and write up to the fourth-grade standard; but the enforcement of such laws was de- pendent upon the maintenance of evening schools by the towns and cities of.the States, and far tdo few provided adequate facilities and financial support. for such apparently extra curricula and irrelevant ,Matter. But with thwar came the sudden realization of vital importance of the immigrant as a factor in the winning of e war. The revelation of the 1910 census that there were 5,51(016 people in the United States who could not read or write had evoked little com- ment and a few adequate remedial measures, but the fact that, of approximately 10,000,000 registrants for the selective draft, 700,000 could not sign their names aroused even the most apathetic to the serious impairment of our military efficiency revealedby such figures. With 1 out of 1.3- finable-to respond intelligently to military or indus- trial orders on the one hand, and moral and spiritual appeals on the other, all because of lack of a common medium, the necessity for im- mediate action on the part of the schools became a matter of na- tional importance. .Additional facilities for Americanization were speedily provided, and the teaching of English to.the immigrant as the first step in Americanization engaged the serious attention of school authorities all over the country. THE IMMIGRANT AND THE NIGHT SCHOOLS. There is a tendency to blame the immigrant for his failure' to learn the langdage of his new country. But, as a general rule, failure can be attributed less to his lack of desire than to, his of opportunity. The opportunity must be given him in every com- munity by ample provision for night schools that shall be looked upon as an integral.part of the functions of the schdols of America. Up to the present the night school has been treated as a foster-child, oe maltreated and even disinherited when the budget required. If the wisely conceived plan of the National Committee on Illiteracy is . 118 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. to be realized, i. e., the utilization of all the school machinery of the country in the teaching of the foreign illiterate, the administra- tive wisdom of educational authorities will be taxed as never before to solve the pedagogical and finanial problems that will come from this broadening of the school's funftions. THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH TO THE IMMIGRANT. The fallacy that teaching English to foreigners is a simple, sec- ondary matter, and may be safely entrusted to any who can be found to accept the pittance allowed such instruction, needs apparently to be demonstrated, for the policy of most night-school instruction in English. rests upon this fallacy. It is time that educators realized that English for theaforeigner is a foreign language and that the giving Of instruction MI foreign languages in our educational scheme has always presupposed a certain technique of instruction and a cer- tain minimum at least of preparation and specialization. ENGLISH AND THE PROBLEM OF AMERICANIZATION. The selection, preparation, and organization of night-school teachers ought therefore to engagg the most serious attention of school administrators, and particularly, because it is through the foreigtrlanguage, English in this instance, that the immigrant's first introduction to the customs, thoughts, and ideals of the new country may come. 'the night-school instructor becomes, nolens volens, the interpreter of America to the newcomerthe mediator between the old and the new. To mediate effectively, he should incarnate the best of his country and be able to approach the foreigner symPatheti- cally, He should- realize that he is one of the instruments that is . trying to effect the bleu ling of all the racial elementsthe Slav, the Teuton, the Celt, the Angto-$4.xoninto a distinct racial cul- tural entity. That blending can not be commanded. Under the stress of war and under the compelling idealism of a Wilson, a " War Americanization " has taken place. The whole country has supported unitedly the compulsory service act and has given almost unwavering support to the policies of its President. And tIte great struggle of all the races in ticommon Cause will surely have constituted, when the war is over, a great .step in that Americanization -.and democratization that all have desired. But with the conclusion of peace there will be lacking the urgent appeal for Americanization that the war has brought with it. The neces- sity will still exist, and it is even possible that, with the recrudescence. of an intensified,. national feeling everywhere arid the awakening Hof new. nations from the suppressed national. groups of Europe, PUBLIC EDUCATION TN THE CITIES. 119 the nationalistic feelings of the foreign groups in America -nay be intensified and provide added difficulties to the process of assimila- tion. It is for the educatdrs of the country to realize the importance of Americanization not only as a war program but as a peace'pro- gram, and always as a problem for whose solution specialists on im- migration, social, welfare, and settlement work should he invoked. DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY OF AMERICANIZATION. The insistence on English as a prereq4e to Americanization is one thing, but the sudden and radical suppression of all foreign languages by city or State command is another, and is likely to de- feat the very ends that are sought. for. Presenting American ideals and customs is one thing, but attempting to rommi.nd immediate and utter forgetfulness of the old country is another, and perhaps the very way to insure in this country unassimilablo foreign groups after the model of those existing in such countries as Austria. Hun- gary, Russia, and Germany where repression has marked the tip"- ment of alien groups. The normal course of Americanization in many parts of theTyountry with respect to English has so far been from the uni-lingualism of the immigrant to the bilingualism of the second generation,. to the uni-lingualism (English) of the third generation. Whenever the proc6s is slower, there is the likelihood that there is maintaining itself a distinct racial unit that may be holding too vigorously to all of its foreign habits and customs. Such a state of affairs demands the attention of immigrant and welfare experts. An analysis may prove that a great deal of responsibility for it may rest on the American of older generations who by his 1- difference and social exclusiveness has thwarted the initial impulses toward Americanization...It is difficult to see, hoWever, how thisnor- nal process can be greatly accelerated without detriment to the im- migrant and to his new country. Competent observers have remarkedj the deterioration that is evident in that immigrant who has con- temptuously stripped himself overnight of all the customs and ludrii of his old country, for in their stead he has too frequently appropri- ,* ated a shoddy, Americanism of the streets. The problem that con- fronts those who would deal intellipntly with the immigrant is how to transmute the real value that the foreigner brings with him into the new Americanism. The, common assumption that the 'for- eigner has nothing to lose and everything to gain in the transition; that he has nothing of himself, his background, his country fo give in exchange for what he receives, mlikes both him and the new cOurlity the losers. The spirit of Americans of older stock should be that so well expresSed by the Secretary of the Interior, Mr, Lane, in his opening address at the National Conference on Americanization- 3, 1918): The keynote of the conference, Our Responsibility," 120 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1910-1918. was struck ih this address. His frank recognition of the serious- nes§ of the problem, his assumption for the shoulders of the older- Americans of their great responsibility in its solution, and the sytn pathetic spirit with which he meets the immigrant. need to become the common possession of those school authorities into whose hands are to a great degree committed the solution of the great issue. To quote: - We are trying a great experiment in the United States. Can we gattlfr to- getlwr from all ends of the earth people of different races, creeds, conditions, and aspirations, who can be merged Into one? If we can not do this, we will fall. I There Is no such thing as an American race, excepting the Indian. We are fashioning a new people. We are doing the unprecedented thing in saying that Slav, Teuton, Celt, and the ()flier races that make up the civilized world are capable of being blended. ' Out of this conference should come, not a determination to make more hard the difficult way of those who do not speak or read our tongue, but a determination to deal in a catholic and sympathetic spirit 4Ith those who can be tel to follow in the way of this Nation. To this blending, then, the Slav, the Teuton, the Celt, the Anglo- Saxon, the Romance, and other races art' to contribute. That Italian boy born with the soul of an Italian poet not contribute that poetic soul to America. If in his Americanization he loses it, both he and America have lost. That Slav with his wealth of folk song and legend must contribute 't hat to America. I s only thus that there shall come to pass that great new Ameri in which shall be fused the 'first .attributes of all peoples and ces. Towa'rd the consum- mation of that end educators must devote their best efforts. ELIMINATION OF GERMAN AND THE TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES. Under the pressu of popular feeling, the teaching of German was forbidden in thousands of communities in America. The agitation in favor of its elimination was such that few school boards or su- perintendents insisted on its retention. New York eliminated all beginners' classes, thus abolishing all German in three years. Phila- delphia abolished it entirely. Many, but by no means all, of the larger cities of the country followed suit. Some whole States, such as Iowa, pelawareMontana, etc., forbade the teaching of German in all schools. C The attitude toward this question in some of the more conservative of the larger cities is illustrated by the following paragraph from the last annual report of.the Portland, Oreg., schools, L. R. Mclennan, superintendent: I have bMi asked repeatedly concerning the attitude the Portland schools will take regarding the teaching of German and French., Some have, ked If we expect to do away with the former and Increase the work in the., r. 41. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 121 Now, It Is well known that Americans are Ilidlcient in language study. Euro- peans have been stimulated to understand the tongues of their near neighbors; but separatist as we have been by great oceans, we have lived on without feel- ing tile need of mastering any language save our own. But, now collies the present stimulus. We are concerned as never before in our national life wlgi events and developments in Europe. We wish to gain 'for ourselves Om il,pe literature, art, and science of the Old World. We confidently trust that a time is near at hand when all nations will be united In a compact of enduring peace; and when such a time comes we all shall need to know the languages of other nations. The boysind girls in the high school will he the leaders of the coming age. They must be prepared to meet the rjouirements at that time. Spanish must be !earnest, French must he learned. Dermal' must he !Parnell. and learned with wore enthusiasm than ever before. -". The results on the education of tho country can not be measured as yet. One of the immediate results wine the rapid increase in the teaching of j.Spanish. The lack of properly equipped teachers of Spanish seemed to be no barrier; the Jobless teachers of German be- came 'programs were w. came teachers of Sptinih almost overnight. Cour f s were discon- tinued without notice and students' f ted about in a demoralizing fashion. High-school students preparing for-ehem- istry or other scientific professions, who had chosen German tis'an essential part of their preparation, were suddenly informed that the study of German even for such purposes was not necessary. 1 American educational authorities would do well at this time to consider the report presented (in 1918) by the committee appointed by the prime minister to inquire into the position of modern lan- guages in the educational system, of Great Britain. It was a strong committee, presided over by S #iley Leathes, a civil-service commis- sioner aml one of the editors of the Cambridge Modern History, and including several distinguished persons, such as Sir Maurice de Bun-. sen, late ambassador at Vienna; -Dr. H. A. L. Fisher, now minister of education; Ir. Walter Leaf, the well-known banker and trans- lator of Homer. The report emphasized the special treed for foreign languages for the conditions after the war and asked for increased instruction in modern languages. It placed French at the head of the list both for cultural and commercial 9tirposes, and Ger- man close behind it, and then Italian, Russian, and Spanish. It came to the conclusion that it is of essential importance to the na-. tion that the study of the German language should -be not only maintained but extended." To what extent the findings and conclu sions of the Leathes comm tee lack pertinence for American condi- tions is a question that oug to be answered by the same type of scientific investigation that prompted the research of the Leathes commission. It is obvious, however, thiat British ranking of Spanish Is too low for American conditions, in view °flour colonial and South American relation& . 'It -. 122 BIENNIAL SURVEff OF EDUCATION, 1916-1H8. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. The ra id growth of junior high schools has been one of the out- standing ucational developments of the years 1916-1918. Wher- ever a re ganization of the school system has been under contem- plation, the organization of a junior high school seems to have found favor. The reasons for its favor lay somewhat, to be sure, in the . fact that it seemed to involve no such violent change as would disor- ganize or demoralize even temporarily at least the. school organiza- tion. And that is, of course, a conunenkble feature and has surely accelerated its introduction. But its comparatively easy incorpora- tion into the present system contains dangers that must be avoided. It is patent that, in order to serve the ends that educators have pur- posed for the junior high school, it must involve a reorganization that is more than a mere numerical regrouping of tile school years; it must contain and conserve above all those provisions for the edit"- cational guidance of the individual pupil in a wide, flexible, adaptable curriculum for which it was established. It is not unlikely that' five years may see its inclusion in the majority of the schools of the country. Prof. Davis, of Ann Arbor, has investigated the junior high schools in the North Central Asso- ciation territory, 1917-18, and has found that about one-fourth < 1;2,931) of the accredited schools contained the junior high school, and that one-fourth of this fourth (72) had been organized in 1917. The year 1918, Prof, Davis asserts, will how an even greater number of new junior high schools. The growth in the North Central As- sociation has been fairly typical of the whole country. In a plea for the reorganization of the school system of Greater New York, Mr. Somers submitted the following resolution, which Was adopted by the board: That the board of superintendents be requested to appoint a special com- mittee of three associate and five district superintendents to investigate_ and .. 'report upon the desirability and advisability of organizing our schools on the basis of a six-year elementary, a'three-year intermediate, and a three-year high- school grouping. . VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. The Great War has deknonstrated as nothing else could, the national need for vocationally. trained men and women. In recog- nition of that need the Sixty-fourth Congress passed the Smith- Hughes Act, which Was signed by the President February 23, 1917: It provides for the promotion of vocational education; for coopera- tion with the States in the promotion of such education in agricul- ture and the trades and industries; for cooperation with the States in the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects; and for the a.p- . PUBLIC EHI'CATTON IN THE CITIES. 123 propriation of money and the regulation of its expenditure. The moneys set apart by Congress are granted on a graduated scale, be- ginning with $1,860,000 in 1917-18, and increasing to $7,367,000 in 1925-26, at which amount they are continued indefinitely. The amount appropriated to any State must be matched by that State, to become available. Under the impetus of the fllith-Hughts Act Vo- cational education has taken a great leap forward. The movement in support of trade schools and continuation schools has been acceler- ated. It is obvious that, with the shortage of labor and building ma- terial and tir constant readjustments in teaching force due to the war, the adeluate introduction and trying out of vocational train- ing on a nation-wide scale must wait for more normal times. In the meantime, investigation as to the best method's of arriving at the end desired can be carried on, for there are not lacking those who, ad- mitting the wisdom of the Smith-Hughes Act, are fearful lest in its administration it fail to .achieve the great and easily recognizable national benefits for which it was passed. The Carnegie Foundation, for example, has reached the conclusion that the Smith-Hughes Act is reproducing the history of the Morrill Act in involving the Fed- eral Government in great expenditures of money before a sound edu- cational policy and system of supervision have been formulated. There the idea of more voca- tional training, see the unity of the educational system threatened class education fostered by a kind of enforced predestination of trade or profession; in other words, that type of. dualism in education inaugurated that has existed in Germany and must not be incor- porated into American education, just at a time when Germany is re- yerting to an " Einheitschute " in an .attempt to correct the evils of her undemAtic class education. -It would seem that the whole mat- ter is one which wise administration can solve by a frank recognition . of the dangers involved, and by a scientific endeavor to remove these dangers. THE GARY' scripolv Vocational education after the Gary Sciool type received a set- back in New York City with the election of Mayor Hylan. Intro-. duced as a part of a political program by Mayor Mitchell, it remained always a political issue and was continually subjected to the passion of political struggle. It was one of the chief issues in the last tqayoralty campaign,' and went down to defeat with its sponsor. The new school board under the new *ministration proceeded at once to " de-Garyize " the schools, and with the election of Mr. Ettinger 0, as superintendent it is quite likely that the so-called Ettinger plan, with its prevocational opportunities for the seventh or eighth grades, 124 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. will be general?), introduced. The Ettinger plan may, of course, lead to the junior high school or at least some compromise with it. Advocates of the Gary School in New York City will always feel that the new system was not sufficiently tested, that four years' Gary- izing of only a few schools did not provide sufficient data for its summary rejection. Opponents of the Gary school, unaffected by the political aspects of the question, can retort that the introduction of such a radical departure in such a vast organization as that of the New York schools was sure to meet with insuperable difficulties. The failure of the Gary schools in New York can as yet hardly be looked upon as an indictment of the Gary School scheme except as to its applicability to all the conditions of New York. Other communities may find in it all that Gary has found in it. Whatever may be the losses that may have come to New York through its adoption and rejection, the Gary School idea has at. least served to accentuate the great import of vocational training for the whole country by the publicity that the New York experience has given it. MILITARY TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS. Even before America's entry into the war the question of military training in the schools had become a much debated issue. Some States, such as New York, had by*State legislation provided for mili- tary training in the schools of the State. The consensus of the opinion of educators opposed its introduction, and the committee on military training of the department of superintendence, presented a report against it at the annual meeting of the superintendents in 1917. The report was adopted almost. una 'nurly. The committee in its recommendations (1) asked for unive ilitary training for yottmg men 19 to 21 years of age, (2) protested against military train- ing and military drill in the elementary or secondary schools, (3) advocated thorough compulsory physical training for boys and girls, (4) favored compulsory medical inspection, (5) encouraged outdoor camp life and camp activities, (6) placed new emphasis on patriotic and civic service as a prominent feature of. an American education. WAR ACTIVITIES IN THE SCHOOLS. The availability of the schools for war purposes became apparent soon. after the declaration of war. The school children became volun- teers in Liberty Loan drives, Red Cross drives, and in activity in connection with the war in which they could partake effectively. It is not too little to say that they played a vital part in the material and spiritual organization of the country in support of the war. Nor was their activity confined to the school. year. Thous ds of boys were mobilized during the vacation months for watt' on the PUBLIC EDUCA4TION IN THE CITIES. 125 farms, and it has been due to their efforts that the farmer has been able to meet the shortage of labor and to harvest his crops. Thus in a very direct way the schools have come to the support of the Ameri- can Army in France and to the vast suffering civilian populations of the allied countries. CONCLUSION. The period in which we are living is one of rapid flux and transi- tion, and those in control of public educatibn must so recognize it. They must he ready to meet every emergency. They must be pre- pared to cope with the problem of the returned, disabled soldier. Thy must keep open-minded toward all the great problems of recon- struction and the radical readjustments they may bring with them. America's experiences in the war will certainly lead her to certain new conclusions. But it is well to be reminded that Europ*.an countries have a three years' start on the problems with which we must cope. We can learn from them. Educational journals are wisely opening their pages to detailed analyses of the changes that are taking place in the educational thought of Europe. If we are to remain abreast, we must even now be grappling with the same problems that have made for such radical revisions in the educational, policies of the warring countries. It is only thus that we can prepare for the great reconstruction. H. THE SMALLER CITIES. (With ivut than 25.000 population.) By W. S. DEFFEN BAUCH, Rpoolalift In City School eichoritsistration. c lihapter treating of progress in education for a period of one or two years must dear principally with the change in the machinery of education. It is not the purpose of this chapter to show how much better children in the small cities are being educated now than a year or two ago. The aim is to summarize changes in administrative ma- chinery observed from Correspondence with supefintendents in the smaller cities, from city school reports and other publications. Among the significant changes that may be mentioned are the en- Actment of a general education law for the cities of the State of New York, simplified school-board rules and regulations, a greater interest in'the scientific study of educational problems, salary schedules based to a certain extent upon merit, greater attention to industrial work, 126 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. . home economics, and physical training, and the use of the schools for disseminating information regarding the war. ADMINISTRATION. During the past two years, few if any changes by special charter provision have been made in the manner of electing school-board members, in the number of members, or in the relation of the school board to the city council. In fact, few of the smaller city schools are now governed in any way by special charter provision. Most of the States have enacted general education laws to include the cities of the State. The State of New York is the latest to enact such a law. In that State the school systems of file several cities. were operated and controlled under the provisions of nearly 250 separate acts en- acted from the year 1829 down to and including the year 1915. These various In s of the legislature contained 800 pages of printed matter simply o create the necessary machinery to operate the school systems of e several. cities. Many of these acts had becom3 obsolete, many conflicting provisions were found in them, and in some cases every section of the law relating to the school system of the city had been amended, in some instances a single section having been amended a dozen or more times. Many of the provisions of these laws were mandatory in instances where the statutes should give school authorities discretionary power, and the statutes relat- ing to the great. majority of these cities so limited and restricted the functions of the local school officers that they dM not have the au- thority to exercise many functions which a board of eduCation should exercise in order to maintain and operate a' school system in ac- cordance with the public sentiment of the city over which it exer- cised jurisdiction. The situation in the State of New York was the cause of many special bills being introclifeed into the legislature each year for the purpose of amending the several acts so as to give local school authorities the power to execute certain powers in .relation to the local school systems which are desired by ant people of the several cities. For illustration, one city went to the legislature to obtain authority, which it did not have under existing law, to submit to the voters of that city a proposition to expend $40,000 for the erec- tion of an elementary school building. Another city which had erected a new school building and abandoned an old one did not possess the authority to sell the abandoned school property. It was necessary to go to th? legislature to ob4in authority for that pnrpose. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 127 In order to provide better administrative machinery for the schools of the several cities of the State, the education department prepared and caused to be introduced into the legislature a bill which repealed all the special acts and substituted for the 600 pages of printed mat- ter a law which contains about 20 pages. The hill was enacted into law during the session of the legislature in 1917. The chief advantages claimed for this law are: 1. It is simple and clear and easily understood by those who must administer it. 2. It confers broa owei-s upon boards of education in the sev- eral cities of the State, so as to operate and manage their schools as the residents of the city may desire and to adjust the school or- ganization to the necessities of new and changing conditions from year to year. 3. It gives greater polt to localities than they have ever before exercised, and it elithinates many of the useless mandatory and re- strictive provisias contained in the old, complicated, and obsolete statutes. . 4. It fixes responsibility upon those who manage the schools. That the powers and duties conferred by the general education law upon city boards of education in the State of New York are broad and permit cities to expand their educational system is evi- dent-from the fact that school hoards have power to prepare an annual estimate for the following purposes: (7) The salary of the superintendent of schools. associate, district, or other superintendents, examiners. directors. supervisors, principals, teachers, lec- turers. sts,cial instructors, auditors, medical inspectors, nurses, attendance officers, cli,rks. and finitors, and the salary, fees. or compensation of all other employees appointed or employed by said hoard of education. (b) The other necessary incidental and contingent expenses, Including ordi- nary repairs to buildings and the purchase of fuel and supplies, textbooks, school apparatus, books, fu rot tore and fixtures, anol other articles and service necessary for the proper maintenance. operation, and support of the schools, libraries, and other educational, social, or recreational affairs and Interests under its management and direction. The provisions of this section in regard to the purchase of light shall not apply to a city having a poptilation of 1,000,000 or more. (e) The remodeling or enlarging of buildings under its control and manage- ment, the construction of new buildings for uses authorized by this chapter and the furnishing and equipment thereof, the purchase of real property for new sites, additions to present sites, playgrounds, or recreation 'Centers and other educational or social purposes. and to meet any other Indebtedness or liability Incurred wider the provisions of this chapter or other statutes, or any other expenses which the board.of education is authorized to incur. 128 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. SCHOOL BOARD RULES AND REGULATIONS. The rules and regulations of a school board are not often revised, but a sufficient number of school boards have taken this action within the past few years to show that the tendency is toward fewer and more definite rules. Too many regulations seriously confuse. The teacher who manages her school with the least effort usually makes few rules. School boards can learn from the.experience of teachers in this respect not to hamper the superintendent and others by mak- ing rules to cover every conceivable point. The rules and regulations adopted by the school board at East Orange, N. J., may be given as an example of the kind that moo progreSsive school boards are adopting. These rules are in accord- ance with two interesting principles of school adminstrntion: (1) Legislative action by the school board as a whole; (2) centralization of executive authority in the superintendent. Article II of the rules and regulations of thittility, which treats of the organization of the school system, and Article III, relating to the duties of the executive officer, are quoted as a type of the kind of rules that school boards in the smaller cities could well adopt : ARTICLE II. OROANIZATIqN OF THE SCHOOL DYRTEAL SecrioN 1. Departments and Their Functions. There shall be three depart- ments, to be known as the Department of Instruction, the Department of Records and Finance, and the Department of Buildings and Grounds. . Instruction. The department of instruction shollicomprise all the activities that directly affect the welfare of the pupils, such as teaching, discipline, at- tendance, and medical inspection. The superintendent of schools shall have charge of this department. The department of records and finance shall comprise the more strictly busi- ness activities of the board, such as keeping records, the tanking of contracts, purchases, and the custody and expenditure of funds. The secretary of the board shall have charge of this department. Buildings and Grounda. The department of buildings and grounds shall be responsible for the physical upkeep of theschool property, including repairs. renovation, and new construction. The supervisor of buildings and grounds shall have charge of this department. ARTICLE III. EXECUTIVE OFFICE:RN AND DUTIES. SECTION 1. Superintendent of Schools. The superintendent of schools shall. under the direction of the board of education, and In accordance with its rules and regulations, brave the general management of the school system. Duties. He shall, unless excused by the hoard, attend all regular and special meetings of the board ttf education, and of committees, and shall have a right to speak, but not to vote. PUBLIC EDUCATION TX THE CITIES. 129 All communications to the board from principals, supervi ,rs, teachers, or other employees shall be submitted through the superintend, t of schools. Communications from teachers shall also be first submitted to the r respective principals. All such communications shall he referred to the board the next regular meeting by the superintendent with or without reconnuendati ,ns. But nothing this paragraph shall be construed as denying the right to appeal to the board of any member of the school system. The superintendent shall recommend tee the board for appointment principals, supervisors, teachers, and others to be engaged In the work of instruction or discipline, also school doctors, nurses, and attendance officers. With the advice of the supervisor of buildimm and grounds. he shall also recommend for ap- pointment engineers. Janitors, -mKlinics. and other assistants. In the same manner he may recommend the removal of any employees whose services are no longer required. All recommendittlems provided for in this section shall be made in writing, excepting in the case of substitutes for temporary'periods. where no action by the board is necessary. The superintendent shall ussigu principals, teachers,. and others employed In the department of Instruction to their (Mikes, and make necessary transfers, reporting such action to the board at the next regular meeting. Ile shall, with the cooperation of principals and supervisors, plan courses of study, time schedules, etc., for all departments, and supervise their operation: but be shall subunit to the hoard for Its approval any Important changes which call for a radical departure from accepted policies, or which require increased expenditure of money. With the cooperation of principals and supervisors, the Aperintenderit shall recommend altproprinte text and reference hooks. ache. supplies, apparatus, and furniture for the use of the schools, and shall submit such recommenda- tions to the hoard for Its approval. He shall prepare the annunl budget before April 1 and submit It to the board at the next regular meeting. He shall submit a report to the board in writing at least once a month, with recommendations for action. This report shall be mailed to each member of the hoard at least 48 Boors before the board meeting, and any further particu- lars may be submitted in writing at the meeting. He shall prepare a general report on the condition of the public schools at the close of the school year. He shall prepare and submit to the board any special reports which may be required. He shall attend to all other necessary details of administration, and shall faithfully perform such other duties as may he required of him by the board of education or the laws of the State of New Jersey. Huron, S. Dak., and Mansfield, Mass.,'may be given as examples of other cities that have simplified itt administrative machinery of their school systems. The following chart shows the plan of the ogantzation of the school system of Huron: 171020 °-21Bud. 88 9 a, /N. 130 DIENNIAL SUBVEY OF EDUCATION, 1915-1018. THE PUBLIC IBOARD OF EDUCATION CLERK SUPERINTarGENT . . SECRETARY PRINCIPALS ENGINEERS JANITORS SUPERVISORS TEACHERS PUPILS. HURON PLAN' OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION By this plan the board of education legislates, the spperintendent executes, the board acts as a whole without standing committees. The board of education holds the superintendent responsible for an efficient execution of its orders. This reponsibility is distributed by the superintendent to all members of his staff, the principals hav- ing the responsibility of the first degree next to 'the superintendent. Within his or her particular field of activity, the: superintendent holds each of his staff responsible for effective results, the only way by which to secure them. With the delegation of responsibility, there must go commensurate authority. Tge superintendent must uphold the. authority of each member of his staff within his or her field of responsibility. Pupils are, amenable to the manageMent of their teachers and of special supervisors, and at times to that of janitors and engineers. The teachers work under their principals and cooperate with the janitors. The principals, janitors, and supervisots cooperate directly with the superintendent, who is the means of communication betw,een all mem= ben of his staff and the board of education. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE 131 The school board at. Mansfield, Mptss., may also be mentioned as;_ having simplified the organization of its school system. The super- intendent has been made secretary of the school board, thus centering the executive work under one head. This makes the superinten- dent responsible for the bookkeeping, purchasing, correspondence, records, and other clerical matters. as well as for the admitistration and supervision of instruction. The making of yhe soperintendent the secretary of the school board in a small city should always carry with it sufficieht clerical assistance to relieve hint of detail'. The organization of the school system at Mansfield in relation to the community may be pictured as follows: Supervisors LJanitors People Committee Supt. Clerk Principals Att. Officer Teachers Pupils Parents rt It will be noted that(1) the board is responsible to the town for the control of the schools; (2) the superintendent is responsible to the hoard for the expert management of the schools; (3) the prin- cipals are responsible to the superintendent for buildings, teachers, pupils, and janitors; (4) teachers and janitors are responsible to the superintendent and principal. In the three cities just cited as examples of those that have re- organized the administrative machinery of their schools all stand- ing committees have been abolished. School boards as a rule are, reducing the number of sucii. committees or discontinuing them al- together. The plan of having many committees originated with many school boards when they were.larger than they now are. As a rule the larger boards have more committees than the small boards, Doctor Nurse 132 BIENNIAL SURVEY or EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Though the size of school boards has been reduced by legal enact- ment this evil of many standing committees; characteristic of the large board, persists in not a few cities. These have hung on as a soli, of vermiform appendix, having no useful function and often causing internal trouble. In not a few of the smaller cities there are still as many standing committees as tbere are board members, it not being uncommon for each member to hold a chairmanship, which is about the only excuse for the existence of many of the committees, since there is nothing in particular for them to do. In the absence of a genuine need, too frequently they take upon them- selves duties flint belong to the professional experts employed by the school board: On the other hand, if the board acts as a whole, responsibility can be placed on each member and not on an elusive committee; all business, not part of it, is considered by the entire board and all members must he intimately familiar with every phase of it. Such an arrangement insures better correlations and more har- monious expenditures, expedites business, and avoids the shifting of responsibility. 'One argument sometimes advanced in favor of com- mittees is that they can inet:t and go over the work assigned them without having it discussed openly in board meeting. The argument that school business should be transacted through committees so as rot to attract the attention of the public is not valid in a democracy. The school board represents the people who should be kept informed of the disposition of all school matters that affect the general pub- lic. There are times, it is true, when it is necessary for the school board or a special committee to discuss in' private matters in which only individuals are interested. The school boards that have re- duced the number of their standing committees, or, better, that have abolished them, have without doubt taken a step forward in the efficient administration of their schools. THE SUPERINTENDENT. School board rules and State legislation have gradually recognized the importance of the office of city superintendent of schools. The qualifications for the office have been raised and more power granted the supeiintendent. For example, ate-recently enacted general edu- cation law of the State of New York takes cognizanct of the city superintendent, setting forth the qualifications for a city supdrin- tendent in that State and his powers'and duties. A provision of the law is that in all cities except in those of the first class a superin- tendent shall serve at the pleasure of the board. This is an unusual' provision. The argument for such provision is that if 'a superin- tendent is to be the executive officer of the school board, he should be requested to resign at any time he can not or does not carry out the PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 133 plans of the board, and that. it means a longer tenure for the majority of superintendents. When superintendents are elected for a term of two or three yeak.s and are required to come up for reelection, a111 the enemies he has made concentrate their forces upon the school board. The expiration of a superintendent's term is a signal for them,to act. If he serves at the pleasure of the board, there is no 4 one time when opposition is invited. The standard fcir the office of city superintendent is placed by the recently enacted general education law of the State of filed' York on a higher basis than in most other States. Ile must be 1. A graduate of a college or university approved by the University of the State of New York, and have had at least five years successful cxrieriencesin the teaching or in the supervision of public schools since graduation; or 2. A holder of a superintendent's certificate Issued by the commissioner of education under regulations prescribed by the regents of the University of the State of New York, and have hail at leapt 10 years successful experience In teaching, or in public-school administration, or equivalent educational experience approved by the commissioner of education. The superintendent of city schools in the State of New York shall possess, subject to the by-iaws of the board of education, the follow- ing powers and be itarged with the following duties: 1. To enforce all provisions of law and all rules and regulations relating to the management of the schools and other educational. social, and' recreational activities under 'the direction of the board of education, to be the chief ex- ecutive ()Meer of such board and txhicatioual system, and to have a sent in the board of education and the right to speak in all mutters before the board, but not to vote. 2. To prepare the content of each course of study authorized by the board of education. 3. To recommend suitable lists of textbooks to be used in the schools, 4. To have supervision and direction of associate, district, and other super- intendents, directors, supervisors, principals, teachers, lecturers, medical in- spectors, nurses, auditors, attendance officers, janitors, and other persons em- ployed in the management of the schools or the other educational activities of the city, under the direction and management of the board of education, to transfer teachers from one school, or from one grade of the course of study to another grade, and to report immediately such transfers to the, board for its consideration and action; to report to the board of education violations of regulations and cases of insubordination, and to suspend an); employee until the'next regular meeting of the hoard, when all the flits relating to the case shall be submitted to the board for its consideration and action. 5. To have supervision and direction over the enforCement and observance of courses of study, the examination and promotion of pupils, and over all other matters pertaining to playgrounds, medical inspection, recreation, and social center work, libraries, lectures, and all other educational activities and Interests under the management, direction, and- control of the board of education. 6. To issue such licenses to teachers, principals, directors, and other members . of the teaching and supervisory staff as may be required by .the board of edu.:*. 134 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19l8. cation In cities /In which the board requires its teachers to hold qualifications In addition to or io advance of the minimum qualifications prescribed by law. Whether or not the powers and duties of city superintendents should be definitely defined by general State law is still a question. The school law should, however, define the more important duties of the superintendent, as does the general education law of the State of New York. In those States where the school law does not define the poifiers and duties of the city superintendent of schools, school' boats have within the past few years accorded him many of the prerogatives that belong to an executive officer. They have made the office a more dignified one, calling for men with eliecutive as well as with teaching ability. For this reason a new type of superintendent is coining to the front. Instead of the mere pedagogue, out of touch with the world, there is the practical, scientific administrator who is able to show what the schools are accomplishing. Ile can show the public how the school funds have been expended. Ile has developed school accounting so as to indicate with definiteness the purpose for which all money is spent in terms of the particular service secured, and also with respect to the particular division, school, or subject taught. Not until within the fest few years did school boards, or, indeed, any individual in the smaller cities, know how school funds were expended. Money was appropriated on a "hit-or-miss" plan. The high-school expenses might. be costing four or five times as much per pupil as the ele- mentary grades. The cost of heating 1,000 cubic feet in one building might be several times as much as for another building. Latin might be costing 25 cents per pupil recitation and other subjects only 5 or 6 cents. No one knew: There was no attempt made to find out where every cent of the funds went. There was no attempt at de- tailed budget making. Now all piegressive school boards and super- intendents can trace every dollar from the time it leaves the taxpayer until it is expended for the object intended, It is true that in the smaller cities the number of such boards having this information is not large; but it is becoming larger each year. - The new type of superintendent has also learned to show more definitely what children have achieved. He is using more exact measurements, especially for the formal subjects. His annual re ports have been much improved, ociug no longer abstract treatises or amass of uninterpreted facts. The frankness with which many of the superintendents in the smaller cities set forth conditiobs is an indication for the better that has come about in the administration of the small city school. For instance, the whole situation regarding the progress of pupils through the grades, tlitschook attendance, and achievement of pupils measured by well-know standards are pre- sented, and recommendations made on the basis of fact. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 135 THE SURVEY IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. In this connection mention should be made of the improvement of school administration it: the' small city through the influence of the school survey. Though the immediate results where surveys have been made have not always been all that could be desired,they have, on the whole, been helpful to school administrators. they have at least. shown a method of attacking educational problems and they have aroused greater interest in school administration, especially in the approach from the fact side. Among the small city schools that have been surveyed during the past two years are Brookline. Mass.. Elyria, Ohio, Janesville, Wis.. Winston-Salem, N. C., and all the cities of Arizona and South Da- kota in connection with State-wide surveys.' Besides the general surveys, there have been surveys of specific phases of school work. At Fort Dodge, Iowa, a survey was made to discover the chief reasons why so many boys leave the schools Of the city before completing the course; in what grades the greatest number of boys drop out; what they do after leaving school ; what their earn- ing capacity is; and what. readjustments should be made in the courses of study to make them meet the needs of the boys of the community. At Virginia, Minn., a stilly was undertaken to determine what is required of boys and girls who seek employment after leaving school. The survey covered not only the trades, such as machinists, plumbers, etc., hut. all work -which requires the employment of men and women, boys and girN The information for the survey was collected from three sources: (11 Industrial surveys pade in various parts of the country; -(2) reports and expenses of institutions, botlkprivate and public,.working along the dines of industrial,educatioA; and (3) a survey of the local industries. As a result of the survey the school board adopted the plan of giving students in the junior high school general work in the various departments of vocational training, work which would be Practically the same as that offered under the head of manual training. During this period every effort. is to be made to assist the students who are followiwg vocational work to decide which of the courses offered they are best fitted tOollow. The senior high school is to be used as the time to wecialize in this course or trade, so' that at the end of the high-school course the graduate will' have had four years of work in the trade which he has selected 4k) follow. It. is not the ex- pectation of the school board in adopting this plan that lifter four years of work in the senior high schocillthe graduate will be a Anished I For a dtacusskinof the reports of these swear, see the chapter on educational sue, ye s, replinted as Bulletin, 1918, No. 45, .1.36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. 401' - tradesman but that he will simply have made a very good start toward the mastery of his trade. The survey committee recinnniended: That the work in the indus- trial department, both for boys and girls, be made practical; that it be suited to the needs of the industries in the community ; that a certain amount of commercial work be brought into the shops; and that experienced men be employed from the industries to teach shop- work. The committee was of the opinion that, while the greater part of the instructors' should be experienced .workers, it must not lose sight of the fact that teaching others is a profession, and that a few trained teachers should be employed to systematize at least the . elementary work of the student and give a ounded educa- tion. , ' The survey, according to the report of the committee, developed the fact very clearly that something has been lacking in the school system. The employers Of labor, upon first approach, were skeptical about what the school could do to better conditions in the industries and to train boys to take their places in the industries. They seemed to question the possibility that work of this practical character could be introruced into the schools, but After the committee explained that experienced workers would be employed as instructors and that the employers would be called upon to visit, criticize the work, and give suggestions, they all agreed tit& the committee was upon the right track, and that this matter should have been considered and put into effect long ago. The fact was also brought out that the students in the community lacked the quality of stick-to-it-ive-ness, and 'that they overestimated, the value and ability of themselves. The employers suggested that it was high time that the school and the community cooperate in bringing about a bettei spirit toward the work. The survey committee continued itsreport by makink recom- mendations regarding the work to be done in the schools in respect to the industries of the community. As a result of the surveys made by persons not connected with the schools suryeyed, more superintendents are surveying theiK.own schoOls. If the outside survey has accomplished' nothing more than to cause school men to study their own schools, it has been worth while. Whether surveys by persons outside the school system will -1-continue is a' question. One thing is certainthere will be more self-surveys. Superintendents surveying their own schools may call in some one as consulting specialist'to help them .interpret the facts. The better type of school report that ROM superintendgits are preparing -is evidence that' they"are analyzing conditions more care- fully than before, and that in effect ,they are surveying their own Pl'BLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 137 schools. There is no reason why a superintendent can not make. an exhaustive study of hisachool system, especially if he has had col- lege courses in school administration and management. He is c... the ground all The time and should know conditions better than any one else. The statistical data that the surveyor collects often after much labor should be in the superintendent's office at all, times. It should not be necessary for an outside surveyor to spend a week or more collecting data regarding school attendance, progress of pupils ft throug14 the grades, education and experience of teachers. etc. These should be on file. A superintendent cap measure the achievement of pupils by Means of standard tests as well as any one else. He has Recess to the scones made by pupils in other citiesand can easily make comparisons and draw conclusions. In the matter of finance he can show unit costs and make interesting compAisons just as ef- fectively as can any one brought in from outside the school system. Among the late school reports that may be classed as instructive self-surveys are those of Southington, Conn.; Huron, S. D.ak.; Globe, Ariz.; Anderson, Ind.; Bristol, Va.; Lawrence, Kans.; and Kane, Pa. The 1916-17 report of the schools at Huron, S. Dak., discusses organization and adrninistration, physical environment, teaching force, pupil accquptink, quality of instruction, pupil achievement, schools costs. The report contains 35 statistical tables and 39 charts to illustrate relation of attendapce to enrollment, preparation of teachers, grade distribution, etc. The superintendent of schools at Lawrence, Kans., in his report for 1916-17, asks and answers 90 questions regarding the schools of that city. Among the questions asked and answered are: In what proportion does Lawrence appoillon school money nntong the several expense items? What do these figures show? What probable future demand will these several Items make upon Lawrence? What changes will this necess ate In the Lawrence budget? How does the high cost of DO g affect the schools? How many children tailed of romotion? Hpw many'ehlitiren skipped n grade? t In what subjects do children n ke the most failures? ks Lawrence peculiar in this, t? hat do we know of failures f all the children? What is the retardation in each building? Have we any basis of comport n in ,;tee matter? What does the comparison mho% ? What has been done to improve \th*.situation? ThE report thus continues t' answer questions thit any searching investigator would ask, and idi the school patron would wish to know. , lifENNIAI, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19IQ. 2. SALARIES AND PROMOTIONS OF TEACHERS. Until within the past two years the educational and ofessional standards for teachers had been raised slowly until most of the smaller cities required applicants for teaching positions to be high- school graduates with an additional year or two of professional training, or in lieu of such training a year or two of successful experience. In not a few cities the standard has been dicacult to maintain, owing to the fact that many teachers have recently`` left The profession to accept more lucrative positions with the National Gov- ernment or with private corporations. In many, of the schools in smaller cities it is not unusual for a teacher to receive a salary of less than 000 a year. Since positions elsewhere, paying $1,000 or $1,200 a year, ere easily obtained, the teaching corps in many of the smaller cities has been almost depleted of its experienced teachers. As a re- sult those less experienced and less well prepared have to be em- ployed. Many married women who taught school 10 or 15 years ago have returned to the classroom. The plan of enploying married women who have taught school is to be preferred to that of em- ploying girls just out of -high school,-from the face that the married women, though they may not have completed a high or normal school course, have a broader view of life and know children much more intimately. In order that those who formerly taught and who are again taking up teaching may know something of recent develop- ments in educational methods, a sUperintendent should hold runner- ails conferences to assist these teachers in gaining the newer point of view in educational method's. As many us possible should be,in- duced to attend summer schools for teacher§: If school boards had increased salaries in proportion to the in- . crease in living expense, there would in all probability not now be such a shortage of teachers. Some, however, would have left the pro- fession, thinking that they could render better service for their coun- try in other lines of work. In order to keep the schools running some school boards have given teachersbonuses of front po to $100 a year. Others have granted salary increases ranging from 5 to 35 per cent, the usual increase be- ing only 10 per cent. Salaries 'in other professions or occupations have increased much more. Although the cost of living has more than trebled, teachers' salaries have remained almost stationary. The schools in many of the smaller cities can not help but suffer because teachers resign to accept more lucrative positions. Resignations hf teachers were all too comnion before the war, few teachers remaining in a city more than five ykrs., Conditions have beetrgoing from bad to worse. There is but one way to check this general movement away from the professionsalaries commensurate with the preparation re- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE. CITIES. 139 quired and with the-exacting demands made neon a teacher's time must be paid. The increase in salary should be at least 40 per cent over the salary paid two years ago. Increases of 5 and 10 per cent have little or no effect in holding teachers who have been offered posi- tioris_at twice their present salary. In determining a salary schedule the following principles should be recognized: 1. The teacher at the very least should receive a living wage. This should include enough to allow her to improve herself professionally and to save something each year in anticipation of the time when she inust retire from active schoolroom service. 2. The maximum salary should be sufficient tb retain the service of the most desirable teachers. 3. In the administration of a salary schedule, superior work should be recognized. lit many of the school systems where merit is a factor in the pro- motion of teachers, superintendents have devised various plans for grading teachers. Of 780 superintendents reporti 15 have formulated schemes for grading teachers. Whethe h rating plans can be carried out successfully is a question, especially if the rating scheme is a detailed one. If a teacher is to be promoted upon merit, she should know what standards the superintendent has in mind, so that she may attempt to attain them. It is not possible to give examples of all the many standards in use, but a few are pre- sented to show what superintendents and others are attempting to do to develop subjective standards for the testing of teachers. In some of the schemes which enumerate qualities or elements of. good instruction the idea is that'the qualities enumerated may serve as a basis for self-criticism and self-imprcivenient on the part of the teacher. For instance, the superintendent of schools at Kalispell, Mont., who has prepared a teacher - rating plan, wisely say's: With these standards as a suggestion, teachers need not watt to have weak- nesses pointed out to them. Let no one understand that instruction and teaching lrbtllty will be judged solely or chiefly oh the basis of the factors enumerated... The best part of the teaching process is what has been called "unconscious tuition." The habits the teacher is instilling, the taste she is cultivating, and the appeals she is making to the feeling and the volition of the child are more important than any of these elements. We are more concerned with what the childro do than with what the child knows. The following test is to be used by the teachers themselves to see that they are not overlooking some of the elements of success: I. Reintita. (a) DeveloPment of pupils. (b) Otowth In Anbject matter. (c) Attention. (d) Responsiveness of clam.' It Technique in lenchinp. . (n)' Organisation of subject mat- ter. . (b) Choice of subject matter. (o) Skill in teaching how to study. 140 BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. It. Technique hi teaching--Contd. (d) Skill in stimulating thought. (c) Definiteness and clearness of aim. (f) Sk ISI and care IT, assignment. III. School management. (a) General care of room, black- s boards, window *tides, waste baskets, floors, etc. (b) Ventilation. (c) Cure of wraps and wardrobes. (d) Care of books and supplies. (e) Care of desks (teacher's and pupils'). IV. Professional equipment. (a) Understanding children. (b) Use of English. (c) Interest in the work. (4) Manner of reacting on sug- gestions. (a) Manner of receiving criticisms. IV. Professional equipment--CAnktd. (I) Loyalty to other teachers and school authorities. (g) Manner of keeping records. (h ) Times tardy during the year. (I) Days absent during the year. V. Personal equipment. (a) Health. (b) Voice. (c) Tact. (d) Sympathy. (c) Evenness of temper. (f) Dignity. (g) Personal neatness (dress, etc.). (h) Cheerfulness. (i) Orderliness. (j) Winsomeness: appeal to chil- dren. () Posture. To receive promotion in the kalispell schools beyond $960 a year a teacher must show-marked success. All advancement. in salary is upon the recommendation of the superintendent, confirmed by the board of education, which recommendation isconditional on ability to teach, professional spirit, attitude toward the school and the children, spirit of .growth, and desire to excel. At Marblehead, Mass., the teachers are classified by the super- visors and superintendent into fives groups, onthe basis of the quality of service they heve rendered : 1. Those whose work is of so poor a quality that they should be dismissed from the service. 5t New teachers whose work has been unsatisfactory, but who show suffi- cient promise of growth and improvement to justify further trial. 8. Thoie who show litle, if any, improvement over the work of pre- vious years. 4. Those who are strong teachers and do uniformly good work ; who measure up well in all departments and show im- provement from year to year. 5. Exceptional teachers whose work is superior; who possess unusual skill in teaching and show a large nuSasure of initiative; resourcefulness, and power in stimulating pupils to achieve the most worth-while of the results that the school seeks to accomplish. The school board of Ann Arbor, Mich., has prepareda salary schedide to supplement the regular one. After attaining the maxi- mum salary allowed by the schedule, each teacher's. %%Airy is to be final for triennial periods. An increase of $100 above the maximum may be received the second. triennial period by meeting, during the first period, the requirements of any one of tll.following plans: PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 141 PLAN I. (a) Attendance on at least one annuui sessiou of sonic national educational organizttion meeting outside of Michigan. (b) Attendance on at least one annual session of the Michigan State Teach- es' Association meeting outside of Ann Arbor. (c) Subscription for and reading of two educatiopal periodicals, one of which shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by the teacher. (d) linking reports on the nevtings attended and the periodicals read as may be required by the executive committee and the superintendent of schools. PLAN II. a) Gaining eight hours' credit for regular work in any university, college, or normal school, half of which shall not be In "subjects or grades regularly taught by the teacher. (1) Subscription for and reading of two educational periodicals, one of w filch shall not be devoted especially to the 'subject or grade taught by the teacher, and making reports thereon. PLAN III. (a) Spending two months in foreign travel and reporting as may be required by the executive committee and the superintendent of schools. bl Subscription for and rending of two educational periodicals. one of which shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by the teacher, anti making reports thereon. PLAN IV. (a) linintnining during the period a definite line of study that. In the judg- ment of the executive committee and the superintendent of. schools, is equiva- lent to eight hours of university, college, or normal school work. (b) Subscription for and reading of two educational periodicals, one of which shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by .the teacher, and making reports thereon. Any teacher who has gained the first Increase of $100 may for the ensuing period gain an increlise of $100 more by meeting the requirements of one of the foregoing plans other than the one by which the first increase was gained; but only two such increases shall be possible. Failure to meet the requirements of some one of these plans during a trien- nial period will 'cause the loss of $100 per year in salary if an increase has already been gained. Each applicant for increase beyond the maximum of the schedule must notify the superintendent of schools in writing, at the beginning of the school year, of the Intention to seek an increase and state which of the plans bas been chosen. In the inauguration of this plan, any teacher who has taught three years or more at the maximum salary and has, during the past three years, met the re- quir,emente of any one of these plans, except as to reports, may receive the first In: crease during the current year, and any teacher who has taught two years or more may receive the first increase for the year after that In which the require- ments of any one of the preceding plans have been met, 142 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. The following efficiency record, prepared by the department of education of the University of Chicago, is in use in some of the schools reporting the.use of subjective standards: EFFICIE NC Y ECO It DETAILED RATING a 1. General appearance 2. Health 3. Voice 4. Intellectual capacity. V. P. 5. Initiative and self-reliance .. . ..... i . , 6. Adaptability and resourcefulness I. Pereonal equip- 7. Accuracy most- 8. Industry 9. Enthusiasm and optimism... . ...... ... 10. Integrity and sincerity 11. Self-oontrol 12. ProMptness 13. Tact 14. Sense giustice 18. Acade c preparation 16. Professional preparation 17. Grasp of sublet% matter Vt. Understanding of children 19. Interest in the life of the school... .. II. social and 20. Interest in the life of the com- munity fes nut t_ 21. Ability to meet and Interest pa- e9 trons 22. Interest in lives of pupils 23. Cooperation and loyalty 24. Professional Interest and growth.. 25. Ditily_preparation 26. Use of English 27. Careoflight,heat,and ventilation III. School manage- 28. Neatness of merle- 29. Care of routine .... ' ...... . 30. Nel9ciliniPtelinnems(g°anedriliclearn"skeisarnofatm., ...... 32. Skill in habit formation 33. Skill in stimulating thought 34. I:Willits teaching how to study.... .... 11/* Thal,ynkl.,,,.._w of 35. Skillin questioning 42. Growtholpuplis in subject matter Poit. 1 SI E011:11. I GOOD. I I: \. I, V. Renal- mINNPm. eiMM 1 GENERAL RATING 11 - Recorded by Position Pate EXPLANATION OF TERMS. I. Personal equipment Includes physical. mental, and moral qualities. 1. General appearance--physique, carriage, dress, and personal neatness. 3. Voice-pitch, quality, dearness of schoolroom voice. 4. Intellectual capadly--native mental ability. 5. Initiative and air- reliance- Independence In originating and carrying out Ideas. 7. Accuracy-In statements; records, reports, trid school work. 10. Integrity and elneerity-soundness of moral prindples and genuineness of character.. 13. Tact - adroitness. address, quick appreciation of the proper thing to do or say. 14, Sense or Justice-fairmindedneas, ability to give all a " square deal." PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 143 II. Social and professional (guipment Includes qualities making the teacher better able to deal with social situations and particularly the school situation. 15. Academic preparationschool work other than professional. Adequacy for present work. 10. Professional preparationsped:it training 'or teaching. Adequacy for pres- ent work. 17. Grasp of subject mailercommand of the Information to be taught or the skill to be developed. 18. UnderstandONY of chddrciein dght Into child nature; sympathetic, scientific, and practical. 22. Interest in lives of pupilsdesire to know and help pupils personally, outside of school subjects. 23. Cooperation and loyaltyuttitude townol colleagues tool superior officers. 24. Professional interest and growfh--effort to keep up to date and Improve. 26. Use of English vocabulary. gummier, ease of expression. III. School munagement Include, inehntlicsil and routine factors. 29. Care of routine--savIng time and emrgy by reducing frequently recurring details to mechanical organization. 30. Discipline' (governing skill)character of order- maintained and skill shown In maintaining it. IV. Technique nl teaching includes skill in actual teaching and In the conduct of the recitation. 31. Definiteness and clearness of aim -of each lesson and of the work as a whole. 32. Skill in haiot formation- -skill In establishing specific, automatic responses quickly and prmuneutly ; drill. 33. Skill in stimulating thought--gleing opportunity for and direction in re- flective thinking. 34. Skill in tenchioo how to studyestablishing economical and efliclent halts of study. 35. Skill in que4 fin, Charnetrr and distrilmtidn of questions; replies elicited: 30. Choice of subject mutterrskill with which the teacher selects the material of instruction to suit the interests, abilities. and needs of the class. 37. Organization of 'Subject matter the lesson plan and the system in which the subject matter Is presented. 30. skill in motiratinu work arousing interest and giving pupils proper in- centives for work. 40. Attention to individual needs teacher's care for individual differences, peculiarities, and difilculties. V. Rcntilts Include evidence of the success of the above conditions and skill. 41. Attention and response of the classextent to which all of the class am Interested In the essential ttart of the lesson and respond to the demands made on them. 42: oenwth of pupils in subject mattershown by pupils' ability to do work of advanced class and to meet more successfully whatever tests arc made of their school work. 43. Oenerol development of pupilsIncrease In pupils' ability and power along lines other than those of subject matter. 44. Stimulation of communityeffect on life of the community, tending to im- prove or stimulate its various artivities. 45. Moroi influenceextent to which the teacher raises the moral tone of the pupils or of the school. Since school superintendents in the State of Indiana are required by law to issue over their own signature and deliver to the teachers under their supervision each year a statement of the success of each teacher, and such success grade shall be the teacher's legal success grade from one yetu; from date Of issuance, superintendents in that State use the rating system provided by the State law or a modifiea- a 144 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-191s. tion of it. The following schedule of success items is in use at Elkhart:- SCHEDULE OP SUCCESS ITEMS. I. Teaching Ability A. Professional attainment' (20%) 1. Scholastic preparation. 2. Professional training. B. The recitation (15%) 1. Preparation of teacher and pupils. 2. Appropriateness of subject 'natter. 3. Detiniteness of aim and purpose. 4. Skill In questioning. 5. Progression in plan. 6. Care In assignments of lessons. 7. Balancing of lines of work C. Results In scholarship of pupils (20%) 1. Acquisition of facts and relations. 2. Accuracy. 3. General information. 4. Awakening of scholarly interests. 5. Clearness and elegance of expression. II. Governing and Disciplinary Ability_ A. Moral and social influence on pupils and community (10%) Ability to develop in the pupils the altru- trtlistic virtuesrecognition of law and social rights. B. Ability to develop egoistic virtuesindustry, honesty, reliability, fidelity, etc (10%) C. Personality'and appearance of teacher__ ._ (10%) Perms* and moral worth and influence, b habit., disposition, health, attire, sym- pathy, energy, manliness or womanli- ness, bakesty, etc. III. Professional and Community Interest A. Cooperation with other teachers and with with supervisors (5%) B. Interest in alms and plans of school com- munity_ (5%.) I. Care of school property a. Protection of suppilea and furniture. b. Neatness. c. School decoration. 2. Building up of strong school sentiment in the community. . 8. Educational, literary, or social club work. C. Professional pursuits I...Present lines of professional study. 2. Reading of educational literature. 8. Attendance upon summer schools, Wet.' tutee, and associations, . Total (5%) 55% .30% 15% PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 145 The following is a schedule of success items provided by the super- intendent of pliblic instruction of Indiana according to the school law of that State: Percent. A. Teaching 'power 45 Many items enter Into this, but the principal ones are training of teacher, preparation of lessons, skill In presentation, resujta obtained. B. Government__, 35 The teacher's power in government is shown in the general spirit of the school and In the attitude of the pupils toward their daily tasks, toward each other, and toward school property. C. General characteristics 20 Under this head the personality of the teacher, his community interests, and all those qualities that make for the best citizenship are .con- sidered. Salary schedules prepar& by teachers.Some superintendents, in conjunction with their teachers, have prepared salary schedules based upon merit: Such a schedule was prepared by a committee of teach- ers and the superintendent of schools of Columbus, Miss. Teachers are divided into tfe fdtlowing classes: Class A Superior. A tet,m1,sr whose work is exceptional. A teacher possessing unusual skill, resourcefulness, and power to stimulate pupils to achieve the hest results the school seeks to accomplish. Class BGood. A teacher whose work is satisfactory and Improving from year to year. A strong teacher. Class CFair. A teacher showing little Improvement from year to year. A teacher who has practically ceased to grow and whotie service is \ doubtful, whose work Is uneven and inconsistent. Work strong in some things and weak In others. Class DUnsatisfactory. A new teacher whose work is unsatisfactory but who gives promise of improvement and growth. CH& EInexperienced. A teacher who is entering the profession, or one whose experience is insignificant and unworthy of recognition. Class.FPoor. A teacher whose service is poor and should be dismissed. All teachers are classified by their principal in the following items: 1. Peraftal qualiflcations.Health, voice, appearance, enthusiasm, etc. 2. Professional ahilify.Knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of children, - daily preparation, etc! 3. school management.Discipline, system, attention to routine, etc.' 4. Teaching skill.School spirit of pupils and teacher, skill in conducting recitation, character of work of pupil, eta 5. Results.Knowledge gained, power to use knowledge, etc. The school board of Evanston, Ill., made a decided departure from the usual method of formulating salary schedules when itsuggested to the teachers that they appoint a committee of their own number' to discuss, formulate, and recommend changes which, in their opinion should be made in the salary schedule of the teachers of that 171029°=21-13u11. 88-10 146 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-018. city Acting on this suggestion the teachers in each building and the prificipals as a group selected one of their number to represent them on the committee. This resulted in a committee of nine,_which held a number of conferences to discuss the various phases of the salary schedule. After every conference the arguments presented and the conclusions reached were reported by each member to the teachers they represented. Tile school board after making a few minor changes adopted the recommendations of the committee of teachers. The committee recommended that a salary schedule should be haled upon the following principles: 1. The salary of a teacher at the very least should be enough to provide a living wage. It should enable a teacher to do the reading and pursue such studies as are necessary to keep her in touch with the progressive movements In education in this and other countries. In addition it should permit her to save something each year to provide for the time when 'she must of necessity retire from active schoolroom service. 2. The maximum salary should be sufficient to retain the services of the most desirable teachers, as, well us to induce teachers of highest quality to seek positions in the Evanston schools. It is sate to say that this community de- mands and is willing to pay for the best possible instruction and training for Its children. 3. The administration of a salary schedule should result in stimulating teachers in the service to develop to the highest degree whatever teaching power they possess. Superior work should be recognized and rewarded. Teachers should he classified according to the quality, of service rendered and not alone on the basis of their years of service. 4. The basis for classifying teachers as to their teaching efficiency should be systematized, rationalized, and controlled. There should be something definite to show upon what the judgment Is based; evidence should he avail- able to support the final rating. The factors on which a tenclier is judged should be carefully selected so as to include the really vital elements. - The terms used should he so clearly defined that the teacher will not be in doubt as to what is expected of her. It is of the highest importance that the Items listed be understood by those who use them. Confusion and misunderstanding are inevitable it the supervisor rating and the teacher rating have,a different interpretation of their meaning. The rating schedule should enable a teacher to analyze her own work, to disCover her own strength and weakness, and to tint out how best to remedy the defects In her teaching. G. Salary increases should be based on the quality of service rendered as alumni by the rating of the teacher's efficiency. In teaching as in other lines a "wage should be a gauge "more pay should mean larger or finer service. Mediocre service should not be rewarded by increase in salary, lest all service, including the best, shall suffer from withdrawal of efficiency rewards. In- creases of salary should he conditioned upon demonstrated increased class- room eilloiebcy. - In applying the basic principles which it 'announced the Evanston teachers' committee urged that tbe board of education adopt (a) a plan for rating teachers accordinglg,tiskquality of the service which they render; (b) that as a result of the rating, definite classifications be established, and that these determine the pay of individual PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 147 teachers; (c) that a specified salary rate'be adopted; and (d) that a well-deterMined plan- be adopted for the dismisSal of the unfit. The purpose of the rating plan, as outlined by the teachers, is- 1. To determine the quality of teaching, as a basis for selecting (a) those who are deserving of promotion with increased salaries; (b) those who are to be retained without salary increases; and (c those who should not be retained in service. 2. Tb help teachers discover their own strength a weakness and to remedy existing defects in their work. The following tentative basis for rati teachers was recom- mended : / . TENTATIVE BASIS FOR RATING TEACHERS. I. Personal qualities: 1. General appearance. 2. Health. 3. Voice. 4. Tact. 5. Intellectual capacity. 6. Reliability 7. Initiative. 8. Self-control. 0. Enthusiasm. 10. Sincerity. II. Social and professional 1. Preparation. academic, and professional 2. Professional interest and growth. 3. Grasp of subject matterand daily preparation. 4. Use of English. 5. Understanding of and inter- est in children-. 6. Relation to associates and school 1 I fe. 7. Relation to parents and community. III. School management: 1. Character of discipline. 2. Guarding physical welfare of children. 8. Schoolroom housekeeping. 4. Attention to ratine. IV. Teaching technique: 1. Factors affecting recitation: (a) Physical conditions. (b) Attitude of pupil to work. 1r. Teaching techniqueContinued. 1. Factors affecting recita- tionContinued. (c) Attitude of pupil to teacher. (d) Attitude of teacher to pupil. 2. Activities of the teacher: (a) Securing and retain- ing attention. b) Selection. and zation of matter. (c) Motivation. (d) Character of questions. (e) Character of Illustra: tions. (f) Clearing up pupils' difficulties. (g) Attention to individual needs. (h) Capitalizing child's ex- perience. (I) Stimulating initiative. (j) Courtesy to pupils. ,- 8. Activities of pupils: (a) Character of responses. (b) Organization of ma- terialdifferentiat- Ing between essen- tials and nonessen- tials. (c) Vdependent thinking and self-reliance. .(d) Cooperatloh with teachers and other pupils. organi- subject 148 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. IV. Teaching fechniqurCoat inued. 3. Activities of pupilsContd. (e) Character and extent. of questions by pupils. (f) Chaacter and extent of field work. 4. Assignment of lesson: (a) I wfiniteness and clear- ness. (b) Aubluacy of preview. (e) Presentation of values. (d) Reasonableness Itild rovishv for excep- tional V. Rest/UsContinued. f). Power to use and apply knowledge gait 3. Powers of init int e and per- sistence. 4. Powers of IndeSudent judg- ment and reason. 5. Attitude toward school. 6. Habit of testing results.fiv 7. Skill in performance. 8. Development of character qualities. 9. Development of social mind- edness. 10. Influence in community. V. RextiTts: 1. Gain in subject matter. 1. The scale of 1 to 10 is used for the sake of convenience to indicate the extent to which a quality exists. Such a markhig is relative; It can n44, of course, be considered tin absolute measure. A mark of 10 in self-control, foi example, does not mean 100 per cent or perfect self-control, but rather that the person so marked possesses self-control in an unusual degree; while a mark of 1, 2, or 3, would hidicate the lack of it. 2. The qualities listed are not considered of equal value, neither does the scale show their relative value. It is obvioushowevn, that Conte of these %quali- ties should have vastly more consideration than others in tlekermining th n- eral rating of a teacher. 3. The general rating of a teacher therefore can not he found by adding up the numbers set opposite the different items. A teacher's general rating may be low, although she is marked very high In many of the items listed. 4. It is recognized that differing standards of excellencp In the minds of dif- ferent judges must result in differences in judgment. These standards so far as possible shoul be standardized and made objective. Standards can be es- tablished-only th ugh experience and long use of the scale, with such changes and modifications as are found to he needed. 5. In all cases it is a prime essential that a teacher shall be told and shown the basis for the rating in any pa as well at the final general classification she is given. All "teachers at Evanston are to be clarified by the sup6rvisors and nally by the superintendent into five groups, on the basis of the. quality of service they have rendered. Five groups are sug:Vested : 1. Those whose.work is of so poor a quality that they should be 'dismissed from the.service., . . 2. New teachers whose work has been unsatisfactorr but who show stlfficient promiSe of growth and improvement to justify further trial. Frequently, it .happens that a teacher who has done excellent work elsewhere finds it difficult within a year to adjust herself to new conditions, to new' demands, a\lil 4o standards which differ from those to which she has been accustomed. 8. Those who show little, if any, improvement over the work of prOious years. The results obtained may be fairly satisfactory,- but the fact that a tpacher is reaching the point where she ceases to grow and improve, places her n the doubtful class. The work of a teacher IQ this. group soon deteriorates and PUBLIC EPUCItT!ON IN THE CITIES. 149 V her value is greatly reduced. Teachers whose work is uneven or not con- , sistentstrong in some lines but weak in othors Millet' are (,ssentinirshould be classified in this itroue. 4. Those who are strong teachers and do uniformly good work ; who measure up well in all departments and show improvement from year to year. 5. Exceptional teachers whose work is superb who possess unusual skill in teaching and show a large measure in initiatig: resourcefulness and power in stimulating pupils to achieve the most worth while of the results the school seeks to accomplish. It was recommended by the committee of teachers and adopted by the board of education. that the minimum sulary- should be $75 and the maximum salary $1,500, and that increases should be granted asl 1f9llows: For teachers clnesifted in (a) Group l--no increase; teacher dismissed. ( b) (rou 2no increase teacher retained for further trial. 4' (c) Group 3$25 increase. (d) Group 4$0 increase. (e) Group 5$75 increase, or more, the merits of each case to be con- . sidered and -"4eelded IndividuaVy. The initial salary f;n any teacher is based on the character of the teacher's academie and professional equipment, trie quantity and quality of her previous experience, and the salary she has been able to command r. former position. DUPLICATE SCHOOLS. Sufficient data are not at hand to say whether there is any geh- eral movement in the smaller cities to adopt duplicate schools. Several superintendents report that they are experimenting with such cliool with good results. The duplication school at Monessen, Pa., may be given as an example of the possibilities of such schools. One of the eight-room buildings in that city hits been converted into a duplicate school. To the original building pf eight rooms there were added a gymnasium, auditorium, domestic science, munual train- ing, art, music, nature study, and application rooms, and a corn- . nmnity room,..and library. The use of the eight regular classrooms and the eight -special rooms during every part of the school day gives the pupil the advantages of special activities and special teachers withollt the disadvantages of extra room occupied only part of the time. All the drawing is taught by one teacher in the art room, which is arranged especially for the work. All the music is taught by a special teaches in the musio room. A teacker is in the gymnasium the entire school day, and the different classes go to the gymnasium for their physical exercises: While the boys of two classes,are in the manual-training room, the girls of the same two classes are in . * 150 BIENNIAL SURVEY Of' EDUCATION, 1918-1918. the ilomestic- science room. The teacher in the.library 'or reading room teaches the supplementary reading to the first, second, and third grades, and all the reading to the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. The basal reading in the primary grades is taught in the regular classrooms. Spelling; writing, English grammar, arithmetic, his- tory, and geography are taught by regular teachers in the class- rooms. Under the direction of the teacher of expression the pupils are taught story-telling, dramatization of stories, and other oral English work. Hygiene and sanitation and nature study are taught by a special teacher in the nature study and application room. Thii, puts number work into practice by playing store, for 'which sets of measures and weights, toy money, and different pack- ages of goods have been supplied. There are no pupils beyond the sixth grade in the duplicate school. The following, program ex- plains the operation of the school: 6 PUBLIC EDUCATION 'IN THE CITIES. 151. PROPOSED PROGRAM FOR THE IOWA BUILDII4O. September, 1917. ea. 8.50-9.40 I 9.4040.20 10.20-11.00 1 11.05-11.46 1B1. Exp., M. IV! F. Handwork. Nat. S. App., Tu. Th. classroom. . . 1132. Classroom. Exp., Y. W. F. Nat, 8. App., Tu. Th. Handwork. 1 I Al. Exp., Tu. Th. ! Handwork. Nat. S. App., M. W . F. I i Cluwoom. IA2. Classroom. Exp., Tu. Th. Nat. 8. App., M. W. F. Handwork. HO. Handwork. 1 Exp., M. W. F. Nat. 8. App., Tu. Th. Classroom. II B. IIA. Classroom. P. Handwork. M. W. F. 1 Nat. . pp., Tu. Th, II A. Handwork. Exp., Tu. Th. Nat. 8. App., M. W.F. Classroom. III B. Classroom. Han work: Exp., Tu. Th. Nat. S. App., M. W. F. IIIB. II IA, . Art, Tn. Th. l'hy. Ed., M. W. F. Music, M. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. Art Tn. Th. Phys. F.4., H. W. F. . .90 Music, H. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. IIIA. Classroom. IV B . Art, M. W. F. I Music, Tu. Th. Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. : Lib., 11. W. F. Classroom. IVA. 4 Classroom. Art, M. W. F. Phys, Sol., Tn. Th, Cls asroom. Music, Tu. Th. Lib., M. IC F. . VB. Music, M. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. Art, Tu. Tti. Phys. Ed., H. W. F. VA. Classroom. . ' Music, H. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. Al% ,1`u. Th. Phys. Ed., H. W. F. VI I3. Music, 'Fn. Th. Lib., M. W. F. -....... Art, IL W. F. Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. 'Classroom. ..a VII). . Classroom. . t Music Tu. Th. Lib., M. W. F. . Art, M. W. F. Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. Noon intermission, 11.45-1.15. Boys may tabiart walla girls am taking physical sthsaation. Girls may take art while boys are taking pluvial education. 152 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. PROPOSED PROGRAM FOR THE IOWA BUILDINGContinued. 1.15-1.55 1.55-2.35 2.35-3.15 3.15-3.55 I Bl. Art Tu. Th. Phys. Ed., M. W. F. Music, M. W. F. Classroom. Lib., Tu. Th. IB2. Classroom. Art, Tu. Th. I Music, M. W. F. Phys. Ed., M. W. F. , Lib., Tu. Th. SAL Art M. W. F. I Musie Tu. Th. Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. I Lib., M. W. F. Classroom. I A2. Classroom. Art, M. W. F. Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. Music, Tu. Th. c, Lib., M. W. F. II B. Music, M. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. I Art, Tu. Th. Phys. Ed., M. W. F. I Classroom. SIB. IIA. Classroom. Music, M. W. F. Lib., Tu. Th. Art, Tu. Th. Phys. Ed., M. W. F. //A. III B. Music, Tu. Th. Lib M. W. F. . , Art, M. W. F. I Phys. Ed., Tu. Th. Classroom. Classroom. ... Music Tu. Th. I Art M. W.,. Lib., M. W. F. 1 Phys. Ed., Tu: Th. III B. IIIA. Exp., M. W. F. Nat. S. App., Tu. Th. Handwork. ,. Classroom. IIIA , Clsssroom. Exp., M. W. F. Nat. 8. App., Tu. Ti,. Handwork. 1 1/713' Exp., Tu. Th. Nat. B. A pp., M. W. F. Handwork. Classroom. IVA. Classroom. Exp., Tu. Th. Nat. S. App., M. W. F. Handwork. VB. Handwork. Exp., M. Ni. F. NIL S. App., Tu. Th. - Classroom. VA. Classroom. Handwork. Exp, M. W. F. A Nat. S. pp., Tu. Th. VIB. Handwork. . Exp Tu. Th: Nat 8. A pp., M. W. F. Classroom., VIB. Classroom. lisudwork. Exp., Tu. Th. Nat.8. App., M. W. F. In grade 5, for example, the 5A pupils are in the regular classroom from 8.50 to 10.20, Ind during the period from 10.20 to 11.45 they are in one or more of the special rooms. During the period 8.50 to 10.20 the 5B pupils are ih one or more of the special rooms, and dur- ing the period 10.20 to 11.45 they are in the regular classroom. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 153 The superintendent of schools at Monessen summarizes the ltd- vantage of the duplicate school as follows: It furnishes specialleachers for specialssubjects, like music, drawing, physical culture, domestic science, and manual training. It provides these special activities at a less cost by having all rooms occupied at all times. It provides library and reading facilities that we can not have In another school. It provides better for the exercise of the pupils' natural activities. In the application room and the handwork rooms the pupil has an opportu- nity to put into practice his arithmetic, and in the expression room or story- telling and dramatizing room he has an opportunity for practical oral English. Our experience so far shows that the children prefer to go to this school. 4 SUPERVISED STUDY. A few years ago the attention of teachers was called to the fact that many children fail because they do not know how to study. Not a few superintendents have, within the past few years, rearranged the daily program in both the elementary and the high school so that teachers may have an opportunity to supervise the study of pupils. Supervised study may no longer be considered an experiment. The interest in it has become such that several books and numerous maga- zine articles have been written on the subject. Teachers' associations and institutes have taken it up as one of the vital problems in school management. The purpose of supervised study is to shift the emphasis from the recitation period to the study period and to giVe more attention to methods of study and less attention to testing the pupils to find out how much they remember of the text. A recitation of 10 minutes after 30 minutes of supervised study is no doubt better than a recita- tion of 30 minutes after 10 minutes of study, the amount of time some pupils give to the studying of a lesson. Since good habits of study are more desirable than the mere accumulation of facts, pne of the important functions of the teacher is to teach children how to study. The. results Of supervised study have been reported as good. The superintendent ot schools at Foxcroft, Me., who made trial of this method in the elementary grades, reports: Many of the supposedly dull pupils manifested unusual ability after a short time, due to the contidencv caused by class discussion and better methods of study. Nonpromotions were diminished, and a better standard of work was obtained in both divisions. The dull pupils were not outstripped in coming to conclusions by the bright ones; neither did the quicker pupils have to wait for explanations that were needless to them. At the end of the year the class came nearer to being all on the same level than they could possibly have been with all pupils in the same group. 154 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, .I916-1918. The superintendent of schools at Madison, Ind., who has intro- duced supervised study into his schools, has distributed to the pupils the following suggestions as to methods of study which should prove helpful, especially if the teacher encourages and assists her pupils to follow the suggestions: SUGGESTIONS. 1. Make out a regular study program at the beginning of the term for both school and home study. A regular study program saves time, prevents idleness, presents a definite task for each period of the day, assures preparation of each lesson, shows the necessity for home study, and tends to create habits of regu- larity along all lines. 2. If possible arrange to study a subject Immediately following the recitation in the subject. 3. Follow your study program regularly every day. Never make an exception to this rule. 4. Begin to work at tIle beginning of the period. Do not waste time. 5. Provide yourself watt the material the study of thelesson requires at the beginning of the study period. 0. Begin by reviewing the chief points In the last recitation in the subject to be studied. 7. Study the assignment. Be sure you understand it and know what you are expected to do. 8. Concentrate on the work to be:done. Do not let other things attract your attention. When you study make a serious bushies.s of it. Do not dilly daily. 9. Read the lesson through us a whole and get the general idea. 10. Study each paragraph, topic, or problem in detail. Understand it before going to the next. 11. Make use of the dictionary: reference books, maps, and all aids available. 12. Stop frequently and think over what you have read. Relate the new ideas to old Ideas of a like nature. 18. Make a brief written outline of the chief points. Close the hook and think through the lesson following the outline. 14. Review often. Memorize Important data. THE WAR AND THE SMALL-CITY scii0of.S. Schools in, the smaller cities have been influenced by the war in practically the same way as those in the larger cities. The former as a result of the war-have in some respects suffered more and in other respects they have made more advancement relatively than the latter. In the small city there has been a greater shortage of teachers, , owing to the fact that salaries in most of these cities are much less than in the larger cities. The selective draft called more men from the schools of the small cities than from the large, since most of the male teachers in these schools are within the draft age* In some re spects the small-city schools have made more progress relatively than the large-city schools. Prior to the war not a few of the former confined their attention chiefly to the academic subjects. Now most PUI3LIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIFS. 155 of them have introduced industrial, home economic, and commercial courses. Many have organized night schools for adults and espe- daily for the foreign-born adult.. The war has modified the course of study by relating it more in- timately to actual conditions. Schoolmen realized that the teaching of the war should not be deferredittfttil after the historian has ar- ranged the events in chronological order and has sifted and inter- preted the factt Practically every school in the smaller cities has been teaching the causes of the war.-- Many schools have followed the movements of the armies from day to day by means of bulletin hoards. Discussions in connection with lessons in history, geog- raphy, English composition. and literature haye been common. In- cidental instruction regarding the war can and should lie provided through the opportunities offered by the regular school subjects. It has been found that a good time to impress the causes and events of the war upon the minds of the children is when Liberty Loans are being floated and when subscriptions for the Red Cross are being. solicited. However, if definite results are to be obtained, instruc- tion regarding the war must be more than incidental, incidental in- struction in school subjects having proved a failure. There must be systematic instruction, there must be some aim, and not the teaching of a few unrelated facts here and there, and now and then, in con- nection with the other school sublItct. Some schools have made a systematic study of the war by means of an outline prepared under the direction of the superintendent. Such an outline prepared by the superintendent and teachers at Fargo, N. Dak., may be given as en illustration of what it is possible for a school to do to make a systematic study of the war. The out- line was prepared to suit the different grades The outline for the sixth grade is given herewith: OUTLINE OF WAR STUDY AT FARGO, N. DAK. I. The Army. 1. Regular. 2. National Guard. 3. National Army (first call). IT. The geography of the warring nations, III. Social and political conditions among the warring nations. I. Suffrage. 2. Condition of (a) Poorer classes. Day laborers; wages. (b) Middle Classes. (c) Upper classes. 8. Clam distinctions. 4. Opportunities for the common people. 5. Position of women. 156 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. III. Social and political conditions among the warring nationsContinued. 8. Government. 7. Compare with the United States. 8. Immigration to the United States. Why? IV. Military organizations of- 1. Germany. 2. Austria. S. Russia. 4. Italy. 5. France. q. England. 7. United States.' V. The Hague Tribunal. 1. Its history. 2. Attempts at arbitration. 8. Attempts at disasinament. VI. The Monroe Doctrine. Attitude of Germany toward it. VII. The war. Why we are in the war. (a) Invasion of Belgium. (b) Sliking of the Lusitania; President's message. (c) Stnkink of the Sussex; President's message. (d) Submarine warfare. (e) Making the world safe for democracy. VIII. The naval battle of Heligoland, illustrating nse of dreadnaughts, 1 attla cruisers, torpedo-boat destroyers, torpedo boats, and submarines. IX. Movement for peace. 1. The Hague'rribunal. The work of Carnegie. 2. Czar of Russia and his disarmament proposition. 8. Treaties made upon the advice of Mr. Bryan. X. The Red Cross. 1. Its history. 2. Its purpose. 8.Tell the story of Florence Nightingale. Rend the poem to her by Longfellow. XI. Y. M. C. A. Its purpose in relation to the war. XII. Conservation. Elimination of waste: (a) Clean plate and empty garbage can. (b) Quit feeding useless pets. (c) Getting full value for money. (d) Government fixing prices. XIII. Tell how the different countries finance the war. The war has modified the method of teaching many of the school subjects. The teaching of English composition has been vitalized through the discussion of topics relating to the war. Compositions based upon some event of the war have taken the place of those on topics in which the pupil had no, or at least only a remote, interest. One of 'the most powerful means of vitalizing instruction in English has been the Aunior Four Minute Men talks. New meaning has peen given to history and geography by teaching about present-day hap- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES. 157 penings and the work the world is now doing. In the manual train- ing shop and in the home economics rooms a motive now prevails, while heretofore the pupils in many schools in the smaller cities did " exercises " in manual training and in cooking and sewing. Now they are making things in the manual training shop tkat have a real use. Sewing is for some purpose, making material for the Red Cross; cooking has been put on a more rational basis, the children being taught food values and food conservation. The art teacher has like- wise vitalized her work. Instead of mere exercises, she, has had her pupils make posters for LibertjLoan, War Saving Stamp, and Red Cross campaigns. There is scarcely a school subject that has not been made more alive by relating it to actual conditions. The prin- ciple that school work should be related to life has long been advo- cated and but little practiced. The war has been a means of relating school work to life. Before the war We smaller city schools as a rule gave but little at- tention to home gardening under the direction of the schools. A few were, however, experimenting with this kind of school work. In almost a day practically every small city school system became inter- , ested in gardenihg under the direction of a supervisor. Many teach- ers have volunteered their services during the summer months. In sdme places the supervisors are employed by the school board. This is the better plan. In a very small city the principal of schools could well devote part of his time to the supervision of home garden-: ing. In other cities the instructor of science or teachers especially interested in nature study should be employed for the entire year, so that during the summer months they may supervise the garden work. Most of the small-city schools report that they have dropped Ger- man from the high-school course of study. In those schools in which German has been the only modern foreign language offered, French or Spanish has been substituted. Owing to our close relations with the French people and ourinterest in them, the teacher of the French language now haiPan opportunity to vitalize the subject which she has never had before. Many children will be interested in learning the language so that they may write letters in French to their broth- ers or friends now in France, and they will be interested in learning to Speak the language so that they may converse in French with 'those returning from France. These motives, it is true, are not the real ones for studying the language, but they are so bear that the teacher can not afford to neglect them. Within the last few years physical training has received a power- ful impulse. Of the schools reporting, practically all have taken steps toward the better care of the child's health. Some have intro- ' 158 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. duced military training, others have introduced systematic physical education. Many have employed a school physician or nurse,9r both. Greater advancement has been made in the schools of 4lie States of New York and New Jersey than elsewhere, owing to the fact that the State law in each of these States requires physical training as a part of the 'course of study. As good results may be expected in the other .States that require physical training. In those States where no such law has been enacted the more progressive cities have made physical training a part of the school work. Since such. train- ing has been found to be necessary, the State should require it of every school and not leave its adoption to local initiative, because some cities never will have initiative enough to introduce a course in physical training. It is wound theory that the State should require every school to teach those subjects that are of most value to the individual and to the State and not leave the introduction of vitally important subjects to the whims of a local community. Eve' State requires that reading, writing, and arithmetic be taught, these being considered the "tools," and that it is necessary for every one to have . a thorough mastery, of them, so that they may have the means of be- coming intelligent citizens. Every State should require physical training of every child so that he may become an efficient citizen. Not until this is done will small city schools introduce systematic physical training, though the war has made thelbeed of such training apparent. Thus we might continue to enumerate the influence of the war upon the schools. In brief, every school in the smaller cities has engaged in some kind of war 'stork. In some of these the schools have under- taken to do everything that was suggestedRed Cross work, selling Liberty Bonds and Thrift Stamps, demonstration lessons in food conservation, gardening, etc. Through the school children much of the information regarding the war, food conservation, etc., has been disseminated.. Though the wilr has entered the schools, school men have not been unmindful of the fact that a state of war is unnatural and that the 'fundamental studies ought not to be' crowded out by war activities. Superintendents and teachers have, however, found that they can vitalize the regular school subjects by introducing the war into the schools. They have found that the war offers. an opportunity to train children in the service of the State. It is true that in peace time opportunity exists for the same kind of training, but the Milne- diets need is not so keenly felt. '"4-4*, CHAPTER VI. RURAL EDUCATION. By H. W. FOOJIT, Specialist in Rural Schaal Practice. CoNTEsrs.introductoryAdminIstratton and supervision of rural schoolsIncreased financial support for the rural schools Teachers' salariesOrganization of the rural schools--Growth In rural high schools--Vocational education and the Smith- Hughes ActThe rural school course of studyStatus of teachers for the rural stehools--National Rural Teachers' Reading CircleComminslons and committees organized for the advancement of rural education and life--Rurikkichool surveys Publications on rural education of the Bureau of Education. INTRODUCTORY. Rural education and the war emergency.The war has served to accentuate many marked weaknesses in our rural school system. For years devoted leaders in this important educational field have carried forward a propaganda to enlist local and national interest in the matter, and not altogether without success. In many sections of the country splendid schools have been organized that fit into every requirement of modern agricultural communities. Whole States are going through the process of reorganizing the primitive one-room schools for effective rural leadership; but, unfortunately, it can not be said that this movement has yet gone far enough to affect rural education fundamentally for the Nation as a whole. The annual reports of the Commissioner of Education disclose that about one-half of the Nation's children are enrolled in the village and open-country schools. These twelve million children are labor- ing under distinct educational disadvantages. So far as the -open- cquntry schools are concerned, fully two hundred thousand of these schools may still be classed as one-room schools of pioneer type, which but poorly meet the needs of modern agricultural life. Their teachers are largely immature, inexperienced, poorly trained, and of limited vision of rural needs ana problems. The school year is much shorter than it ought to be, enrollment of school population is in many States low, daily attendance is often irregultNand compulsory- attendance laws are not always enforced as theyshould be. The course of study in the small schools is often badly planned and the subjects poorly taught, and financially they are meagerly supported in comparison with what is invested in education elsewhere. Recent educational surveys have disclosed that in Certain States the level of school education must be measured by about six and one-half years - 160 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. of school attendance for, the villages and less than five years for the rural districts. Such limited education can not furnish the intelli- gent leadership required at this present time of entrance upon the new era of scientific agriculture. general reconstruction of rural education likely.The world war brought home to the general public what educators have long known, that there are in the United States between five and a half and six million illiterate adults, and that more than one-half of these people live in rural sections where there are little or no school facilities. Likewise, there is a public realization that a large proportion of the ill-taught millions of. aliens' live in rural communities, left there largely to their own resources and inclinations in educational mat- ter. In many States they are grouped in large settlements speaking foreign tongues and using their native language as a medium of in- struction in the schools. This littS delayed the assimilation process and has been at the root of many un-American practices disclosed by the war. The war emergency, therefore, found rural education poorly or- ganized to cope with the serious problems of war and the period of reconstruction that will follow the war. The period of isolation in American rural life is gotte, and the period of international commer- cial at hand. This demands an organized ural life based on the right type of educated leadership, and t come only through the bet kind of rural school education. le eturning - soldiers who have dealt with large issues, and others who have been drawn into great measures of industrial efficiency for war and peace, will not be content to go back to the old ways in rural communities. What is more, the women who haye remained at Iffeilt have in a measure stood still educationally while the men have grown. They also need the vitalizing influence of a new, much-embracing edu- cation. Federal aid for rural education.The problem of education in rural communities has attained too vast a magnitude to be left en- tirely to local and sectional control. The war emergency attracted many of the.best teachers into Government activities; the draft called many of the men teachers to their country's standard. This left the rural schools shorthanded and manned largely by inexperienced teachers. To remedy these serious conditions is to much for the ordinary locality. It is a matter for national consideration. As it is national in scope, it requires national aid for %atisfactory solution. Federal cooperation and financial aid for the development of rural education might well be extended to the several States on the basis of real merit, to include the following: 1. All-year schools organized to Meet the needs of all the people, young and old alike. RURAL EDUCATION. 161 2. Teachers of good academic and professional preparation and broad teaching experience. 3. Teaching process preparing the people to meet their responsibili- ties and opportunities of citizenship and helping them make a good living from the land. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS. Progress in the administration of rural schools. School organiza- tion in the United States has developed from the needs 'of community life in the different sections of the country. In pioneer days school organization was wholly a community enterprise, each group of fami- lies organizing and supportig its own school is best it could. From these often far-separated group cehters, school organization began as an outward deyelopment, coinciding as a rule utimately with the geographical unit established for civil administration. Historically this has given the country three distinct types of school organiza- tion district, town (township), and county. The district, which was the original pioneer organization, still 'pre- vails in many sections of the country, chiefly in the Middle West and West. The, town organizatiois the basis for school administration in all of New England, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and parts of Michi- gan, Iowa, and South Dakota. The county unit has prevailed from the first in the South and has more recently been extended in some form to several Middle Western and Western States. The district unit, which in the early days was the only kind of organization possible, has largely outlived its usefulness as a unit of school organization and administration. Unquestionably it is the cause of much of the inefficient and ineffective schools to be found in many sections. In the States organized on the district basis the prevailing tendency is toward the county unit, which, if rightly organized, offers a large enough area for the introduction of equable taxation and equalized educational opportunities. However, the county unit must be planned to alloy patrons of the, schools a certain amount of local initiative and responsibility or it will fail because of fop much central control, as the district unit-has failed because of too much local control. Syveral States that are organized on the county basis have placed dil educational matters, including taxation, in the hands of the singli county board of educa- tion, leaving the local school communitiWwithout any direct repre- sentation or right- to levy local taxes. 'This teas proved an unfor- tunate practice in many places. The best plan appears to be to retain a representative for each school community who shall represent the needs of his own school before the county board. Likewise, while the county should properly be the unit for general taxation for ordi- 171029°-21-11U11. 162' BIENNIAL SURVEi OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. nary school maintenance, every local school community should have the right of taxation for extraordinary purposes, such as improving its school plant, buying sites and lands for agricultural experimenta- tion, increasing teachers' salaries abOve the county maximum, etc. At the present time 19 States are organized wholly or in part on the county unit basis for school administration. Of these Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland. North Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, and New Mexico may be classed as of the pure county type; that is. in which practically the entire management of the schools rests with the county board of education, with such local assistance as has proved most advantageous. New Mexico is the last State to adopt the county unit. In 1915 the 'State legislatc passed a county unit bill for tax purposes, and the legislature of 1917 made the county the unit for all administrative putrposes as well. Says State Supt. J. Howard. Wagner, speaking of the success of-the new plan: We now have the county board of education, which has charge of all the schools In the county. This Is pimving a wise provision, as it centralizes aim administration of the county schools. It has already stopped all financial leaks, and 'better qualified teachers are being employed. It is a great deal mare economical than the old system, as all counties are requited to work under the budget system. Prof enional Fuperriftion of rural RehooM.The teachers of the open county, whose problems are assuredly the most perplexing in the whole field of education, have suffered for want of expert professional supervision. If many have failed to achieve success, it has been, in large measure, because they have not had that close and expert guidance commonly found in large town and city schools. The whole plan of organization has been at fault, or perhaps, more correctly, circumstances beyond public control have conspired 'to make condi- tions what they are. Rural school supervision in many States has been limited to incidental inspectjon. The newness of the country. the rapid.westward expansion, and othei transitions in rural life explain. Prevailing conditions; but the schools of the new era of scientific agni- culture demand more than this ,perfunctory inspection. System is needed. There must be organization and leadership. This is par- ticularly true at the present time when teachers; tasks are becoming greatly multiplied. The many war duties and the after-war reor- ganization require of the teachers real community leadership. To give them the necessary help there must be created a staff of school, supervisors, both local and State, in addition to the county and dis. trict superintendents, who must conanue to devote much of their time to office practice and mere school 'inspection: Some real progress is being made in many states in professional super4ision. In some there are expert supervisors working under . . RURAL EDUCATION. 168 the direction of the county and district superintendents. In others there are the so- called " helping teachers," or " supervising teachers." Many State departments of education have added to the reiltilarstaff men and women who devote all their time to directing the work of the local supervisors. This is bearing good fruit. lremhington.This State has organized its State departmtint of& education fur the purpogie of extending more effective help to rural life and education. There are now in the department one expert in rural education who devotes his entire time to work with the county superintendents, one community center organizer who plans the or ganization)of rural communities with the school and teachers' home as center. There is also a State rural life commission centered in the department of education, and a boys' and girls' club Worker who cooperates with the representatives of the Federal Government for the promotion of school and home projects. Marytand.PrQvision has been made for 4.he appointment of ei mentary school supervisors in such a way that each county with 100 teachers or more mustJiave-at least one specially trained school super- visor in addition 6 the county superintendent, the attendance offi- cer. and the statistical clerk. The first of these supervisors in each county shall under law have charge of the- rural schools. kenthekll.This State has recently introduced professional super- vision fur both white and colored scitools. At the present time 3 VVIiite supervisors are engaged in 24 counties. Eighteen colored su- pervisors likewise are at work in as many counties where they are maintained by the General Education Board andthe Jeanes Board. The latter devote practically all their time to supervision of voca- tional subjects. Wext T'irginin.---This State, which was one of the first4o sub- divide its counties for supervision purp4ses, has as many as four supervisors in certain counties. Good progress is reported. Fermont.Three years ago a law was enacted making provision for State-wide supervision of schools. All superintendents arf now appointed and paid by the State hoard of education. The average salary of these superintendents during the paSt year has been about $1,800, with an allowance of $12:i for expenses. Montana.This State is making good progress in school adminis- tration and superVision. Speaking on this subject, State Supt. May Trumper says: The administration of the rural schools in Montana has been greatly im- proved because of the fact that we'now have two rural school supervisors working -in very clo.se cooperation with the"county ,superintendents. During the past year our rural school supervisors had visited practically all counties two times. They have held many community meetings, nt Which times many problems dealing with administration of rurarschoels have been diticussed with trustees, county supertitendents,- and teachers.. 164 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. S Professional supervision typified in Jefferson County, Ala.This county may be taken as 'typical of the best organization to attain professional supervision of schools and teachers. The plan is sum- marized in the following statement: 1. Subdivision of the county into 11 districts containing about 18 schools each. In charge of each of these districts is a supervising principal who devotes his entire time to supervision. He travels among the schools, directs teachers' meetings, 'reading circle work, makes requisitions for his supplies. conducts sample lessons, acts as critic teacher, etc. These ttupervisors made 6,605 visits last year. 2. An assistant superintendent is placed in charge of theilepartment known ns " Teacher Training in Service." He has meetings with his teachers on Saturdays, selects reading matter for them, has charge of the rending circle work for the county, assists in the employment of teachers, and determining the standard for employment. 3. The professional requirements have been increased until now It is neces- sary for one employed to teach in this county to hold a normal-school diploma or its equivalent. or, In lieu of this, a high-school diploma with two years' suc- cessful experience elsewhere. . .4. There are 12 consolidation schools, to which pnpils are conveyed at pub- lic expense. There are also about 40 union schools: that Is, Schools made by the conaolidatlim of two smaller schools, but without transportation. Of the 130 white schools, only 28 are one-teacher schools; of the 75 colored schools, only 35 are one-teacher schools. 5. During the year 04 night sehools were conducted in rural districts for six weeks. using the teachers employed In day work, these teachers tieing paid at public expense; 1,23(1 pupils. were enrolled in the high schools, 2117 of these being Illitecat* and 457 near - illiterates, as it was necessary for them to.begin with the primer. 6. The county has tFo agricultural Instrnetors under Smith-Hughes work, with n salary of $2.406 each. 7. -'our new eight -room consolidated schools have been built durilig the year. three of these 'being on the one-story extensible-unit plan. Fiftebn other buildings have been remodeled or enlarged. Five acres of ground are required for each of these new buildings. INCREASED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE RURAL gCHOOLS.. The most serious problem confrontPng the rural schools at this time of excessively high costs is financial. If rural children are to get opportunities for education equ4alent to those afforded city children, much-more money must be expended for their education than has been done in the past. Not alone is less money being ex- pended, child for child, in rural communities than in the industrial places, but if milli children are to get this equal. advantage, even more money must be expended than is now beingitivested on the edu- cation of city children, for the reason that educatibn in rural corn- munitiaa.will always be more expensfre than in the larger schools in organized centers. In rural listricts with the ninny school plants, the ratio of teachets to pupils will alwafa continue larger than in the . RURAL EDUCATION. 165 cities. The upkeep, fuel, etc., cost more in the rural schools. Trans- portation facilities have to be provided and teachers' salaries in- creased if good teachers are to be obtained. In some sections rural teachers are beginning to be paid more than teachers of the grade schools, in order to keep them in the country schools at all. There is urgent need for serious readjustment in the prevailing methods of school taxation. So long as schools are supported chiefly through local taxation it will be difficult to obtain funds required to give rural children the advantages equal to those enjoyed by city children. The country needs progressive legislation in this field. State, county, and local taxation should be resorted to. It is emi- nently fair that the State as a whole be taxed for the educatiOn of all of its citizens. This rate of taxation should not exceeil in any case more than one-third of the entire school maintenance of the State and be distributed among the schools as an award of merit. The county may properly bear the mint- burden of .taxation, this to be used for such general school maintenance as teachers' salary, upkeep of school property, etc., and.Should be apportioned on the basis of aggregate daily attendance and the number of teachers employed. Finally, the local school community should retain the right of levying taxes for extraordinary purposes, otherwise local initiative might die -for want of proper stimulus. Increased Setae appropriations for the schools. Practically all of the States that make uski of State taxation for school purposes have been obliged recently to increase their levies greatly, and coun- ties and local communities have followed suit in order to maintain the schools at the present standards of efficiency: Maryland reports its State appropriation fos public schools increased in 19l8 from $1,750,000 to $2,000,000. In adition to this,-bonuses ranging from $50 to. $100 are being paid teachers who remain in their schools throtighdut the year. North Dakota has increased the amount of State aid for standardizatioh and consolidation of rural sc14ols from $120,000 to $225,000. Other States are doing as much or more than these. TEACHERS' SALARIES. Public school teaching is the poorest paid of all professions, if the imetnd cost of professional preparation are taken intoconsideration. Because of this the American teacher is transient and et short tenure. 'Many teachers, unfortunately, make the calling a stepping stone to other life ceilings. At the present- time with its unprecedented opportunities in industrial activities, a serious exodus from the pro- fessiOn is threatened. Indeed, many teachers, particularly rural teachers, have already abandoned teaching for other activities. (See p 166 BIENNIAL strawy OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. the chapter on Preparation of Public School Teachers, Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-19180 Many States, in their efforts to stop the exodus, hive taken steps to increase their teachers' salaries liberally, although even larger increases will be necessary to keep the. best men and women in the schools. The following are some of the increases in salary lists reported to the bureau for the year 1918: Maine.Salaries increased about 25 per cent. Montana.Very few schools pay less than $70 per month in rural communities. Most of the schools range from $85 to $100 pee month or more for experienced teachers. illarylayul.The legislature of 1918 increased the minimum salary for high-school teachers from $600 to $800 for the different kinds of certificates. White elementary- school teachers of three, five, and eight years' experience will receive salary increases based on kind of certificare. and length of experience, as follows: Salaries of elementary- school leachers. Grade of certificate. Becinninc I ; tedeners. Three evrs' eC perlellee Five ears experience Fight years' experience. Third Poo 1423 14511 1475 Second 4.30 473 5, 523 First ;AU 323 5.%0 530 575 6011 650 Kentucky.A. law has recently been passed ping -the minimum salary for teachers of the second class at $45, and of the first class at $55. Pennsylvania.The following minimum salaries have been adopted: Provisional certificate, $45 per month; professional and normal - school certificate, $55 per month; permanent certificate,1360 per month. The. salaries of teachers in rural community vocational schools have risen steadily. Principals of vocational high schools receive from $1,200 to $1,800, teachers of agriculture from $1,200 to $2,000. Vocational supervisors and home-economics teachers receive $100 per month, and other teachers of this type of rural school from $75 to $125 per month. WashingtmIncreases in teachers' salaries for 1918 range from 15 to 20 per cent. Teabhers are generally being engaged by the year -instead of for a nine months' period. Wyaming.Salaries of rural teachers range as a minimum from $70 to $90 per month and as a maximum from $100 to $125 per month. Vermont.There has been an increase the past year of about 12 per cent in the salaries of rural-school teachers. These teachers, are now almost invariably employed by the year. RURAL EDUCATION. 167 ORGANIZATION THE RURAL SCHOOLS. Improvement of one-teacher schools where centralization is imprac- tiable.There are proliably 212,000 schools of the one-teacher type still in use in rural communities, the only means of education open to the large majority of rural children. It is now accepted as good na- tional policy to reorganize the small schools to meet the needs of the new era of commercial agriculture. Many of these schools can never be converted into large centralized schools for topographical and other reasons. In broken mountain districts or in sections of the country cut by streams and ragged coast lines, or in sparsely settled regions, such reorganization is seldom feasible and should not be urged. If, on the other hand, these natural obstacles do not exist, the centralization movement should be championed rationally and emphatjcally. The changing 'conditions leading to modern country, life have proved utterly beyond the abilities of the small one-teacher school. Nowadays it is necessary to charge the school with a multi- tude, of responsibilities which formerly devolved on the hotne. Otaly where there are exceptional teachers in charge of the small school can this 'become a truly community school. In many instances it fail!, in the larger purpose and remains an institution furnishing at best a meager measure of the fundamental subjects. Reasonable standards. For the future it would seem that a really effective one-teacher school should be standardized around such edu- cational essentials as these: 1. A teacher with specialized preparation and willingness to make rural community teaching his permanent occupation. 2. A school plant organized on the all-year plan, equipped to pro- vide an education fully related to rural life and its needs. 3. A course of instruction and methods of teaching in accord with the needs and nature of agricultural people. Looking toward the all-year school.The new standard requires, fir.., of all, a teacher who has preferably had his professional train.- ihg in one of the special schools for rural teachers, a person of rural mind and in love with rural' life, who understands its difficult prob- lems. Ile must be hired by the year, living at the school in a home provided by the community.. The school premises should contain 5 acres ("r more of,land, preferably more. The school building should be planned with full equipment for experimental agriculture and. gardening, home economics, and manual training. There should also be ample room for community rallies. The chie\f departure in the new school plant is the teacher's cottage. Some real, progress has been made the last few years in the con- struction of homes in. connection with such schools, as these. The State of Washington reports 196 teachers' cottages erected and many 168 BIENNIAL SURVEY OFcEDUCATION, 1918-1918, others underway. Many of these form a part of the one-teacher school plants, while others are erected at the consolidated schools. Wyoming reports that many cottages have been erected during the past year. Texas now counts upward of 200 cottages, and several other States are accomplishing almost as much. All-year schools of this type would hold out real inducements to strong married teachers to take charge of the schools and would make it quite possible for the teacher to conduct many outdoor activities of the school during the summer months. .4 better type of school consolidation.It is probality safe to say that the period of experimentation in school consolidation has passed. The movement, has now been accepted as good national policy. The important thing at the present time is to see that school consolidation shall come in its best form. Otherwise, little will be gained by dis- placing the old type of education. There are about 10,500 consoli- dated schools in the iTnited States in 1918. These are schools, with two or more teacher's, resulting from the centralization of two or more schools,li.oviding facilities of the graded-school type. The most satisfactory type of consolidated school is planned to give the rural community just the kind of education required by an agricul- tural population. Broadly cultural and yet practioal ; preparing them for happy, wholesome, remunerative living on the land. Many of the early consolidated schools were planned as big graded schools offering courses of study in no wise adapted to the needs of rural districts. The riew schools are organized with a view to preparing for the new agricultural era a permanent farming population of highest ideals. The last two years have witnessed the organization of many exceptional schools of this type. The brief statement of the Sargent Consolidated School in Colorado which follows is typical of .what is being accomplished in many. States: The Sargent Consolidated School, a Colorado county life institution.It takes time to complete such a school plant as that of the Sargent Consolidated School, and it was not until January, 1918, that the new building was occupied, being then unfinished. It was dedicpted and christened April 23. at which time 50 autos were parked on the grounds and more than 500 enthusiastic country people were packed Into the large school and community auditorium to witness the event to which they had looked forward with so much pleasure. VA This fine modern $35,000 school building was scarcely finished when another bond issue for $18,000 was voted. ,With this an 8-room building is being erected to aerVe as a home for the superintendent. The contract is also let for a 10-room teacherage for the other eight teachers, and the plans are drawn amid approved for a garage, 40 by 70 feet, with a gymnasium in the basement. In this most modern and up-to-date rural school plant $53,000 has already a expended or contracted for. These people have not only provided for the nt, but have anticipated their future needs for years to come. The building itself is complete in every detail. It is a beautiful structure, well designed for all the lines of work that should be carried on in a modern rural RURAL EDUCATION. 169 school. It has standard classrooms sufficient to accommodate 500 children. It has a large school and communky auditorium for both school and neigh- borhood meetings. It has well-equipped agricultural and domestic science laboratories, and a manual-training shop, these three lines of work being intro- duced the first year. Thirty boys, each of whom owns a registered gilt, have organized a pig club. Already pigpens and chicken coops dot the rear of the 10-acre school site. A gasoline engine furnishes water under pressure for drinking fountains, lavatories, and toilets, and generates electricity for lighting the building, as well as for charging the storage batteries of the auto busses used in transportation. It is still further utilized as laboratory equipment in the study of electricity and auto repairs. The first varl."08 children enrolled, 30 of these being in the new high school. At present 320 school children live in the district, and it is estimated that 300 of these will he in school next year, with 50 in the high school. Last year 180 children were transported to and from school in five large Studebaker busses, a few riding 14 miles each way. Two more busses of the same kind have been purchased, and next year at least 240 children will be transported. All of the-nine teachers, each of whom has had either a college or normal training, are nicely and comfortably provided for in the two large new teacher- ages now being erected by the district.. No more itinerant teachers, coming into the district Monday morning and returning to some town early Friday afternoon, for this district. They are expected to live in the district and to Identify themselves with the community life therein. Moreover, each teacher will be employetLbecause of some special preparation and fitness fur work in a . rural school and rural community. The superintendent is a young man with a vision, and already has earned a reputation as a cOnonunity builder. .- This school has also been approved for Federal aid in home economics tinder the Smith-Hughes Act. 'The following summary by States gives some ideof the progress in a few of the States making reports for 1918: The New England section of States centralizes its rural schools more generally.by closing unnecessary small schools and conveying charen at public expense to the remaining schools. This tends to remlly teacher shortage, and. at the same time provides a better graddd school as well. Maine reports having 3josed many schools during the year, conveying the children to stronger and better schools. Rhod Island reports that school consolidation has progressed as far as it can in the State without overdoing consolidation to tle detrimI nt of some of the schools. South Dakota., a State in whicri school consolidation is of recent origin, reports 42 new consolidated -schools. 'Maryland and Kentucky, like New England, depend more on clos- ing the sniall unnecessary schools and conveying the children to larger schools of one and two teachers. Kentucky thus has only 79 consolidated schools, 12 of them with transportation, while it hirs 1,084 rural schools with two or more teachers. These are_gf the so called union-school type. 170 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. In New Mexico school consolidation is making rapid progress, particula4 in the irrigated sections, where many large fine con- solidated schools have been organized during the last biennium. Washington has steadily increased the number of its consolidated schools,.there. now being 22 such institutions in the State. " It is true in this connection," says the State superintendent of education, "that good roads follow consolidation of school districts in very many instances." In North Dakota 52 consolidated schools have opened their doors during the year and 60 new consolidations were voted. The total number of consolidated schools in actual operation are 447. West Virginia has established 120 consolidated schools, 20 being organized during 1918. Pennsylvania, on account of its difficult topography, has made sonIewhat slow progress in consolidation of schools. However, as may, be seen from the following sununary, compiled by the State board of education, some real progress is being made: Number of one-room schools In the tate 9, 875 Number o! two-room schools In the state 1, 320 Number of one-room schools having an average attendance of 12 or less 1,715 Number of townships where complete consolidation would be feasible 552 Number of schools or schoolrooms closed us u result Q f consolidation In the lust 10 years_ 715 Number of the above that were one-room schools 684 Number of pupils being transporte,' to centralized consolidated or joint schools 6.201 Number of vans, couches, or wagons used for transportation The consolidated schools of Iowa are, moat of them, of excellent type. The legal provision for State aid requires a large land area to be used for playgrounds .and experimental purposes. This has, from the first, given the consolidated schools of the State. a decided agricultural bent. Many of the schools are township-consolidated schools; i. e., they serve the educational purposes of an entire con- gressional township. Many of them'have well-organized four-year high-school departments. The following is a summary of school consolidation in the State: Up to June 30, 1917, 235 consolidated districts were organized. Thirty-five thousand4 boys and girls have passed from the one-room school to a standard graded school. The advantages of the standard high school have been given to 0.590 buys and &le. About 3,700 of these high-school boys and girls are from rural districts. The new schools furnish hlgb- school facilities not alone for their own dis- trict but for neighboring districts which pay tuition. Better grade teachers are secured by the payment of about $5 per month on the average above what is paid in the one-room schools, and this at a less average cost per RURAL EDUCATION. 171 About $5,000,000 have been expended for new buildings, grounds, and equip- ment. The equipment of these schools is equal to that found in the best city in- dependent districts. The course of study has been revised to give at least one year of industrial . training in the subjects of manual training, domestic science, and agriculture, under the direction of a trained teacher. number a instance$ special classes have been organized for the instruc- tion of o'der boys and girls who halve dropped out of the one -room school ithout completing the eighthgrade work. This work has been curried in the form of winter courses extending from December 1 to March 15. Two hundred and forty-five thousadd dollars has been expended for State 'aid for consolidation. No money expended by the State has brought greater returns than this. The State aid has not been given these districts as a gratuity but in return for the expenditure of a much larger amount on the part of local districts for school purposes. The schools have become demonstration schools for the State of lama and are thus encouraging other communities to reorganize their small schools. GROWTH IN RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS. One of the most urgent problems in rural education is to provide the people with easily accessible rural high sch The perc tage of country people educated in secondary schools o ural ype is disappearingly small, in contrast with those who have simi ar facil- ities at the industrial centers. Rural people who are favorably situ- ated with regard to town high-school facilities take advantage Of the latter, although this school often tends to draw the farming class away from agricultural activities into other callings. It is well to reemphasize here that city high schools are,organiZed for city chil- dren. Similarly, rural high schools 'should be organized foe rural children. Some people, and farmers among them, hold the false opinion that to differentiate between city and country people in edu- cational affairs is a discrimiation against country children. This knowledge is based on the assumption that city life is superior to country life, which, to those who understand it best, is really the only normal Anierican life there is. The present movement is to establish rural high schools of an agricultural type in the open country or in the rural villages. The purpose is to organize the course- of study to suit the needs of its agricultural environment. Many States report good progress in establishment of rural high. schools during the year. Many of these offer night-school courses for adults, including aliens, who may here obtain their first lessons in American citizenship, short courses for people. beyond school age during the winter months, extension courses planned in cooperation with the State colleges, and other progressive activities for Elie whole community. 172 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION 1916-19181 The ultimate solution of rural school organization in rural com- munities will probably be the adoption of the 6, 3, and 3 plan. That is to say, a plan to reduce the number of years in the one - teacher schools to six,which will make it possible to lengthen class recitations and accordingly help the teacher to provide more and better instruc- tion for the several pupils than in the past. The more favored localities will plan to offer a prevocational junior high-school course of three years, in addition to the six years of elementary-school work. Many of these will be open country schools. Finally, a few centers will offer both junior and senior high-school work of an agricultural typethis chiefly in the towns. 1V est Virg in ia.The State board of education has recently adopted a sweeping 6, 3, and 3 plan for the organization of all the schools of the State. This will mean the establishmenticof junior high schools in a large number of small places which have been unable.to afford high-school facilities or which have sought to solve the difficulty by organizing one, two, or three year high schools of the old type, looking toward college entrance. Under the new plan it will be possible to help both those who plan to go to college and the much ,larger number who will go from school direct to their life work. Vermont.Dr. Milo B. Hillegas, State commissioner of education, says: In Vermont the junior high school is helping in the solution of this problem. During 1916-17 there were 12 of these schools in successful operation In ur State and their appeal to parents and children was sufficient to produce a steady Increase in their enrollment and attendance. A considerable number of those who had previously left school returned, and virtually no students dropped odt except as they moved from the town. The chief aims of the Vermont junior high schools may be stated sus fellows:' The work of the junior high school is planned for the best interest of the pupils who do not intend or expect to go to college. The work in the junior high school, so far as possible, recognizes ...piaterial aptitudes and individual differences of ability in the pupils. The studies in the junior high school utilize local interest and op- portunities. The work in the junior high school prepares for central or senior high school, and thus for college. It need not, howevevoinclude the work ordinarily given in the first an second years of high school. In other words, to quote further from a recent report on Vermont junior high schools:' The fundamental purpose underlying the establishment and maintenance of junior high schools In Vermont Is the extension of the educational opportunities ate Vermont Junior High Schools. State board of education Bid. No. 1, 1918, p. 5. 'Same, p. 8. RURAL EDiCCATION. 173 of each Individual boy and girl In the State In the light of our professional educational aimsocial efficiency. This means that the work must be planned to suit the individual needs of the pupils. It tneans that the school has just as much responsibility in equipping for their life work, to the greatest possible extent. those large groups of children who drop out of school early as It has In equipping the few who plan to enter college. It means the provision of nourish- ing, worth-while study material for the gifted pupil quite as much as the dis- covery of the most promising field of activity for and to the dull pupil and the development of such abilities and skills'as he may posSess. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. The so-called industrial subjects, including agriculture, home economics, and handwork of boys and girlg, which have been making good progress in ninny 'States during recent yeas, have received a new stimulus with the recent passage of the Smith-Hughes Act. While aid is granted under the new law only to persons about 14 years of age, i. e., for secondary training, a marked stimulus has been given the industrial subjects in elementary schools as well, since these prepare for the more advanced and concrete work in the high schools. The new Federal aid is a powerful instrument in organizing good rural high schools in communities which could otherwise have no such facilities. At least two States (Massachusetts and Pennsyl- vania) have had to make little or no modification in their established vocational schools to obtaiii the new aid, as these States have been organized on a thoroughgoing State-wide basis for several years. These two States might well be used as models for other States in which vocational education is not. so well established or deeloped. Accordingly, a somewhat detailed Statement of the organization and progress of this type of educationin the two. States is given herewith. The discussion of the Massachusetts plan has been prepared by Dr. Rufus W. Stimson, agent of the MassachusettsState Board of Educa- Sen. The statement of the Pennsylvania plan is from the pen of kte Supt. Nathan C. Schaeffer., PROGRESS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN MASSACHUSETTS . UNDER THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. The Massachusetts hotne-project plan of vocational agricultural education re- quired no modification in order to meet the conditions of the Smith-Hughes Act. The plan has become somewhat widely known through Bulletin 579 of the United States Bureau of Education and bulletins of the Massaehusetts Board of Education, as the "Home Project Plan of Teaching Agriculture." Ten years of experience wall this plan have shnply led to greater and greater confidence in both its pedagogic and its practical validity. The home-project plan is tt plan of earning and learning. Accurate records of productivity, have been kept by pupils from the beginning. Comparative tabtes have been published from year to year, In. which have been shown the earnings of pupils from farm and from nonfarm work. The'ratio .year by year has continued to be outstandingly favorable to farming. In 1917 relittble re- 174 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 99113--1918. turns were made by 511 boys and 7 girls, or by a total (o, 518 vocational agricul- tural pupils. Their earnings from firm work atnounted, to $111.500.87. find frou other work to $8,808.16. Figures for preceding years were as follows: Earnings of pupils. - Boys. Olds. ;Total. Farm work. Other work. Totals for 1912 ae 4 70 89. VA. ZS I 31.349. 59 Total. for 1913 96 3 15.399.90 2..'es2.111 Totals for 1914 , 730 5 215 37.936.57 1.121 Ofl Totals for 1915 I 413 5 4114 51.270.81 I 4. 074. SA Total., for 1918 .42.9 8 497 75.754 5.3 I 8.106.90 If the ratios were reversed .11 would he a fair presumption that agriculture were not the main, but decidedly the minor, Interest of the pupils. Direct " learning " gains can not he measured in dollars and Cents, and are difficult of precise measurement In other terms. Those who have given but little thought to the methods of instruction used have sobctime.t argued that the principal B1111 in Massachusetts was the dollar or the earning. In Massachu- setts we have frankly accepted as a challenge to our be:41 endesiVors the reason- ble expectation that if our instruction In agricultilre is 5011101. is worth while, it 'Wight to yield a profit from year to ; but, having accepted this challenge, 'Wight have by no means neglected the other challenges of voratronal education. Pupils are admit tedon reaching their fourteenth birthdays, to the advantages of vocational agricultural education, provided they can establish a reasonable presumption that they can profit from it. Academic standards such as have determined admission to high school have not been enforced. In 'most eases, however, vocational pupils could haNy entered high schools without conditions, and the Ande of mental ability and the rate of progress among agricultural pupils have compared favorably with those of other pupils of Itigh-schogi age. The vocational agricultural schools and departments in high schools are suffering, ns are other schools and _departments of education, from the war. Returns for 1018 will not be filed until about November It is more than likely that a 30 per cent shrinkage 'of enrollment will he shown by those returns. The principal forward step in 'Massachusetts in connection with the receipt of Smith-Hughes funds for vocational agricultural education is the establish- ment of g new agritultural teacher training plan. Tills Is a sort of project plan of teaching teachers how to teach agriculture after, they have bean ap- pointed for service. The 'Instruction wilt be intinerantfrom teacher to teacher and from school to school. One man is devoting his tune -exclusively- to this work. No two schools are alike. Agricultural departments in high schools differ from the schools and from each other. The teacher trainer is studying the conditions under which each must do his work and is helping each teacher on the spot better and better to meet the conditions with which he Is confronted. Twenty special war-emergency departments have been approved in which State-aided agricultural instructors are supervising war gardening by adults. Last year 2,640 adults grew war-garden products to the value of, $73,180.71, of which, products to the value of $45,083.50 wet? for home use and the re- minder for sale or exchange. State aid for su work was approved in the cases of)eight towns and cities. Durinik918 t number of towns and cities receiving State aid has been Increased to 20, a d the product* bid fair to be Ittereased pkoportionately. RURAL EDUCATION. 175 RURAL COMMUNITY VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA. continue their education along agricultural lines during the winter months. Twenty-three agricultural high schools, commonly known as rural community the farmers' ,boys enrolled therein are continuing their education while being beyond school age. Thege courses usually extended through a period of six winter for ydung men who previously dropped out of school but who wished.to The State Collet-le of Agriculture cooperated very effectively In the operatton vocational schools, have been established in the rural districts of Pennsylvania, Each one of these schools is practically an agricultural continuation school, as regularly employed on the farms. In all of these vocational schools night schools were held during the winter for farmers and their sons who were weeks. In one or two of the schools short courses were conducted during the of the night schools by furnishing many 'speakers and teachers. Forty-two rural communities have established vocationgi agricultural educe- - tion for boys, and 33 rural communities have also established vocational home- making education for girls. The war has prevented the rapid development of this work by calling ninny of our tigricultural instructors intomilitary service. Plans lire lying effected for a broad development of this work immediately upon the close of the war. Rural districts establishing tod operating rural community vocational schools have invariably increased the tenure of office of their teacher: by employing the principal of the school for a period of 10 or 12 months er year, and the agriculture teacher always. for a 12 months pain& Mar, of these teachers are given a three-year contract. Salaries of teachers in :Aese'rtiral community vocational schools have risen quite steadily. The principal of the high 'school now usually receives from $1,200 to $1,800 per year; the teacher of agricniture $1,200 to $2,000 per.year; the vocational supervisor of home making about WO per month ; and assistant teachers in the academic department from $75 to $125 per month. The rural community vocational school has a staff of teachers ranging from three to six in number, the number depending upon the size of the student body. About 75 per cent of these teachers are college graduates. Plans are now being developed and will this month be submitted to the State boa f education for the training of vocational teachers of agriculture and tea of home economics in vocational schools. t encouraging mitt of our plan for rural community vocational educa- tion seems-to lie In the fact that we are securing teachers who are better prepared for their work and who are being paid higher salaries with longer tenures of office, . THE RURAL SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY. The reorganization of the course of study for rural schools is probably the most important phase of rural education that engrosses the time of rural educators at the present time. Readjustnient4, are gradually .taking place in the materials and methods of the rural schools, but such a hold has tradition on what is taught and learned in the schools that the process of change has been. exceedingly slow. In the past, progress in teaching rural school subjects from the owl- jJetional point of Aiew has been hindered greatly by inflexible estab- 10(4 State courses of study, which are usually planned alike for all ele`inentary schools, whether in town or.in country. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. Fortunately, many States are beginning to plan tdistinctive courses for the rural schools. Louisiana has attained marked success in its rural schools under a very progressive 'course of study planned sev- eral years ago. Montana has recently publisliZA a course of study covering all the fundamental subjects and vocational subjects usually taught in the rural schools. Other States are planning similar courses for their rural schools. Meanwhile, sevetal committees have been organized, or tlre being organized, for the purpose of making a fundamental study of the entire field of rural education.' In the same connection .should be mentioned the innovation recently made for the study of rural educa- tion by the education department of Teachers. College, ln- bia This embraces a cooperative plan of education between Teachers College and two New Jersey counties, the schools of which will be used as practice schools and study laboratories for the development of the best teaching practice and study course for rural schools. STATUS OF TEACHERS FOR THE RURAL SCHOOLS. Effect of the- war on teacher supply.A study made by the rural school division of the bureau indicates clearly the serious propor- tions readied in, thedwindling ofihe supply of rural teachers. Par- tial returns have been completetbrom 1,150 out of 2,964 counties in thV48 States. :According to the giires returned, these 1,150 counties report at shortage of 10,4)6 rural teachers and 2,004 (Alm: teachers. Only one State, ('alifornia, reports no teacher shortage, either rural or urban. On the basis -of the counties compiled to date, there is probably a shortage of about '27,000 rural teachers and at leagt 5,000 other teachers.. The bureau estimate for past years places the annual .number of new rural teachers at 87,500. The.peoportion of begin- ning teachers for thetyear 1918-19 is abnormally large. In some counties the superintendents'report as high a5..85 per cent of teachers without previous experience. The median for experienced teachers for the country at large is 19 4)er cent.t%.Qh the basis of figures re- turned, at least 125,000 inexperienced teachers will be employed in rural communities. In addition to this, the rural schools are losing most of the small number of men teachers. Thb 1,150 counties report- ing have lost 1,955. men. Indeed, 41 per cent of all men who taught in rural,schools one year ago Seem to have left the profession. The reports from Connecticut indicate that the few men who have taught in the. rural schools will ell be replaced with women teachers for the Current school year. . 1Notabiy may be,mentioned the Bureau of Education committee on rural School course of study, *lid the eitucatIonal committee of the recently orgintaed National Rural L1fe Coonotoloo. RURAL EDUCATION. 177 4' Even before the war the most difficult' please of the whole educa- tional probleM-was how to get and retain in the profession an ample staff of well-prepared rural teachers. Since the country's en- trance into the war the problem has become greatly intensified. Now is the time therefore to drive home to the people what is necessary before better things can be attained in the field of professional rural teaching. The public will have to becoMe fully aware of their re- sponsibititytoward the teachers; they will have to make the schools and housing conditions more attractive than they now are, and in other ways iipke feasible long, well-paid tenures in the-same com- munity. The Government Must, by legal enactment, safeguard the prpfession and offer special inducements -to all teachers to equip themselves well for their profession as a life work. With this as a basis, the teachers will be moke ready than now to strive to attain genuine profesSional standards of teaching. Teaching rewards. Teaching rewards should bear a defthile rela- tion to the'experience and time incurred the teaching cer- tificate. Salaries ought, accordingly, to -be basedon the kind of cer- tificate held. There should in every State be a 4egat minimum salary for each type of certificate. Similarly a second year in the same school commtinity ought to be awarded with a State grant of a definite sunr, say $5 per month; a thir-d year with double the above sum; and the:fourth and each subsequent year with treble the first sum. These bonuses should always be "in addition to the gaieties paid by the local.community. As has been pointed out Akenhere in this chapter, several States have already adopted the planV scaling salaries on the "lngth of experience and the.kind of teaching credentials held by the teachers. Wisconsin, Indiana, and Maryland are among the States basing their salhry'scales on the degree and kind of professional preparation and tenure in the same ninity. Parado'xical as it may seem at first thought,,the remedy for an ample supply of well-prepared teachers should be sought in gradually increased professions equiremetits, of all 'rural teachers. While . during the war perio,d`i was impracticable to legislate against ad- mission to the teaching ranks by the ordinary examination route, the present is the right time to look ,forward to ending. this practice as soon as possible. The teacher in the effective rural community school of the future may be expected to come into the 'profession from the professional teacher-training schools only. This, -. together with in- creased salaries and improved living conditions, will Help to dignify tht profession'and place it on the higher level which should always have held, but which in recent years seems to hive been, largely lost to the American teacher. . 171029*-21Buy13-12 178 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Professional reguiretnents.Many States are steadily increasing the professional requirements of all teachers. The normal require- ment recently laid down by the Bureau of Education in its State surveys is being adopted in several sections in the country. (See the chapters on Preparation of Public-School Teachers, Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918.) This standard requires that all public- school teachers must, as a minimum, lieve completed a four-year high- . school course and have had, in addition thereto, at least one year of professional training. Thi§, includes rural schools teachers as well as other teachers. In order to reach these standards by a time fixed by law, several States, through their normal schools and other teacher-training insti- tutions, have established interesting and profitable extension services over the State, for the teachers who are unable to attend the normal school regularly. The first State to enact a movement of this kind was probably Iowa, which, through the State Teachers' College at Cedar Falls, has organized a State-wide service of this kind. The Bureau of Education, in its surveys of education in North Dakota, Washington, and Arizona, has recominended similar extension serv- ices.for these States, which are just getting uncleKvay. Schools preparing rural teachers.During the sch'ool year ending 1915 the 273 public snd private normal schools enrolled 160.325 stu- dents and graduated a total of 21,944. It is quite certain that most of the teachers found positions in towns and cities, as did most of. those Ny-ho graduated from the ools of education in universities and colleges. The agricultural co ges have also done something for the preparation of secondary-sc ool teachers in agriculture and teachers for son& of the strongest consolidated schools. The largest immediate supply of rural teachers comes from the aaining departments (*the high schools in many States. Next' in point of numbers stand the normal schools; then, in the order men- tioned, the schools of education in colleges and universities and the agricultural colleges. A study 1 recently made by the Bureau of 'Education ,oh rural-teacher preparation in county training schools and?bigh schools'discloses that 21 States in 1915-16 were preparing teachers for rural communities in 1,493 county normal schools and highi.sch'ool training departments,ana classes, which enrolled a total of 27:411 students. From these schools 16,626 teachers were gradu- ated in 1917. Since alit time Montana has organized similar classes in 11 schools, with an aggregate attendance of 200 students. The real' hope of.the countig for.an ample supply of well-trained rural teachers kill is vtith the public normal schools. A few years ago these instil oris were devoting most their energies to train- . V Bulletin, 1911, No. 31, 4 RURAL EDUCATION. 179 ing city and town teachers. During the past few years there lies been a marked change in the disposition oft the normal schools in this regard. Many ,of.them, established in agricultural sections of the country, hive reorganized their work to meet the-demands for the new type of rural teachers. In many schools this reorganization has come as well -organized, distinctive rural- school departments in charge of a director and assistants. In other schools the work has not gone quite so far and is being offered as special courses for fural teachers, given chiefly during the summer sessions. Experience with the two types of organizationdemonstrates quite clearly that the only worth-while organization is the special rural teacher-training "Oe- pai-tment. Up- to the present time 122 rural-selml departments have been established in the normal schools. Many of the depart- ments are in charge of a director, who usually teaches rural sociology and economies, and one or two other instructors, one of whom is a rural critic teacher. A' together 84 of these departments make use of rural -practice schools, either erected on the campus or located in near-by country districts; 97 otliel normal schools offer specific courses for training rural teachers, sQrrle limiting the courses to the summer sessions. The above enumeration shows an increase of almot 100 per cent in these facilities over what the schools offered in 1915, but even with such progress there is much still to be done, as many of the schools do not realize the far-reaching importance of the work of these specialized departments and do not support them as liberally as should be done to make the work in every respect satisfactory. 4 NATIONAL RURAL TEACHERS' READING CIRCLE. II . The National Rural Teachers' Reading Circle was organized by the -Bureau of Education in 1915 in cooperation with an advisory committee of the State superintendents af public instruction. The purpose is to be of direct assistance to the thousands of progressive serious-minded rural teachers of the country who desire guidance in their study to improve themselves professionally. Never in the history of our country was there so great a demand for weif-prepared . rural teachers and supervisors as at the present time. It is to assist ., in finding and equipping these educators that the Bureau ofEduca- tion organized the reading circle work threesyqars "ago.o. The American farmers are doing their great share in winning the war through increased production from the land. After the war ts won the rural population must take an equally vital part in the eco- nomic recon#Entifin that is sure tb follow. This calls for a new typo of leadershir), cultured and educated in practicill phases of modern 'scientific agriculture.' The most important and indispensable agent in the attainment of this task will be the rural teacher. Without the .40 180 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDLreATION, 1916-1918. well-educated, broad-minded, sympathetic teacher any system of edu- cation can only be a lifeless mechanism. Therefore, the public must look to the country teachers and their preparation and see to it that they shall be men and women of the best native agility:, the most thorough education, and the highest de- gree of professional knowledge and skill. Since the time of organiza- tion a large number of progressive rural teachers of the country have become members of the reading circle. No attempt has been made to draw to the circle large numbers: the aim has beerather to list a few leaders fKom each county in the several States. Results have been very satisfactory. Of thetmunber matriculated a large per- centage have completed the work d hhve received the commis- sioner's certificate. The reading circle is without cost to the members aside from pro- curing the necessary books, which may be furnished from the pub- lishers at regular retail rates Or they may be secured through local libraries, or in other ways. There is no restriction as to member- ship, although it is highly desirable that applicants have a liberal acquaintance with the best literary works, past and present. The books for this periodreflect largely the new conditiOns in edu- cation due to the unprecedented changes going on in the world to- day. They are classified under six heads as nonprofessional hooks of cultural value, ,civic and patriotic readings, educational classics, general principles and methods of education, rural education, and rural-life problems. The work is intended as a two -year ending course, although it may 13e completed by the industrious teacher in a shorter time. To those who give satisfactory evidence of having read intelli'gently not less than four books from the general-culture list and three books from each of the other five lists-19 books in allwithin the two years of the time of registering will he awarded .a National Rural Teachers' Reading CircleCertificate signed by the United States Commissioner of Education. COMMISSIONS AND COMMITFES ORGANIZED FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF RURAL ilDUCATION AND LIFE. Several commissions have been organized during the year for the advancement of rural education and life. The most important of these organizations are.here noticed. Tile National Country Life Comitiettion.The first steps. toward :organization were taken by a number of educators inteiested in fol- . lowing iip.the work done by the original commission on country life appointed by President Roosevelt in .1908. A permanent organiza- doh was formed at Pittsburgh, June 29, lila.' RURAL EDUCATION. 181 The general program and objectives of the commission have since that. time been definitely settled and committees have been appointed. These inclitde the following committees: I. Means of communication. II. Home making. III. Means of education. IV. Rural government. V. Health and sanitation. VI.' Recreation. VII. Country planning. VIII. Morals and religion. IX. Country life objectives and values. These committees are most of them divided into subcommittees. The committee on means of education is subdivided as follows: (a) Rural, elementary and secondary schools; (b) .Agricultural educa- tion; (c) Adult education. The central purpose of the commission is to make a study of the important problems in rural life. what principles govern their solu- tion, and what steps should be taken now toward meeting them. Plans are underway to prepare a statement of'the whole rural prob- lem, including references to easily available literature on this subject for the use of school officials, elementary schools, high schools, grange -farmers' unions, rural women's clubs, farm bureaus, and u other . ntry organizations. Dr. Kenyon L. Butterfield, president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, is general chairman of the commission, and Dwight Sanderson, United States Department of Agriculture, secretary. Committee on study of consolidation and rural high schools in the roiled ,'rates and Canada.This committed was organized by the section of State supervisors of the National-Education Association, at its Kansas City meeting. The work has gradually been expanded . from a rather small effort to a most thoroughgoing study of school consolidation and rural high-school organization in all the American States and the nine Canadian Provinces. The central committee con- sists of H. W. Foght, chairman; S. B. McCready, Toronto, Canada; Lee Driver, Winchester, Ind.; Miss Charl Williams, Memphis, Tenn.; J. M. Foote, Baton Rouge, La., and C. G. Sargent. Fort Collins, Colo. This committee is working in-cooperation with a larger committee of 57 educators, representing the several State departtnents of eduea- irShAtid Canadian provincial ministries of education. ' The Work of this committee istnow well underway. It is the com- mittee's purpose to report at the Chicago meeting of the. Department of Superintendence in February, :1919. The scope of the work-svill ihclude statistical 'data from all, the States and Provinces, together with intensive studies lof 19 counties and a large number of indi- vidual schools. The results of the study 'will be pub_ lished as-a bul- .. letin by the Bureau of Education. . The Bureau of Education committee on rural school cour`se of study, he Bureau tf, Education has Worked on.the reorganisation o of the rural school course of study for several years. The bureau Qs- < . .. 182 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918, cialists are working in cooperation with an outside committee of educators selected from the several sections of the country at large. This committee has undertaken a searching study of rural educa- tion. The plan underway is first to organize the content of the course of study, based on cultural and occupational needs. This subject matter is then to be tested and worked out in practice schools at sev- eral places over the country. The committee on rural education appointed by the National Edu- cation Association at its regular summer session.The committee comprises reptisentative educators headed by State Supt. J. Y. Joy- ner, of North Carolina. The purpose of this committee is to make a searching study of rural education in all its several phases. RURAL-SCHOOL SURVEYS. Several important school surveys have been completed within the last biennium which have emphasized various phases of rural educe- tion.:Among them may be mentioned the following State-wide. studies made under -t-he direction of the Bureau of Education: A survey of tlitoeducatIonal institutions of the State of Washington. Educational survey, of Wyoming. Educational conditions in Arizona. Educational survey of Tennessee. Educational survey of the schools oPiSouth Dakota. While all these surveys, give space to the rural schools, the subject is notably emphasized in the studies of Wyoming, Arizona, South Dakota, and Tennessee. Some, instructive age-grade statistics, in- cluded in the surveys, show graphically that the present system of school education in country districts is much less effective than the schools in the incorporated places, the number of overage pupils being fully 25 per cent greater in the rural communities than in the towns and cities. Self-surveys of rural schools have been promoted in a number of States, notably in Minnesota, 'Wisconsin, Missouri, and Montana. The tabulations and conclusions of these surveys may be procured by addressing the several State departments concerned. PUBLICATIONS ON RURAL EDUCATION OF THE BUREAU OF', EDUCATION. A number of publications on rural and agricultural education have been compiled and distributed by the Bureau of Educinion during the past year. These publications include occasional bulletins and rural-school letters and circplars published by the bureau and pain- phlets and brochures klublished by other governmental and private 4 RURAL EDUCATION. 183 organizations but distributed by e bureau. Much of this material deals with timely topics of t war emergency. Bulletins of the bureau on rural and agricultural education published since the last report on rural education are as follows: Bulletin, 1916, No. 26, A Survey of Educational Institutions of the State of Washington. Bulletin, 1916, No. 29, Educational Survey of Wyoming. Bulletin. 1916, No. 41, Agricultural and Rural Extension Schools In Ireland. Bulletin, 1916, No. 44. The District Agricultural Schools of Georgia. Bulletin, 1916, No. 48. Rural-School Supervision. Bulletin. 1917, No. 5, Report of Inquiry into the Administration and Support of the Colorado School System. Bulletin, 1917, No. 31. Rural-Teacher Preparation in County Training Schools and High Schools. Bulletin, 1917, No. 33. A Comparison of the Salaries of Rurgl and Urban Super- intendents of Schools. Bulletin, 1917, No. 35. The Township and Community High-School Movement in Illinois. Bulletin, 1917, No. 44, Educational Comlitions in Arizona. Bulletin, 1918. No.. 3, Agriculturral Instruction in the High -Schools of Six Eastern States. Bulletin, 1918, No. 27. Itural.yeacher4Preparation In Normal Schools. Bulletin, 1918, No. 31, Educational System of South Dakota. 9 *. 4 $' CHAPTER VII. SECONDARY EDUCATION. By THOMAS H. BRIGOR, feathers College, Columbia University. Corrrryrs.Character of school reports Growth ofhigh schoolsThe small high schoolConsolidation and coordination- Larger use of the school plantThe high schools and the collegesFailures and marksRetardation. attendance, and eliminationHigh-school pupilsHigh schools for negroes Secondary school teachers and principals- The tenure of teachers and principals The training of teach and principals Supervision of instructionExtension of function of high schoolsThe war and ndary schools Facto service by high - school pupilsMilitary training in high achoolsTbe future of the high school. CHARACTER OF SCHOOL REPORTS. A study of a large number of school reports, from both States and cities, reveals an astonishing variety in the size, the audience ad- dressed, the content, and the use made of them. The size varies from, pamphlets of a few,pages. to volumes of several hundred. In a number of instances a long report is published in several small sections, thus effecting economy and also insuring attention that might be repelled by a formidable volume. The audience is the board of education, the teachers, superintendents of othgr States or cities, the public at large, or nobody in particular. It would seem that in every case the persons to whom the report is addressed would be known, first of all, for their interests or needs should de- termine the contents of the report. It is difficult to see why any school reports should contain portraits of the members of the board of education, programs of the high-school graduating exercises, ex- pressions 'of acrimony between school offs unsubstantiated statements of most successful year . , ngth37/Ifinutes that prop- erly are recorded in the secretary's. b " ', or complete unclassified details of expenditures. It is doubtful if most of the tediously gathered statistics can be justified when they occupy three-fourths of a' report and are accompanied' by no interpreting text and no indications that they have been or will be used. When a report is definitely addressed to the public, it verj, prop- erly contains general statements of progress,. explanations of new features in the schoolssuch as supervised study and the longer school day or of extra- curricular activitiesand arguments con- cerning the value of secondary or h4Ar education. Supt. Stark, of Hackensack, N. J., in addressing Alai public, prefaces his detailed '185 186 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. report by a summary of his recommendations of the preceding year, a list of the accomplishments during the year, and reeommendations of what should he done in the future. A report addressed to the public may properly. also present data concerning the high-school teacherstheir preparation, experience, etc.facts showing the holding powerof the school, the percentage of failures, the size of classes, the cost of each subject per pupil, and the like, provided the tabulations are interpreted and an appeal is made that a proposed program of improvement be supported. It is certainly not econom- ical to include in one volume for general circulation different kinds of material, each being of interest to only one of several audiences addressed. Of the State publications concerning high schools, it is not invidious to mention as peculiarly helpful for various reasons those from California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, South Carolina, and Wisconsin. GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS. The State reports for the biennium contain less about the increase in the number of high schools than they have done for a number of years past. Especially in the older States and in al younger ones that have done mostLby way of educational- advance there are justi- fiable expressions of pride that opportunities for secondary education are in the reach of the greattst majority of youth. The growth that is more emphasized is in the number of pupils and in their persist! ence in school. There are a rnumber of expressions of opinion that no high schools should be established or maintained at the expense of the elementary grades and that in the secondary schools already established effort should be made to secure respectable work of h hi er quality. Typical of these expressions may be quoted the f llowing pasorage from the fourteenth biennial report of the State s erintendent of pnblic instruction of Montana: .. --While everything possible has been done and is being done to encourage high.. school work ih all schocqe equipped to do the work, and whit* the principals of the larger high schools have been most generous in their willingness to &operate with these schools that are taking care of the boys and girls at home, it seems that a note of warning must be sounded or some districts in their zeal for high-school work will do their schools more harm than good. In the first place, many schools have asked teachers not well qualified to teach the ninth grade subjects, which is an unwise thing, for no instruction is often better than the wrong kind of instruction. Other schools hiring but one or. two .teachers havb endeavored to start high-school classes. The beet that can be said of the work carried in under these conditions is that it overworks the teachers, robs the boys and girls' in the elementary grades at the very tie when they are forming their like or dislike for the public school, and cheats those who think they are getting high- school work when they are not, and who believe that they are saving time when they are actually losing it: Still other schools with the number of teachers necessary to start high-school work fall short by-frying to mire for too many courses or too teeny %SECONDARY EDUCATION. 187 ttudies in one course, forgetting that thorough work in a few branches is better than slipshod efforts iu Many. In planning for the best interests of the school, it must be remembered that a first- class elementary school means a good deal more to any community than a poor high schools and no attempt should be migie to finance high - school work until grounds, . buildings, and equipment are what they ought to be, and something in the way of music, drawing, industrial work, domestic science, and community activities have been provided for the grades. The valuation of the school district should also he considered, and until this is what it should be. the thought of the first -class graded school with suitable equip- ment and a permanent and fully accredited high-school course can not be fully considered, for in the long run, carrying on a school of that kind is not a question of . enthusiasm, of sentiment, or of need, but one of dollars and cents with which equipment can be provided and teachers paid. When the proper valuation is in eight, whether it has been secured by consolida- tion or otherwise, the first year of the course best adapted to the needs of the com- munity in which the school is located should be taken up and strictly adhered to until sufficient teaching force can be employed to carry on additional work. . The State nispeetor of high schools for South Carolina is even more emphatic and pointed in his remarks: One of the first weaknesses A stranger would detect in the high-school system in South Carolina would be our small number of four-year schools in places amply able to support them, and the attempt of a few small place; to support four-year schools with too few pupils and too little money. The number of the latter class is small, . but of the former clam there are too many. To mai9tain a four-year school there are three things necessary: Enough pupils to justify & existence, enough money to employ the teachers and to equip the school, and a community that appreciates such a school. From the point of view of atvndance it seems reasonable to hold that any three- . year school with as many as 75 pupils is well able to maintain a fourth-year class. Seventeen of our schools last year had enrolled 1,810 high-school pupils going out with a three-year high-school education. Admittedly, those going to college are not prepared as they should be, and certainly those leaving school are entering life with meager equipment. Yrom the point of view of expense a few words ought to suffice. In September, 1916, these 17 schools sent from their third-year classes 194 Rupils to college, one year behind the preparation required by highLgraele colleges. In other words. these pupils went to college to get their fourth-year high-school training. At the conservative estimate of $250 each, these pupils cost their parents $48,000 for the privilege of sending their children away from home to get Vilatithey should have had at home. Worse still, it coat more to keep these 194 pUtlkat college a year than the 17 schools paid for teaching the entire high-school enrollment of 1,816: All this takes no account of the large number of boys and girls whose education closed witlfthe third year of the high school. Why will people persist in such waste and folly? Once we heard that ancient alluring phrase about "saving a year at college," but surely thinking people are no onger caught with such biit. The people of thiiState have had so little practical experience with well- equipped four-year high schools that they. ft° not appreciate their value. For long years we have known nothing higher than a three-year high school resting upon a seven-year elementary school. and the people have come to look upon such a school as ideal. In fact, one occasionally hears the argument that such a school is enough for any people. Such advice reminds one of ,Eaop's unfortunate tailless fox. If the study of pedagogy has taught us anything, i has convinced us that we can not force the 188 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. growth of the human plant. It requires time for the human plant to grow and mature.. When we consider the comparatively small number of men and women with a college education, and the even smaller number with a four-year highochool education, we begin to understand the limitations of our people intellectually, industrially, and economically. South Carolina's having more college graduates than four-year high- school graduates fUniishee amusement for everybody but us. \i'e have not yet seen the amusing side of the situation. In. another dart of his report, Inspector Hand explains how the unfortunate condition came to exist in South Carolina, and recounts the cha es in the law made in an attempt to remedy earlier mistakes. In 1907 ouch Carolina passed a law appropriating $50,000 to develop high s ools. Although the terms upon which State aid was dived to the individual schools were liberal, of the $50,000 appropriated for the scholastic year 1907-8, only $27,960 was used. Only 56 schools could be induced to take advantage of the new law. In th; law was a clause granting to the trustees of a high school accepting State aid the power to levy a local high - school tax apt to exceed 2 mills on all the taxable property of the district. In most instances local boards had to promise not to levy this tax before the people would vote for the establishment of a high sch(x)I. It is interesting to note how many districts then reluctant to empower their trustees to levy a 2-mill tax have since voted 4, 6, 8, and even 10 mills for school support. In 1908-9 only $44,295 of the State appropriation was used. Apprehensive lest the towns and the cities might get an undue proportion, if any part of the State appropriatiqn, the general assembly put into, the first law an unfor- tunate clause forbidding the use of any of the appropriation in a school district con- taining an incorporated place of over 1.000 population. places with few pupils and smill revenue were the only places encouraged by the law. The consequences might have been foreseen. These small places were prompted to undertake the im- Roesible, to establish high schools without resources to maintain them. ,In order to put 2 teachers,and 25 pupils, the minimum requirements, into the high schools, numbers of places crippled their elementary departments for years. To remedy this * defect the law was amended so as to permit a high school of I teacher tifid 15 pupils to share in the State appropriation. Again the consequence; outht to have been fore- seen. Every school Of 3 teachers that could possibly find 15 pupils for the high- school grades wished to become a high school. Not infrequently a high-school teacher would be found with 15 pupils, often fewer, while the 2 teachers in the lower grades would have (rota 30 to 50 pupils each. occasionally more. Between 1907 and 1917 fifty-eight places undertook to maintain high schools, but gave them up. ra At the beginning of the year 1916-17 all die one-teacher high schools were put into the rural graded school class, and the appropriatiov for that class of schools was in- . creased. So far as making any contribution to a permanent system of high schools, the State's money spent on these one-teacher schools was a total loss. It was an expensive experiment financially, and one that had a deadening effect ar worse than the mere financial waste. The one-teacher high schools put an itnmediate check upon all efforts at building up high-grade high schools at central points to serve small surrounding schools. .The one - teacher high schools undertook the work of three and ---fiffErffitacif high schools, and parents seemed satisfied with the attempt. ')feautinie the general assembly had, after a hard struggle, amended the Iltw by increasing the maximum population limit from 1,000 to 2,500. With the census of 1910 twenty-five bf the largest high schools in the State were debarred from anyspartici- Ration in the State high-school fund, although any high school a'eceiving any of this SECONDARY EDUCATION. 189 fund'had to give free tuition'to any high-school pupil from that county. Year after year the lawmakers were urged to repeal this clause, but without success until 1916, when an entirely hew law wilvibatituted. The new law is much simpler than the old one. The population limitis entirely removed, ,a high school must have at least 2 teachers and 25 high-school pupils, the district must levy at least 4 mills local school tax for running expenses. any high-school pupil can without tuition attend any State-aided high school in his own county or an adjoining county, and the State appropriation was increased to $80,900 annually. The immediate effects of the enactment of the new law will be referred to in another place in this report. State Inspector Walker, of North Carolina, recognizing the weak- ness in his State of the small, weak high schools, proposes a policy that should control them: There is needed a comprelien9ive policy, a plan backed by law, that will recog- nize in.eoine way all r orthy high schools operated at public expense, city and rural, and that will make possible the development of good high schools where high ecliools are needed and prevent the multiplication of weal high schools where high schools are not needed. It is impossible to build up an efficient high school in every cross- roads community. It becomes necessary to concentrate our efforts in each county at a few centers where there is a quickened school interest, intelligence, and available means, all of which are. necessary to the development of schools of the right kind. It might be advisable to extend State aid to all well-organized and well-managed four-year high schools of the cities and towns that admit pupils to the high-school grades from the country districts, State aid, of course, to be given under the require- meets of the public high-school law and primarily on the basis of attendance from outside the local district. This matter, I think, is worthy of serious consideration. The State appropriation should, in a word, be used for four important purposes: (1) To stimulate counties and communities to initiate new and necessary lines of work.which they would not be likely to undertake of their own accord, as, for example, putting in courses in home economics, agriculture,and teacher training; (2)10 encour- age counties and communities to inaugurate new and necessary policies, which they would not be likely to put into practice if left without direction, as, for instance, putting the high-school principals on salary the year round; (3) to encourage schools to maintain- higher standards of excellence, as, for example, lengthening the school term, organizing the work on a sounder basis, employing better teachers, paying better salaries, etc:: (4) to equalize in some measure opportunities for high school training by helping to support good high schools where they are needed in counties and com- munities that have notlhe funds necessary to maintain rod high sehobla. THE SMALL HIGH SCHOOL. It is a matter of judgment that many small high schools are ge erally doing poor work, but State Inspector Williams, of India has measured the product of the small and of the large high schoo by their records in college.' Indiana has 94 public high schools for every 100,000 persons of school age, approximately two and a quarter times as many as New York, its nearest rival. "Of the 850 officially recognized high schools in IndiatIa; 51 per cot. have fewer than four teachers and 71 per cent have fewer than five teachers," Thirty students from these small high schools and 85 from large high . Educatot-Joumal, IS: 333-238. 190 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1918. schools had the following distribution of marks in the freshman year at Indiana University: Percentage of marks. Small 1,argo high high schools. schools. A 1.65 12.06 B 11. 41 31.23 C 33.01 31.32 D 23.9.3 13.09 gboditIonid.... 14. M R.60 Failure 15.26 2.69 1 Inspector Williams 'found similar results in seven other Indiana' colleges. Pridcipal Smith, in his survey of. Illinois high schools, however, found no such difference between the graatiatk-rif small and large schools. Whether the slight inferiority of the small high school in Illinois is due to the fact that in this claMication are all schools enrolling up to 100 pupils or to other causes is not known. l Of course the academic success of thos'e pupils who become coi- lege students is not the only criterion of tl slue of a high, school. A mt&iplicity of small high Nehools certainly .n n creases the number of pupils who enter upon secondary education; disregarding tradi- tion, they may be adapted ,so as to satisfy peculiar local needs, and they may be made junior high schools and affiliate with a cen- tral school which will complement their work, or each one may.form a nucleus which later May (Ifivelop into something larger and more satisfactory. Mr. Williams, in his studyi shows that in sections of Indiana abundantly supplied with high schools, small and large; the ratio of secondary school enrollment to the entire school enu- meration is from two to four times as large as when the number of high schools is small. - The alternatives proposed for improvement are (1) a reduction and adaptation of the offerings by small high schools and (2) con- solidation. The commissioner of secondary schools for California, writes: In planning the course of study for small high schools it is not necessary to include 'lithe subjects or courses taught in larger high schools. The law requires that the high schooloffer one course of study that will prepare graduates therein for admission to the State university. It does not require, that the high school offer courses that will pre- pare graduates therein for admission to all of the colleges of the State university. The State for North Dakota writ Meet high-sc.hool p are too full. Too much is attempted, especially in the smaller high schools. Such a plan makes the limited teaching force attempt too much, and results in a lowered quality of work. In most small schools the superintend- ent or principal has to dose much chats roothiwork that he has neither time nor ambition to give the, kindly, helpful, thoughtful counsel and assistance to the teachers bale of SECONDARY EDUCATION. 191 the grades and the high school which is so essential to good, satisfactory work. Many times the remedy ie in the hands of the teachers themselves. Small classes could often be eliminated and some subjects alternated with profit to all. In Vermont Commissioner Hillegas and in New Hampshire State Superintendent Morrison have consistently and cogently workgd to make the small high schools contribute first of all to the assured needs of the pupils who are likely to have no further education. It should be remarked, that in both States emphasis is laid on cultural as well as on the more immediately practical training. CONSOLIDATION AND COORDINATION. Consolidation in some cases, as in Vermont and Tennessee, carries with it a system of abbreviated or junior high schools, and in 9therS, as notably in Illinois, an enlargement of territory to support a cosmo-: politan high school. The program proposed by the Vermont survey has been improved and developed there, and the State superintendent of Tennessee writes: Until the la t legislature we did not have a compulsory high-school tax. We now have a 5 cent high-school tax levied by the,State in every county. Until this last year we had, where they had a high school tax, one centralized high school with disor- ganized inefficient secondary schools which you no doubt well remember. These schools never had a course of study or any regula 'ens. As a result they began not where and lead nowhere. he it legislature passed a law providing for a centralized four-year high school with as many two-year high schools established ove e county as may be necessary to bring the first two-years of the high-school work w reasonable reach of all parts of the county. The course of study in these schools e same as the first two years in the centralized first-class school. This gives us a splen high-school system. The State inspector of high school's for South Carol in review- ing the conditions in each district in his State, repeatedly a kes such recommendations as the following: and 13-- ought to put aside their petty local pride and unite in est lishing a high school that might be the righteous pride of both places. Both districts would save money, and have such a school as neither alone can ever hope to have lb C-- the school has struggled hard under difficulties. An 8-mill tax far ex- penses brings in kto little money from rural property retuined at low valuation. Sal- aries are low, and the school is housed in a very inferior building. The school would be better off as a rural graded school. va Inspector Willituns concludes the study previously quoted with the following paragraphs of recommendation: The writer proposes, as the highest type of aid by the State, either that in operation in California, where provision is made for separate and special taxation for the support of high schools, or that in effect in New Jersey, where thegeneral school tax is drawn upon for a special apportionment to high schools. In the one case, the annual high school levy is determined by multiplying the number of pupils in average daily attendance by $15-4 State-wide tax of approximately 17i mills. In the other, the special ap- portionment is made to high achoola on the bails of $400 for every teacher employed 192 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF. EDUCATION, 1916-1918. and of a fixed sum per pupil per day of actual attendance. Some such system in -Indiana would prove a powerful stimulus to the maintenance of standard conditions and equalize the high-school facilitivs in every part of the State. Fortunately, Indiana school law has made mrahle progress in the direction indi- cated. Legal provision exists for union or consolidation df the following varieties: (I) Joint higkeehools. On the petition of a definite number of legal voters of two or more school Forporations, an election must be called to determine the desirability of maintaining a joint high school. If favorable, the two corporations may unite in one of the following combinations: -(a) Joint town or city),,,an.1 township high school. In this case, cost of mainte- nance is apportioned in proportion to the taxables of each corporation, and the school is managed by a joint board. (6) High-school district. A city (of any class) or incorporated town may establish and maintain jointly with one or more contiguous townships or portions thereof) a high school district. Maintenance and management as before. Provision is made for voluntary withdrawal at any time from the arrangement by any member of the district. (c) Joint township high school. Two adjoining townships, having a combined taxable valuation of three quarters of a million dollars ($750,000), may tstaba and support a joint high school, provided no high BchoCri already exists in either corporation and eight or more pupils have graduated from the common schools in each of two previous years. (2) Consolidated high schools. Under similar conditions, a town or fifth clam city and the adjacent township may consolidate two or more existing high schools. Two plans of management are provided: (a) tnew board consisting of the township trustee and two persons chosen brtown or city councilone of these a resident of the city or town and,the other of the town- ship outside. (b) A joint board composed of the township trustee and secretary of the school board, with appeal to the county superintendent. Thus ample legal sanction exists for communities A combine resources and unite for high grade working conditions. As is well known, Illinois has gone further in the establishing of consolidated high schools than any other State. The story of the development of its township high schools, a type that might well be adopted in other sections of the country, is told by University Visitor Hollister in Bulletin 25, 1917, of the United States Bureau of Educa- tion, and many interesting data are presented in Principa,L Smith's Survey of Illinois High Schools. The law permitting the or!raniza- ' tion of a high school in contiguous territory regardless of political boundaries, under which nearly 200 new schools were established,. maxi in 1917 declared unconstitutional; but the next legislature - promptly passed'a better act. Of the present situation State Supt. Blair writes: All of the territory of,a county not iiccluded in a recognized high-school district is considered nonhigh-school territory. A board is elected within this nonhigh- school territory and levies a tax to pay the tuition of all eighth-grade graduates residing within the notilaighechool territory. An unusual and most effective plan is provided for taking care of the two and three year high schools. In many of our mining villages and smaller communities the people desiring to keep their children at home during the first years of the high-school course sought to maintain a high school and an elmentary school on the one tax of 14. per cent on the assessed veins- SECONDARY EDUCATION. 198 tiou of the property. In almost every instance it was found that to maintain such a high school meant the ahortenink of the elementary school, the lowering of the wages paid the teachers and the consequent reduction of elementary-school oppor- tunities. Now, this new law places all recognized two and three year high schools within -the nonhigh-school territory. All of the funds within these local two and three year high-school districts is to be used for the elementary schools and they are taxed with the rest of the district for the payment of the tuition of all the eighth- grade graduates within the nonhigh-school district. All the children attending these two and three year high schools have their tuition paid out of this fund. If a two-year high-school district has 20 pupils enrolled, it receives 20 times the per capita cost of maintaining the high-school courses. If a three-year high school has 35 pupils, it receives 35 times the per capita met of maintaining the high-school courses, all paid out of the nonhigh-school tuition. fund. You will note that the provisions for forming community high-school districts is much better safeguarded than under the law of 1911, which was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court. In Kentucky adjacent counties have been given the privilege by the legislature o combining for the establishing and maintaining a joint high school covering a territory larger than the single county as an educational unit. The congressional district high schools- of Georgia are well known. And in North Carolina there are the farm -life schools. Of these State Supt. Joyner says in his recut report: Since the amendment, to the farm-life school law, allowing any county that will provide the required equipment and an annual maintenance fund equal.to the amount received from the State to avail itself of the State appropriation not to exceed a maximum of $2,500 for instruction in agriculture, sewing, cooking, house- told economics and other farm-life subjects in connection with one or store of its rural high schools, 9 new farm -life schools have been established during the biennial period, making a total of 21 such schools in 17 counties of the State. No part of the annual maintenance fund for these schools or of the funds for their necessary equip- ment is allowed to be taken out of the regular school funds and to shorten the regular public-school term until th.ose funds are sufficient to provide a minimum of six months. The significant and hopeful fact about their establishment through the cooperation and sacrifice of the people of the communities in which they are located is the evidence that it furnishes of intense interest in the education of country boys and girls for country life, and of the faith of the country people in a sort of education and school that can and will provide better preparation for more profitable, more comfortable, more healthful, more joyous, and more contented living in the country. The progress of centralized schools in North Carolina and the program for the future is set forth as follows: Under the law and the rules adopted by the State board of education not more than four of these schools can be established in any one county. No public high school can be established except in connection with a public school having at least two other teachers in the elementary and intermediate grades, and the entire time of at least one teacher must be devoted to the high-school grades. No public high school can be'established in a town of more,thaa 1,200 inhabitants. Each district in which a public high school is established is required to duplicate by special taxation or subscription the amount apportioned to the school from the State appropriation; each county is required to apportion to esclipublic high school 171028 °-21Btill. 88--1.8 194 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. out of the county fund an amount equal to that apportioned to it out of tfie State appropriation. The minimum sum that can be apportioned annually from the State appropriation for the establishment and maintenance of any public high school is $200 and the maximum sum $600. The total sum annually available for any public hikh school established under this act ranges, therefore, from $600 to $1,800. The high-school funds can be used only for the payment of salaries of the high-school teachers and the necessary incidental expenses of the high-school grades. There are now from one to four public high schools in each of 96 counties of the State. There are therefore four counties in which no public high schools have yet been estab- lished. For the proper maintenance and development of these high schools more money will of course be required. It is our hope to be able to select the best high school in each county, taking into consideration the location, the accessibility, the environment, etc., and develop this into &laid first-class county high school, doing thorough high-school work for four full years' and some vocational work in agriculture, sewing and cooking, and other rural- life subjects. Around this school should- be built a dormitory and a teachers' home. The dormitory, properly conducted, would afford an opportunity for the boys and girls from all parts of the county to board at actual cost. Many of these could return to their homes Friday evening, coming back Monday morning. Many of them who do not have the money to spare to pay their board would probably be able to bring such provisions as are raised on the farm and have them credited on their board at the market price. A small room rent could be charged each student. The principal's home would make it possible to secure a better principal and keep him probably for years, thereby giving more permanency to the school and more continuity to the work, making a citizen of the teacher and enabling him and his family to become potent factors in the permanent life of the community, contributing no small part to uplifting it, morally and intellectually, by their influence. Then the other high schools in different sections of the county should be correlated with this central school, and the course of study in these should he limited probably to not more than two years of high-school work, requiring all students desiring to pursue the last two years of the four-year course to attend the central county high school, which will be fully equipped, in all respects for thorough high-school work. Thirty-nine of those public high schools now have 46 dormitories, in which more than 18 per cent of the county high-school pupils secure board at actual cost and pay for it in money or in provisions at ,the market price. That the effect of consolidation has not everywhere proved satis- factorf is evidenced by the following quotation from the 1917 report of the inspector of high schools in Minnesota. There for several years a law has boon in force making possible the affiliation of a number of rural schools with a central shool of 12 grades, one superintendent overseeing all the work. As a State -wide policy, association of rural schools with a central school as a means of improving the rural schools is not satisfactory. The superintendent of a village or city school system is, by training, experience, and lack of first-hand interest, unsuited to the task of supervising rural schools. The exception proves the rule. Withdraw State aid for association, and the entiretabric which has been building for eight years would fall to pieces. In few places has it brought-lasting good to either party to the contract. The villages and cities will never succeed in making over the rural school or otherwise materially improving rural-life conditions. Like the rest of us the farming 'people must and will work out their own salvation. The great benefits which we expected from association were to come as the result of closer and more skillful super-, SECONDARY EDUCATION. 195 vision. But, with a few notable exceptions, we have accomplished nothing for the improvement of the rural school and have wrought injury to the central school itself by scattering the time and interest of the superintendent over too large and diversified a field. It should he evident to even a casual reader that all programs for consolidation more or less tend toward a centralization of authority. Whenever funds are supplied from a central source, direction of work naturally follows. Repeatedly in the report are found "the course of study as outlined or approved by this office," and similar phrases. No theme was more frequently or emphatically presented at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence than the necessity of State and Federal aid to schools in order not only to equalize the opportunities for education but also to safeguard the interests of the larger political and social units. The tendency and the underlying sentiment toward centralization are strong; before induration they should be carefully and fully considered as part of the new national program. LARGER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT. Another tendency manifested in the reports of the biennium is toward a more complete use of high-school buildings. The marvelous increase in registration during the past years has made it obvious to the observant that even the ambitious building program could not long satisfy the demands upon it. Now, partly because of the great enrollment in secondary- schools and partly because the war has very generally put a stop to now construction, there are numerous reports, especially in eastern cities, of high-school buildings being occupied more or less all day by two or more platoons of pupils. This duplicate use of high-school Wildings is found very generally in Now York City and also in Schenectady, Jamestown, and Erie, N. Y.; New Haven, Conn.; Paterson and Jersey City, N. J.; Chelsea, Mass.; Kansas City, Mo.; and Dallas, Tex. Many cities report that in the high-school building are held public meetings various kinds; in Stamford, Conn., for example, during 1916-17 there were in the high- school building for the public 15 lectures, 39 receptions, 18 entertain- ments, 22 civic meetings, and 8 "other functions," with an estimated total attendance of 16,900. More and more high-school buildings are open for evening schools, for summer schools, and for other activities during the vacation months. The Washington Irving High School in New York City, for example, during the summer of 1918 wt used as a regular academic summer high school: as a school to fit adult women for Governmeat service; as a recreation center, Using the gymnasia and f.00fs for play and dancing and the assembly hall for concerts; as a community forum, where various groups met for the discussion of public questions; and as quarters for university extension courses. 196 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. THE HIGH SCHOOLS AND THE COLLEGES. Less than formerly is being said about college entrance require- ments, partly because the colleges have, from time to time modified their demands, partly because a larger number of high schools, usually the small or the weak ones, attempt fo# all pupil's nothing but what is required for entrance to college, and partly because many other secondary schools are differentiating their work, pre-: paring some pupils for college and others for the immediate demands of society. The most significant changes regarding college entrance during the biennium were probably the new requirements of four prominent women's colleges of the East and the decision of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, in the territory of which is 55 per cent of the high school population, not to partici- pate further in the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Require- ments. it is stated that now not more than 15 Per cent of the students who 'miter college do so by passing admission examinations. The criticism by colleges of the high schools and their work has been very neatly turned by Inspector Hand, of South Carolina, in his annual report for 1917: Much has been said and written in recent years about the increased requirements for college entrance. The requirements have been increased. But there is another side to the natter one that is very rarely mentionA. What advance has been made in the standards of the colleges beyond the entrance requirements? How much higher grade of work is the freshman class doing? How much higher grade of work is the senior elms getting? A close comparison of some of your catalogued for 1909-10 with those for 1916-17 reveals a curious, if not incongruous, state of affairs. Colleges that have within that time almost doubled their published entrance requirement& are doing almost the same work they did seven yeare ago. For illustration, take the subjects that are fairly well graded, such as mathematics, Latin, and English. In numerous instances the wording describing these courses has not been changed in years. In many instances the textbooks have not been changed. In others the textbooks have been changed only as to authors. In still others considerable changes have been made in the freshman and sophomore work with very few in the junior and senior work. This situation explains how pupils from ordinary four-year high schools are still getting into the sophomore clam with discouraging frequency. He goes on to point out that all of the 15 colleges of South Carolina that .. "requirea 14 units for admission are not justified in so doing. by either thei own work or by that of the high schools of the State, and that in the freshman class of these colleges there are 146 per cent of the number of pupils in the fourth year of high schools in the State in the preceding year. Fully one-half of the freshmen entered on condition. Your patrons and the public have a right to know just how these conditions are removed. In how many hours do you work off two units of conditions, requiring in the high school 240 sixty-minute hours? Who does the work and in what manner is it done? Show the public in your catalogues bow, it comes about that a 12-unit student with two units to make up can graduate on schedule time with the 14-unit a SECONDARY EDUCATION. 197 students without hurt to either. What effect is the plan going to have on the main- tenance of four-year high schools? It is already telling against them. The criticism is quoted At length because of its pertinency to con- , ditions in several other States as well. There is evidence of an increasing effort .by the high school to inform elementary pupils of its offerings and opportunities. Some cities (e. g., Milwaukee) publish handbooks for the information of eighth-grade pupils; and many others (e. g., Decatur, and Dallas, Tex.) publish similar handbooks that are distributed to the incoming freshmen in order that they may quickly adjust them- selves to new conditions. In Cleveland, Ohio, the seniors in different high schools are reported to have visited the eighth grades from which they came and there to have made brief talks on the benefits of high-school education. Data in numerous reports indicate the growth of a more critical attitude of schoolmen toward their work. Statements of "impres- sions" and of untested experiments are more and more giving way to records substantiated by standard measures.and by definite figures. Because of the complexity of the aims in secliodary school subjects, few standard measures have so far been developed; but in several surveys and city reports are the scores of high-school pupils in spell- ing, in composition writing, in reading, and in algebra; the Ayres, Ilillegas, Kansas or Thorndiko, and Monroe or Rugg and Clark measures being used. When the purposes of each phase of secondary education have been more clearly defined, we may expect the devel- opment of tests adequately to measure aPcomplishments of all kinds. FAILURES AND MARKS. It is interesting to note the (Concern that is now being taken by school administrators with failures and school marks. The aca- demic studies concerning these topics, startling and disappointing as they have always been, are now being applied widely to reveal infor- mation that will lead to the improvement of school work. El Paso, Tex., Stamford, Conti:, Paterkon, N. J., Topeka, Kans., and Altoona and Johnstown, Pa., are cities that have published in their annual reports studies of failures in thei high schools. Supt. Cary included in "Education in Wisconsin " a study l?y Jeanette Rankin of the number and per cent of pupils dropped, failed, and promoted in 75 high schools of the State. This is the most comprehensive of recent studies. It shows that for the 75 high schools 10 per cent of all the student-hour work was dropped and, 9 per cent failed. As usual, the worst records were during the first year, in the more conventional subjects, and by the boys. - A study of the marks recorded by subjects and by teachers fre- quentl leads to a revision of the marking system. The story of how this happened in one school is interestingly told by Supt.i Camp, of - .. `. . . . - ;.'s ' , .- .` "_- . _ 198 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Stamford,' Conn., in his report for 1917, and afterwards more elabo- rately in the School Review. The weighting of marks so that they will give qualitative as well as quantitative credit seems to be widely accepted, and individual schools report that the plan when used has given satisfaction. In Chicago Supt. Shoop recommended shortly before his death that credits of increasing weights be given by the high schools for the subjects from freshman to senior. This would be a variation of a rather widespread practice of denying a pupil the privilege of taking for credit any academic subject listed in the cur- riculum more than one year above or below the class in which the pupil is. RETARDATION, ATIYENDkNCE, AND ELIMINATION. Closely related to a consideration of failures and marking systems are the studies of retardation, attendance, elimination, the source of high-school pupils, and the immediate destination of the graduates. Age-grade tables have for a number of years been common in reports on the elementary schools; they are now appearing with increasing frequency in the sections concerning. the high schools. The worth of such a study is determined, of course, by what results from it; there is no apparent 'value in merely collecting and publishing the figures. One superintendent very properly is pleased with the num- ber of pupils in the high school, as he had effort to recruit for further study young men and women who had prematurely left school for work; another administrator would with equal propriety be so disturbed by such a showing as to make a study of the efficiency of the grammar grades. .Several schools report the number of pupils who are present for different proportions of the Semester, but not one of them correlates the data with the facts concerning success in school work, and not one of them presents any program for improving the attendance. One of the most pleasing results of the secondary school develop- ment is its increase ' holding power. In scientific studies the term "persistence" is replacing "elimination." The losses between the beginning of the ninth' grade and graduation, however, are still very large. Pickell and Winkelblech, using a rough measure, have showed that in the States the highest percentage of the freshman class to be in school four years later is 54, in Indiana; the lowest, 17, in the Carolinas. For'the United States the percentage is 38. In New York City, where a large number of pupils are said to enter-the high schools to await the time when they may secure working papers or tp ascertain by.ssampling whether they will like the work or not, the percentage is as low as 21. Supt. Cary reports that in 1916 the enrollment of Wisconsin high schools was distributed as follows: Special students, 1; fieshmen, 34; sophomore", 29; juniors, 20;. seniors, 16. Of the 16 seniors, 14 graduated. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 199 Inspector Meredith records the progress of the class entering New Jersey high schools, as follows: I car. Grade. Numher. Per cei11. 1914 1915 1916 1917 IX X XI X11 16,tK 11,07 ., 072 6,50: 109a 47 32 El Paso, Tex., l.a Crosse, Wis., Paterson, N. J., Topeka, Kans., and other cities present tables showing the number and percentage Of °lin-lined° by semesters and by causes; and Kansas City, with its efficient iurp of measurements, publishes a comparative table that c thins the approximate percentage of all pupils entering the public schools who complete the high-school course in 17 cities. The range is from 7.3 and 7.4, for Newark and New York, to 25.8 and 25.9, for Portland, Oreg., and Seattle. "In 1891," the Kansas City report continues, "only 4 per cent of our pupils who entered the ele- mentary schools completed the high-school course, but in 1917 this per cent had increased to 19.8." The Kansas City report\for 1917 also shows the percentage of high-school pupils dropped annually from 1900 to 1917. The median percentage for the 19 years'is 20.1, with a probable error of 1.1; however, the average for the \last 9 years is 19.4, or 1.4 per cent less than that for the first 9 'years of the period. HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS. In "Education in Wisconsin," we are told the source of high-schOol pupils. In the whole Statewhere, by the way, 17 per cent of all city pupils are in high school, as compared with 7 per cent of all country pupils-63 per cent of the pupils entering secondary schools in 1915-16 come from local city elementary grades, 2 per cent from the elementary grades of other cities, 7 per cent 'from State graded schools, 18 per cent from rural schools, and 10 per cent from private and parochial schools. Of the graduates in 1915-16 of the eighth grades of Wisconsin, 46 per cent entered high school from tl rural schools, 41 per cent from the State graded schools, 85 per ceirt from the village grades, and 85 per cent from the city grades. These figures, while encouraging as indicative of progress, show that there is still much to be done even in such favored communities to equalize dpportunities for secondary education. Such information .should be had for many cities and States, so that a new national program may be soundly based on facts. 4s10 less important than the source of our high-school pupils is 'tit becomes of them immediately after they graduate. The most compkte recent study seems to be that di the Des Moines Public 200 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19l6-1918. School Pupil and Employment. Vocational Guidance Bulletin No. 2, .1916. In this we are given a summary of the study of 380 graduates of the public high schools in 1914, supplemented by a tabulation of the overambitious plans of the senior class for their immediate future, of the occupational distribution of the parents of children attending high schools, and of what the employers of graduates have to say; about them. Other tabulations of the occupations of parents of high-school pupils are given by Thorndike and by Koons in Edu- cational Administration and Supervision. Those who believe that the primary duty of the schools is to prepare their pupils to perform better the desirable activities that they are likely to perform any Wit will find in such tabulations much information to influence the reorganization of courses of study. HIGH SCHOOLS FOR NEGROES. One phase of secondary education has never been fully considered, that of negro boys and girls. In the South, where enough negro pupils desire secondary education to warrant it, segregated high schools are established, butSthe curricula and courses are ofterrnot well adapted to the peculiar needs of the pupils. The provisions at St. Louis must be cited as conspicuously good, however. Frequently the equipment is poor and the content of the courses highly academic. Age-grade tables, as those from El Paso, show the negro pupil con- siderably retarded, and the elimination everywhere is high. In Louisville, Ky., for 1915-16, only 10 'per cent of the students, were enrolled in the senior class, and the sopl omores were 44 per cent of the number enrolled as freshmen. In t -hole State of Kentucky in 1916-17 there were 32 negro high schoo s, with an average enroll- ment of fewer than 41 pupils, 1,225 negrio pupils for the entire State. Half of the.entire enrollment was in the freshman class and only 9.4 per cent of it in the senior class. It should be noted that in these schools the average value of the equipment for manual training and domestic science was less than $700, flinging from $25 to $2,150. The per capita cost for conducting the 32 schools was $12. In the North, negro children, when they apply are admitted to high schools with little or no distinction because of their race- or peculiar needs. Some years ago Mayo showed that in one' of the New York City high schools the negro pupils, although.a very highly selected group,.did work innl rior tohat of the white pupils. In the 1917 report of Supt. Wilson, Topeka, Kans., there are tables pre- senting the facts concerning withdrawal and failuie in the high school of negro and white pupils by subjects for several semesters. The tables are-prefaced by the statement: The facts shown in the following tabulations I am reporting with regret. The tables show an abnormally high per cent of failures among the colored pupils. * " * The facts are that the colored pupils show a lack.ot efficiency somewhere in the system. The problem is not one for the cheap politicians or the demagogues of either race. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 201 The facts presented seem to show that in the Nation as a whole the conditions of secondary education are not. as satisfactory for the negro pupils as for the white. If the State affords education not as a luxury for the individual, but rather as a serious investment for the return which_ will come to itself, it can not safely neglect any important group of its people. SECONDARY SCHOOL 'PEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS. Before the declaration of war by the United States the movement for improving the quality of secondary school teachers was strong. Many States, particularly those in the North Central Association territory or contiguous to it, had adopted for high schools standards which included one or more items concerning the preparation and experience of teachers; and the inspectors in several reports stated that the quality was steadily improving. The legislative committee of the Kentucky .EduCational Association in 1917 passed. the follow- ing resolution: Since the rules and regulations of the State board of education, under the require- ments of statutory law. tic the minimum academic scholarship of teachers in standard four-year high schools at the equivalent of high-school graduation plus two addi- tional years' training in normal schools or colleges, we favor the enactment of those regulations into statutory law for the advice and government of boards of education and trustees throughout 011/. State. Washington has raised its requirements for high-school teachers to a complete college course which includes 12 semester hthirs in education; and the State superintendent of Utah announces in his report for 1916 that: The State board of education has wisely increased tide requirements for certificates to teach until at present high-school teschers iruist have completed a standard col- lege course of four yearn, and this must include, or the applicant must have in addi- tion to his degree, after June 30, 1917, one year of professional work, 18 hours of which, must tv strictly educational subjects. This is, essentially the requirement of California, a State which for a" number of years had led the country with its standards for teachers 9f public high schools. Even LouiSiana, the schools of which have been handicapped by extremely inadequate appropria- tions, adopted in 1916 a standard that will be gradually raised until the minimum requirement for teachers in high schools is graduation from a four-year college or university course. This standard can hardly be attained unless the State makes a material increase in salaries for high-school teachers, the average at that time being $680. As an, illustration of a practical set of requirements,. those from New Hampshire are given, together with the introductio, both from Circular No. 1, 1917. At this time,it is impossible to obtain aecondary teachers trained for their work. We will accept this condition for the present, but we must insist that teachers have no other capital defect beyond their ignorance of the teaching process.- We have 202 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. long demanded that they be satisfactory in Character and in mentality. We must now insist that they have in addition sufficient maturity and experience to make them leaders of young people, and sufficient knowledge so that they may guide them. This department plans to uphold superintendents and headmasters in their efforts to secure only qualified teachers. and to4kis end will make th specific approval of the teachers engaged a preliminary to the approval of the school. The following 'schedule is published to enable school officials to determine the general education and the special training to be required of candidates. It will be noted that in two notable particulars this statement differs from those given before. (1) A real requirement is set for the education of teachers of coyunerce. The com- merce courses have been the least successful and the least honored of secondary courses. and a common reason is that the teachers have seldom been the equal of the teachers ,in other courses in education. in experience, or in maturity. This require- ment is designed to prevent the approval of such teachers. It is desirable that schools drop their commerce curriculum if they are unable to secure qualified teachers. (2) The second change is in Tequired special preparation. It is insisted that teachers be not aasigned to teach subjects with which they are not familiar. . General eth,ration required.'reachers must have a bachelor's degree from an approved college. Erceptione.Teachers who have studied four full years in approved &dx.* of post-secondary kule. Teachers who were in service in New Hampshire approved secondary schools prior to July 15. 1905. Teachers of modern languages who have received adequate European or other training. Individual cases to be approved by the department. Provided in this and the three cases following that not leas than 80 per cent of their teaching be in their specialized subject. Teachers of domestic arts who have pursued at least three full years of post- secondary study iu approved special institutions. Teachers of commerce wholave pursued at least two full years of post-secondary study in commerce in approved special institutions. In addition they must have two years of general post-secondary study, of office work or of successful experience in teaching. Teachem of mec arts with scholastic and practical preparation sufficient far needs of their wo . Individual cases to be approved .by the department. . Teachers holding Grade B certificates whose work is restricted to grades soved to nine. except as specifically approved. Teachers who have one, two, or three years of poet-secondary study in approved institutions may be approved to teach courses not above the corresponding years of the secondary program. Teachers who fail to meet the above qualifications but are now teaching with suc- cess in approved New Hampshire secondary schools: Individual cases to be approved and the courses that may be taught to be specified by the department. Specill preparation required. Teachers must be prepared 'by two or more years of postsecondary. study of each aubjeot they propose to teach, such study to istlude the branches of the subject presented in the secondary courses. Exceptions. Teachers 'who have but one or two classes in is subject may be pry, pared by one year of pest-secondary study of that subject. Each year of poet-secondary study may be replaced by two years of successfUl teaching of the subject in approved secondary schools. For inexperienced teachers e department may waive the minim' um require. went for one clam Only. Indivi aI cases to be approved. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 203 These illustrative standards are much more encouraging, however, than -the reports of actual conditions. The progressive State of Wisconsin reports that., in 1916, 79.per cent of its high-school teachers in cities, and 56 per cent of those in county high schools, were,gradu- ales of colleges or technical schools, no account being taken of the standing of these higher institutions. Pennsylvania reports that only 46.2 per cent. of its high-school teachers were in 1917 graduates of colleges. State Supt. Morrison makes a frank statement of the conditions in New Hampshire: Orthe 507 different teachers employed in secondary schools of all elapses approved by, this office for the school year 1915-16, 393 or 77.5 per cetit were graduates of col- leges which grant the bachelor's degree. Of the remaining 114, the large majority were instructors in practical arta subjects judged to have had the requisite special training for instruction in the subjects which they teach. Twenty -five were teach- ers of modern language and other liberal arts branches who were not college graduates but who had prepared themselves by special study for instruction in their, chosen. fields and were deemed to have had the full equivalent of college graduation. The remainder of the 111 were graduates of normal schools or equivalent institutions teaching in junior high schools or thitd and fourth class high schools. Ninety-three per cent of all teachers of liberal arts branches in first-class secondary schools wer6 graduates of colleges. We have less than a dpzen teachers of-modern languages in the State who are thor oughly competent in education to teach modern languages in a high school, but most. of the remainder are passably competent; less than 20 who are thoroughly competent for science; less than half a dozen for history;a dozen for mathematics; a very few for Latin; almost nobody in English unless the pplatitie coveption of the language and literature of the niother tongue which most of }hem bring from college is competency. And yet the teaching staff of our secondary schools is better educated to-day than it was 20 years ago, when it K9.8 no uncommon thing for teachers to be employed for high schoOls whose education had been limited to that of the schools in which they taught. We have still in this State, at in most States, a secondary teaching staff which is whollruntrained. Not one per cent of the secondary teachers of the State-have ever had any professional training athll comparable towhat 44 per cent of the elementary teaching force his had. A few have taken courses in education in college, and that is a help. There are reported 147 persons teaching in the secondary schools of the State in the school year 1915-16 who graduated from college in 1911 or 1915. This is more than one-third of all the college graduates teaching during the year, and the same propor- tion practielilly would hold for the lioncollege teachrs. That means that you turn over yous boys Ind girls at their most impressionable age to striplings who are without training or experience, who hpve no notions of teaching except those which they bring with them from college; and who in most cases have no intention whateveof teaching beyond the few years which form a fitting in ude between college and matrimony. We wo,ildn't deny them the latter, but w do think that if they are going to teach at all they ought to learn how to teach jug do the girls who are two years younger and who are teaching in the-elementary ec ools. Our notebooka and recatds of inspection telt- a wretched tale of the faFical instruc tion commonly found in the classrooms of these young teachers, particularly in English, both language and literature, in history, in languages and in science. Ordinarily teaching consists in assigning pages out of in incomprehensible textbook 1 V 204 , BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, or dictating from a college notebook. And this to boys and girls of an.age which seed skillful teaching beyond any age other than that ofjhe primary school. Of course, tliere is found the occasional "born teacher," and, on the other hand, anybody who has the mentality to have won through college improves through ex- perience. But the point of view is prone to remain permanently formalistic, and it too often rapidly becomes pedantic. , In order that administrators might have some index of the kind of teachers tile different colleges are furnishing the Schools of New Hampshire, Dr. Morrison bps asked the several superintendents and plincipals of the State to rate their,teachers who were rec&it college gratdates., The following instructions were used: re . . In rating use the letters A, B, C, and D!. Use A for a teacher who is all that you could reasonably ask, efficient in practice and possessed of an understanding of what she is doing and why she is doing it. Use D for teachers who were incompetent and ought to have been dismissed or were dismissed. Use B and C for grades between. A "B" teacher may be thought of as characterized by the term ;Good average.- A "C" teacher is one who is rather below the mark and ought to be dismissed unless she improves, but in whose ease there is. ground for hope that she will improve. She is not incompetent. -Mark critically and severely. These ratings for the whole State- are tabulated by colleges and published, State. High School Inspector Hand, of South Carolina, makes an even more depressing statement of facts as he sees them in his State: To anyone familiar with the conditions that obtain in many places throughout the State, it is simply amazing to see the absolute indifference of the people as to the qualifications of those who teach' theirichildren. and fleece th m of their money. Men and women innocent of any charge of education. without tny aptitude to teach, and without any experience are put in charge of schools, in the ,ace of the fact that they are to have little, if any, supervision. It is safe to say that there uredn South Carolina 500 white teachers holding legal certificates to teach who could not make a grade of 50 per cent on the studies of the eighth %nd ninth grades of our public schools, if examined as rigidly as are the pupils of these grades in the best schools& of the State. It would be unsafe to say how many white teachers are holding cet- dficatevrantetd on all manner of pretexts, from long experience (successful or unsuc- cessful) dawn to two weeks' enrollment at some summer school. Notwithstanding the fact that almost anybody can get a certificate to teach school, there are in the public schools not fewer than 100 white teachers drawing salaries without any sem-. blance of legal authority to teach. Some of them have been teaching from 10 to 20 years without a certificate of any kind. These statements have concerned the .teachers of entire States. From the following quotation from the 1918, report of Associate Supt. !'ildsley, of New York, it seems that even cities where the highest absolute salaries are paid are suffering materially from the low quality of-new .tau-aers entering the high schools. Abnormal business conditions are not the only epee. We have experienc. ed this past year an increasing difficulty in securing men teacfrers of the personality and training New York City hail a right to demand in theleachers of its youth. The rapidly mounting -cost of living has so reduced the purchasing sib SECONDARY EDUCATION. 205 power of salaries that men. and especially married men, can not live on the salaries which were fixed on the basis of a much lower coat of living. While teachers salanes have been reduced through the operation of rising prices opportunities for employ- ment at rising salaries have been opened up in bueine®, with the result that not only ie the supply of men teachers being cut oft at its source. namely. the graduating classes of our colleges. but teachers now in our schools are being drawn away by the larger salaries paid in other occupations. Unless the high-schpupils in this city are to be taught entirely by women or by men of inferior perWtality inadequately trained, and without the character and the qualities of leadership which are needed in those who are expected to train our boys and girls for the responsible duties of citizenship, a very considerable increase in le salaries of -high-school teachers must be made. Much as we all deplore the constant increase in the tax rate, the people of New York Must realize that in this city. With its large foreign population, the cost of educatiop .must be reckoned &first charge on revenues . It needs only casual comparison of the so-called salaries of school- teachers with the wages now received by men and women in the world of industry and commerce to explain these conditions and others equally bad, though for various 'lessons not presented* in school reports. THE TENURE OF TEACHERS APID PRINCIPALS. However good teachers and principals are, schools can not by satisfactory unless tenure in the same position continues over a cInsiderable period. In Wisconsin the median length of experience for all high-school teachers was in 1916 four years; theignedian length of service in one locality wai one year or less. In Pennsylvania the story, is only a little better: Half the teachers who are graduates of colleges have taught five years or less, and half pf those who are only graduates of normal schools have taught only two years longer. The condition in small high schools is everywhere pitifully bad, changes of teachers occurring with great frequency, and supervision being negligible. From ,California, where salaries are relatively high, come the following report and recommendations: The commissioner has compiled data showing that the tenure of principals and teachers in the small high schools is all too abort. Of the 32 small high schools estab- lished previous to 1911-12, 6 made no change in the principalship during the four years ending June 30, 1916; 11 made two changes; 12 made three changes; 2 made four changes; and 1 made five changht. The average tenure of principals was a little over two years. These schools in 191-18 employed 104 assistant teachers. Of this number only 10 were teaching in California high schools in 1911-12. It would seem therefore that the small high schools are taught for the most part by teachers with.little experi- ence. By fixing the minimum salary of principali at $1,600 per annum, for example, which is $100 lees than the average now paid, and advancing the salary $100 pet annum until a maximum of $2,000 is reached, school boards in charge of small high skihools will undoubtedly be able to retain the srvices of prihcipals for a term of years. It is desirable that high-school boards be authorized by law to employ principalifor a four-year term after one year of probationary service. When we consider teachers' salaries, we find a similar situation. Good teachers are in demand and better salaries attract them. By adopting a salary schedule based upon experience the school board will establish a condition favorable to the retention Or- 206 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. of teachers by the district for a longer period. The cotnrnissioner suggests that the minimum salary in small high schools be fixed at $1.000 per annum, and that provision be made for an increase in the salary annually until a certain maximum is reached. The additional amount paid to teachers under this plan will yield better returns ti the community than the same amount expended for an additional teacher. New Hampshire has a worse story to tell: The teaching force is very unstable. Very nearly twoJfifths of all our secondary teachers were new to their places last year. Three-fifths were holding their positions for the first or second year; 37.4 of the college graduates had held their degrees for lees than two years. This proportion holds year after year, and the situation is almost fatal to the efficiency of our higher institutions. Only about 9 per cent of our whole secondary teaching force were graduated from a New IIampshire institution. With rare exceptions, the remaining 91 per cent have no stake in New Hampshire, they are not personally the bit, of material, they do not understand our ways, and naturally they move at the first opportunity. The situation in Massachusetts is graphically told in the two ac- companying tables, the first showing the length of tenure of prin- cipals in each class of 'high schools, Class IV being the weakest, and the second revealing the absurdly small increases in salary that the principals were given. Approximately one-half of those who held their old positions had no increase at all, and 72 per cent of those who were rewarded wen!) given an increment of 3100 or less, 26 per cent very considerably less. The wonder is that trained men and women enter -at all, to say nothing of remaining in, a vocation that offers such niggardly rewards for service. Tenure of principal's position. Number of years principal occupied Ids present po- sition previous to September, 1916. Number of high schools. Group Group IV. Total. Group I. Group 11. 0 years I year..... 2 years 3 or 4 years 6 to 10 years Over to years Total , 1 8 8 13 11 21 23 14 6 4 11 11 7 9 19 12 16 In 21 9 10 7 7 33 38 45 51 36 83 53 63 54 255 The following' table shows that of the 203 principals who occupied their present positions last year only 100 received an increase in salary. Increase in principal's salary. Increment in salaries. Number of high schools. Total. Group 1. Oroup 11. Group Group IV., Change In ptincipal No Increment Inoretnent of 180 or Iess toorement of 651 to Il00 Inatitnant of more than $163 Tow 8 44 2 14 17 14 22 4 8 5 , 9 22 11 16 3 21 15 7 8 3 52 103 26 46 28 86 63 63 64 256 SECONDARY EDUCATION. 207 A State policy of providing adequate increments in the salaries of high-school principals would do much to attract men of superior ability and to reduce the excessive changes in the principalship. The median length of service in their positions by principals of first-class high schools in Missouri in 1916 was less than two years. EFFECT OF TIIE WAR ON TENURE. However bad conditions were in 1916, they became considerably 'worse with the entrance of the United States into the war. Large numbers of the young men teachers entered the Army, as there were no provisions by the Government for retaining them in the less dramatic but equally important national service of teaching. Some, especially teachers of science and of industrial subjects, have forsaken the schdolroom to aid in the campaign behind the lines; and recently there has been a steady and successful movement to enlist some M the most desirable young principals and teachers in various kinds of social work among the soldiers. The schools have willingly given up all these men and women as their part in winning the war, but it is a national shame that a false sense of economy on the part of the public should have permitted so many thousands of other principals and teachers to be tempted from the schools by the large increases in wages offered them .by industries of all kinds. It is imperative that a program be formulated at an early date for recruiting for the secondary schools the highest quality of young men and women and for giving them adequate academic and professional training to equip them to educate the million and a half boys and girls who are seeking some form of advanced education. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS. For the'1916 report, of State High-School Inspector Kingsley, Prof. Inglis, of Harvard, prepared the following statement concerning the preparation of high-school teachers in Massachusetts. An ideal pro- gram for the training of such teachers has been formulated and recently published by the College Teachers of Education. , The colleges of Massachusettshave always been the main source from which teachers are recruited for the secondary schools of the Commonwealth. Until the last decade of the nineteenth century the training thus afforded included solely instruction in the subject matter of the various studies to be twat, ' No attempt was made to provide specific training through professional subjects of educatii until 1891, when such training was begun at Harvard University. At the present time such courses are to some extent provided in all except 4 of the 18 collegee of the Cornmohwealth. The desirable forms of professional training for secondary school-teachers and the work now offered by Oe colleges of the Commonwealth are as follows: 1. Instruction in th subject !latter of the studies to be taught in the secondary school. This is now well provided is nearly all the colleges. 208 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, 2. Instruction in the fundamental professional subjects of education, such as the history of education, educational psychology, and principles of education. Thirteen or fourteen colleges in the State offer such courses, though in some cases those courses are taught by instructors not primarily interested in education as a professional subject of study. 3. Instruction in the principles and problehis of secondary education. Nine or ten colleges offer such courses. Much remains to be done in this field. 4. Instruction in the methods of teaching in the secondary school. This they he provided separately 'or combined with instruction in the principles and problems of secondary education, or combined with instruction in the teaching of various subjects. ThisOwork is offered in a few institutions only, and is generall yadmitt ed to he inadequate. 5. Instruction in the teaching of various subjects. Five or six colleges piovide some courses of this nature, but the condition is very unsatisfactory, in 'part because it. is uneconomical to provide separate courses in the teaching of all the various subjects on account of the small number of students intending to teach a single subject, and in part because such courses are commonly taught by the regular college instructor in those subjects, whoee experience in secondary-school teaching has been sl slight or entirel y lacking. 6. Experience in supervised apprentice teaching. Nine or ten colleges now offer facilities for such apprentice teaching under professional supervision. In 1916 about 700 graduates- of Massachusetts colleges entered the teaching pro- fession, for the most part in the secondary schools of this and other States. Of that number approximately 500 had taken at least two professional courses in education. Returnsirom colleges show that few, probably less than 100, had done some apprentice teaching as a part of their professional training in the college. The colleges of Massachusetts have made a promising beginning of training teachers for the secondary schools of the State. Further progress in that directiod is condi- tioned by a number of factors, among which the most important are- 1. The establishment of a system of certification which shall prescribe standards of admission to the service and encourage the professional training of secondary-school teachers. 2. Recognition of the fact that a graduate year of professional study is essential for the adequate training of such teachers, and provision for such a graduate course. 3. The provision of greater and better facilities for apprentice teaching under supervision as a part of the training of secondary-school teachers. 4. Provision of greater and better facilities for prospective teachers in the methods of teaching each of the various subjects in the secondary school. It is to be noted that the first three of these factors are to a great extent dependent upon State action. Until the present, the initiative in providing facilities for the training of secondary-eel:tool teachers in Massachusetts has been taken by the colleges without the active assistance or cooperation of the State. It is prolaable that the extension of those facilities must depend to a considerable degree on the action of State and local school authorities. New Hampshire suggests the following steps as feasible and likely to load to a higher grade of scholarship in the teaching force of its high schools: 1. Let our State college be eo organized as to Ave each student preparing to teach in high school four years of intensive work in the single subject which ho plans to make his specialty. Ile would have minor subjects, also, of course. There is no good reason why the young person who has finished high school, and who knows that he is to teach at all, should not be able to choose his specialty before entering college as well as on the day he applies for a job. SECONDARY EDUCATION. , 209 2. Encourage postgraduate work by speciq State aid to graduate teachers who attain the master's degree, after much thesame plan as that of our present State aid for qualified teachers in the elementary schools, which has worked so well. 3. Let the State college aim to furnish the bulk of the new teachers needed to recruit the secondary-teaching staff. SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION. Supervision is necessary for the improvement of teachers, whatever their training or experience. It is especially needed where it is least given, in the small 1 h schools that are taught by young men and women, many of hom would rapidly become profes;;ional and increasingly expe under the guidance of a superyNn. of insight and sympathy. As a rule, the county superintendent on his infrequent visits to a school gives little attention to the high-school teachers, partly because he feels that their training must have fitted them for their tasks and partly because the aims and standards of secondary- school teaching are still indefinite. The State high-school inspector probably has a larger influence at his annual visit, chiefly because ho comes with the preStige'of his position and it perspective gained from seeing the work of hundreds of teachers who are attempting to give instruction on the same or similar subject matter. It would if the functions of inspection and of supervision could be separated, as in Arkansas. Dattt from the several States, much of it unpublished, give evidence that the State inspectors vary much in their helpfulness to teachers. In Maryland, where, since the school survey super- vision has been emphasized, State Inspector North reports that ho has visited classes, recorded data on well-devised blanks (see Md. State Rept., 1917, pp. 168 -169), held individual conferences with teachers on problems of instruction and with principals on problems, of administration, suggested plans for working out desired school improvements, and in a large number of cases met the faculties after school hours, when questions of immediate moment to the particular school and of larger significance in the high-school field were discussed. The report continues: The plain intent of the present school law, as regards high-school supervision, ie that the supervisor shall devote himself primarily to supervisionthat is, to the task of endeavoring to bring about a better quality. of instruction, to improve the actual teaching in the classroom; and though this involves a number and variety of other duties, both in the field and in the office, the outstanding function of a supervisor, as distinguished from an inspector, is unquestionably that of helping to improve teaching by working with the teachers now in service. The supervisor, therefore, began the year's work with the plan of working immediately at the actual problems of the classroom: but lose than one montlfei experience convinced him that the year *ould have to be devoted principally to procuring changes in the internal organization of the schools, and in securing the minimum equipment with which a good quality of teaching might reasonably be expected. The most conspicuous needs of the school as whole wore found to lie in these three directions: (1) }dor° apparatus, textbooks, 171028° -21Bull. 88--14 210 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, materials of instruction, library equipment; (2) rearrangement and better adjustment of school programs to the State course of study; and (3) more and ,better teachers. Accordingly, this report will review, in a general way, under these three heids the principal points of the supervisor's findings and efforts. A part of the discussion of apparatus, textbooks, materials of instructions, and library equipment is appended: There were on the approved list for 191G-17, 72 high schools, 30 of the first group and 42 of the second. Of these, at least 7 of the first group (23 per cent), and at least 20 (47 per cent) of the second group were conspicuously short in these several particulars of the minimum laid down by the State hoard as requisite for placing a school on the approved list. Most of these schools had been on the list for several years, and many of them had drawn the State aid ever since 1910, when it was first granted; but they had never been furnished, nor would they, apparently, ever have been furnished with sufficient equipment to do genuine high-school work without the steady, insistent pressure and frequent regular inspection provided by the new law. Their shortages were of various kinds; some had no library and no apparatus of any sort; others had the unusable remains of an antiquated library and of an archaic laboratory outfit; and still others had, owing to annual. changes of teachers, let their equipment, good at first, run down almost to nothing. These shortages mean that the classroom exercises in science were limited to mere textbook work, answering rote.questions, the reciting of memorized portions of the texts; that there was no library reference or supple- mentary matter available; and that the instruction in the two social subjects, English and history, was simply dying on its feet, being confined entirely to one bookthe text used; and the lack of maps and charts, either purchased or homemade, simply petrified the instruction in history and in Ctesar. But supervision is needed also in large high schools, either directly by the principal or by experienced assistants to whom he delegates this important function. This is recognized and strongly urged by Dr. Tildsley, of Now York City, in his report for 1918: What is most needed in our high schools, next to closer and more skillful super- vision on the part of the principal himself, is more effective Supervision by the first assistants who are chairmen of departments. There is a remarkable disparity in the effectiveness of such supervision at the present time on the part of the various first assistants in the different schools, and oven between first assistants in the same school. It seems evident that, in the examinations in the -past, scholarship has been given emphasis rather than qualities of leadership and administrative ability. It is to be hoped that in the coming examinations the board of examiners will emphasize personality, past achievement in our service, and proved qualities of leadership, rather than knowledge of the subject matter and even of methods. Scholarship and knowledge of methods, if not accompanied by courage, kindliness, and that intangible quality known as leadership, avail a head of a department but little. Contrary to general opinion, our high schools are suffering not from oversupeavision, but from undersupervision. Some principals allow themselves to be confined to their inner offices, busied over details which could often be assigned to a subordinate, When they should be in the classroom inspiring the teachers and stimulating the pupils. Some of these principals, while thus giving too little of their time to actual classroom inspec- tion, are not even supervising by proxy, since they have not succeeded in developing heads of departments who are the real leaders and not merely the nominal leaders of departments and who lead because of their grasp Of the prod ems of their department, their initiative, encouragement, and judgment. Weak h of departments for the most part mustle charged against the principal.of the ec 1. If the board of exam- SECONDARY EDUCATION. 211 iners has ever erred in placing unfit teachers on the first assistant's list, only in rare instances has pressure been exerted on the principal to take a first assistantnot of hie own choice. Furthermore, slit+ first assistants have had a temporary tenure for three years, and (filth)); that period would have lost their licenses on unfavorable reports of the principals. II cads of departments grow if the principal encourages them or even allow,them to grow. They degenerate if the principal gives them no authority and does not encourage the exercise of initiative on the part of his chairmen. A really strong principal will be found surrounded by strong, aggressive, and progressive chairmen of departments composed of enthusiastic., energetic, efficient teachers. Where such a condition does not exist, the responsibility lift; with the principal who has stiff( d the growth of his teachers. It is obvious that, if effective supervision is to he secured, a'greater demand must be made as to training and professional fitness on the principal. State Iligh-School Inspector Calloway, of Missouri, emphasizes this point in his report for 1916: We need to evolve in this State a position of high-school principal. The city super- intendent can not give suflivient time to the supervision of instruction in our high schools. The superintendent with the grade work and with official duties can not effectively do this work: It is clear to me that it must be provided for through the high-school principal. Ile must be given more time. His work must be organized in such a way that he can find time for work with high-school teachers. The high- school principal should be given more authority and his duties more clearly defined. His status is not at the present time such that his influence with his teachers is strong. Ile is not taken seriously by high-school teachers, and consequently refuses to take a hand in matters over which he does not have full authority. Both authority and dignity must be attached II) this position before our best men will remain high-school principals. When we have created such a position in this State, the high-school principalship will not be a stepping stone to the superintendency. The superin- tendent now has more than he can do. Such a change will not, in any way, curtail the importance of the position of the superintendent. Inspector Kingsley, of Massachusetts, also recommends a require, went of professional training:. Too often a principal is selected on the ground that he has a pleasing personality and has been unusually successful in teaching some one subject. These qualifications, while important, are far from adequate, lie should be a student of educational prob- lems. It is extremely desirable that he ahould have taken courses in high-school organization and administration in a college or university. This seems tq be a reason- able requirement in view of the summer schools now offering such courses. Experi- ence as principal of a smaller school affords excellent training for similar responsi- bilities in a larger school, while experience as a department head under a capable principal is of added value. Not only must the principal be trained, but he must also be given time from his administrative duties to visit classes and confer with his teachers daily in an effort to improve their work.' Every one who has studied the situation has found that actually few principals find the time to perform adequately the mostArgportnant function of their officethe supervision and improvement of instruction. Mr. Calloway, by means of a questionnaire sent to principals of all first- 212 BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDU('ATION, 1916-1918. class high schools of Missouri, St. Louis and Kanstis City excepted, found that they distributed their time as follows: Tearhing periods of prinripats. Number of periods. Number of prin- cipals. 0 1 2 2 3 3 12 5 37 :ss 7 Per cent of prin- cipals. Median number of periods taught daily. by prinripa s. 5. Nei .,duly ben. Number o periods. 5 2 In 11 311 28 3 Nutnber I l'er cent of prin.' 01 prin- cipals. 44 1 37 2 20 3 11 4 1 37 35 24 1 Median number of periods given.daily by principals to kee iing study hall, 1. Doing office !lark. Number bI periods. P 1 2 :t Number of prin- cipal.. 70lil I ) 11 Per cent of mills 01 :3) 21) 0 Median Wonder of periods given daily to office work by principals, 1. Supercising. Number Per cent Number o. periode. of prin. of prin- cipal. cipals. 0 82 -0 Less limn 1 8 6 1 le 13 10 0 3 0 n 4 1 1 Median number of period given daily to supervision by pripdpaln, 0. A similar story is told in the reports from Virginia and Kentucky, avid doubtless would be repeated iu almost every State if the data were available. With the omission of 31. principals in Virginia and SECONDARY EDUCATION, 218. of 110 in Kentucky who made no report, and of 20 in Kentucky who confessed that they gave " very little" time to supervision, the following tabulation was made: Amount of time given daily by high-school principals in Virginia and Kentucky to super Periods. Rent ucky. Per. cent. Per renl. Give no perio 11 al 22 Give less than I period Clive I period Give 2 periods 15 id 21 Clive more than I period Give more than 2 periods A 20 7 1 Oive more than 3 periods 2 Medians 0 The situation is bad enough if the figures are taken us recorded; it is worse if they are critically examined. Although there is no disposition to imply dishonesty on the pa.rt, of principals mak' return's to the State office 31f -to how they spend their time, it mus be recognized that the tendency would be to report a larger num of periods given to professional and supervisory functions than actual daily practice would warrant;-.moreover, some principals may have misunderstood the instructions. In Kentucky. for exsninle, . 12 principals report that they spent from five to nine periods (folly in supervision. One-half of these principals were in- schools of fewer than 125 pupils, 43 per cent of them in schools of fewer than 50 pupils, and 25 per cent in schools of feWer than 25 pupils. Surely it would be worth while for the State inspector to make a study of the methods and results of such intensive supervision. Inspector Calloway, of Missouri, makes the following comment on the returns from his questionnaire study, some of the data of which were presented above:. To make a frank statement, there is not in this State, with a very few exceptions, what inay.rightfully be called a high-school principal. Except as regards some minor duties, pravically all of the so-called high-school principals are nothing more than high-schoolleachers. They are principals in name only. This is borne out not only by the amount of teaching done but also by the tenure of service. Forty-four per cent of the teachers are in their positions this year for the first time, while 43 pelr cent of the principals are in their positions for the first time. Of the 121 principals reporting. there are only 11 who de not teach as many as three periods; or half time; 6 report no teaching; 2 teach one period; and 3 teach two periods per day; 72 per cent teach four or more periods; 3 per cent teach five periods; and 28 per cent, or more than one-fourth, do a full day's teaching. . As study-hall keepers, 77, or 63 per cent of the 121, keep study ball one or more periods: 86 per cent of the principale give one or more hours per day to office work: 35 per cent give two hours or more; and 15 per cent give throe or more hours per day to office duties. a 0 214,- BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUOATION, I918-1918. When the question of the supervision of instruction in the high schools is taken up the high-school principal falls far short; 82 of the 121, or 70 per cent, give absolutely no time to high-school teaching besides their own classes. An .additional 6 per cent give lees than one hour to high-school supervision, and only 22 per cent give as much as one hour to ,igh-school supervision. My obee,rvation is that this is perhaps an overstatement of what is really done. Of the 121 high-school principals, 52, or 43 per cent, are .in their positions this year for the first time; 21 per cent are in their positions for the second year: and 16 per cent are in their positions for the third year; 5 per cent have been in four years and 4 per cent for five years. Five high-school principals have been in their present posi- tions more than 10 years. The State over the high-school principal has no voice in the selection of his teachers; 97 of the 121 report no voice in the selection of high-school teachers, and those who report some voice in the selection show that this is usually only in an advisory way. 41'he-great number of new teachers in our high schools each year as a single factor shows a great need for a supervising principal. The fact that 44 per cent of the teaching force in our, high schools change each year is in lige:is an unquestioned demand for closer supervision. And the add itTonal fact that 32 per cent of the total teaching force has never taught in the high schools before this year is but a further,justilication of this demand. It is impossible that teachers do satisfactory work tinder such condi- bons. Perhaps no other -factor is so largely responsible for the shifting each year of high-school teachers as the lack of adequate supervision of instruction. Many teachers come inw the high scho916 enthusiastic and with high ideals of what ought to he done. They are misunderstood by their pupils. Their work does not go as they have planntsl. They become discouraged, flounder around for a,tipe, and then settle down to the line of least resistance. EXTENSION OF FUNCTION OF HIGH SCHOOLS. The growing critical attitude toward the high school, of which mention has already been made in this and in the report two years ago, finds expression occasionally in such a passage as the following from the superintendent at Williamsport, Pa.: In many ways the high school is doing excellent wArli, for which both principal and teachers deserve full credit. 'There are, however, in my judgment, some weak points that ought to be strengthened. One weakness is in the organization of the high school. The general attitude of faculty and students seems to be that children are sent to the school to do a certain amount of work, and that theleachers are there for the purpose of testing the children to find out whether or not they have done their work and to grade them accordingly. Both parties seem to feel that when each has performed his work individual responsibility ends. It does not seem to be the prime motive of the. high-school faculty as a whole to bring out the best that is in the pupil, but rather to permit the delinquent to eliminate himself from his class or school through repeated failures. The chaiacter of this kind tif discipline is negliti%7C and repressive instead of positive and directive. Even in some colleges to-day there is a dean whose duty it is to get hold of the failing student early and 'help him. if possible. Througho'ne the high-school course there should be continuous growth in self-reliance, willing and cheer. ful obedience, and closer cooperation between the student body and faculty, and also like relations should exist between the principal and. faculty. Criticism must lead primarily to a clarification of the function of secondary education. Toward this, end the appended statement of Cogapissioner Meredith, of New Jersey, will be an. aid: SECONDARY EDUCATION. The high school should assist First, by leading the pupil to a conception of the variety and the significance of the work to be done in the world. This may be done. in part at least, through a study of vocations. Pupils may thus be led to see what fields of activity all open both to boys and to girls; what general and what specific personal qualities are necessary for pro- gressive success, together with the special training required. A study of this character would reveal the probable demand for workers ina given field, and also indicate the remuneration to be had in terms of both money and personal and social advantages. Second, by testing the pupil's capacities and interests over a wide field of subject matter and activities. The high-school period is a timefrself-discover and self- realization for the pupil, and the process of discoverinKitent interests and abilities is a function both of the teacher and of the pupil. Third, the school may assist the pupil by giving him definite training in muds- mental subjects and by providing for systematic physical education, which sheuld include the inculcation of idealsand standards in this paramount phase of education. Whatever may be the ideal, there can be little question after read- 'ing numerous reports from both city and State superintendents that the tendency of high-school education is strongly vocational. This tendency is likely to be strengthened by the Smith-I lughes !ft, which by its opportunities for financial aid seems to be influencing strongly the reformulation of curricula. Many schools, however, are finding difficulty in meeting the requirements of the law. Self-criticism is also leading to a widening of the functions of the high school. The tendency to include in secondary education the seventh and eighth grades as a part of the junior high school is progressing quietly, especially in the largest cities; New York, Chi- cago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Boston having established the beginnings of such schools. The inclusion of two years upward as a junior college is generally approved, but for economic reasons the movement is making little progress. Springfield, Mass., and Kansas City, Mo., have recently established junior colleges. Extension work by high'schools has been''tried in one county in California, and the depar.tmeuts of teacher-training for the elementary grades is making substantial progress. Reports from the several States testify that the work is proving satisfactory. Evening high schools are of in- creasing importance, with enrollments encouragingly large; but everywhere the problem is to secure a high percentage of regular ittendance. Tire ippOrts testify that the effort is generally being made to. present in these evening schools, as hag been done in 'the schools conducted by the Young Men's Christian Association and .other semipublic or private agencies, what the mature students want. Summer high schools likewise seem tia, be accepted as of growing importance' as a regular part of the school system. It is interesting to note that a ?lumber of reports justify them by presenting data concerning not-only the attendance but also the success of the pupils in earning credits and in maintaining their standing in the successive terms. .. 1 215 216 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. One deve'opment of high-school work that needs more extensive treatment than is possible in this report is in the growth and use of high-school libraries. From every section of the country have come reports not merely of increased appropriations for books but also of the employment of trained full-time librarians and of the introduction of systematic instruction in library work. Although it is strange that this development should have come so late in our secondary schools, it is no less gratifying that the movetnent is progressing so generally and with soh vigor. THE WAR AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The effect of the war on secondary schools has.been manifest in the enrollment, in the subject-matter of instruction, and in the extracurriular activities. Mention has already been made of the fact that many teachers and principals, have been drawn from the schools by 4he demands of other service. The pupils also have felt those demands; some of the older ones entering the Army, and many others, ,especially in centers of indictry, undertaking re- munerative work. -The superintendent of schools in Chelsea, Mass., for instance reports: During the preceding year there was a large loss of pupils, largely due to the increas- ing demand for unskilled atd inexperienced laborers. This condition was aggraval&I by the increasing cost of living and the fact that many of our pupils came from poor families in which the older children were called upon to help meet this higher cost of living by going out to work for wages. Undoubtedly the higher wages-which were offered for this kind of labor tempted many pupils who had been gradually losing their interest in school to leave in order to go to work. Figures show that in the year 191:i7 16 nearly two-thirds of those who left school were freshmen. In New Bedford, Mass., 23 per cent of the entire high- school enrollment withdrew during the year 1916-17, 62 per cent of the withdrawals going direotly to work. In Providence, It. I., La Crosse, VVis., and Aur ora, Ill., there were losses of from 4 to 7 per cent; and in the State of New Jersey the increase in high-school enrollment for 1916-17 was only 696 pupils, or 1.4 per cent. The large cities, like New York and Boston, have had smaller en- rollments than the previous steady growth had led them to expect. But there has been rfo such emptying of the schools as many had expected; in fact, school reports for 195-1917 far more frequently mention continued growth in high schools than any decrease in the number of pupils. Another effect of the war, that in the spirit of the Student-body, has been presented by the superintendent of La Crosse, Wis.: . While, in any circumstance, war is a most deplorable thing, in my judgment it has been a most wonderful factor in the development in the secondary school o( the spirit of citizenship, honor, integrity, and loyalty. The various war activities which the schools have been doing during the year haVe been wonderful factors of educatiol. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 217 There is no other one influence which has so emphasized the responsibility of even the high-school boy or girl as a citizen, and demonstrated beyond the question of a doubt the fact that no individual can liVe in a community and be a part of the com- munity withAt being responsible to time community, and that no person, even a hig school boy or girl, can live in modern society as an individual entirely independent- of the other individuals in the community. From all quarters come similar reports; never before in the mar- velous growth of secondary education have the pupils been so en- thusiastic, so earnest, .and so persistent in their work. This has in large measure been due to the fact that high-school teachers haN;e--- incorporated fresh material and developed or emphasized it by the war situation in their instruction of history, civics, English, science, mathematics, and practically every othetvsubject in the curriculum. It is difficult to see how those teachers after rho success that they report in using meaningful, motivated material can return to the formal work that has characterized so much, of high-school instruc- tion. In this connection riliOuld be mentioned the care Cl elimi- nation in various cities, notably in Cincinnati under Supt. 7ondon, of all Material in high-school textbooks that seemed directly or indi: rectly to support autocratic government. Never before has there ' been such a widespread and determined effort to make secondary schools the means of inculcating the ideals of- democracy. From sehoolmen and from the pupils themselves all over the country ,there has been a constantr'effort to learn how the schools can best help in the war. Partly to answer this implied question, the Government has, 'through the Commissioner of Education, issued a number of btilletins to th4schools and to the public at large. Among these may be mentioned "Europe's Educational Message to America," "Secondary Schools and the War," "Sugges- tions for the Conduct of Edticational Institutions during the War," "Work of American Colleges and Universities -during the War," and "Government Policies Involving the Schools in War Time," the last one mentioned being signed by five members, of the Cabinet whose departments are most concerned. The burden of all those messages has been that the high schools should continue their'work and make it more vital for the welfare of the Nation in the years to come. The Commission ;r of Education also published recommen- dations of a joint committee on the teaching. of the sciences and of industrial work 'during the war,-and, in cooperation with the Food Administration, issued a series of ."Lessons in Community and , cm.. National Life" for the purpose of r denting the ideals of democracy and bmirder conceptions of national life. All over the country the highschools that were equipped for the work gave instruction to the men in the selective draft under the direction of the' National Board of Vocational Education. *passes. were conducted in telegraphy, in motor mechanics, in the trAdetrades. 0,. . . L.:.:.! . . . -- .. .... 21$ BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. It connected wit he construction of airplanes, and in other similar work which th men had been assigned, high-school pupils often assisting their' teachers in the 'instruction. In the summer schools training was in many places given for the Women's Business Reserve Corps, the students being women who were preparing to take the places of men called to the Army. In Philadelphia these kurses, under the direction of Dr. Lucy L. W. Wilson, included the elements of business, bookkeeping, stenography and typewritingor stenotypy, filing, office practice, civics, current history, war-time housekeeping, drawing- and draughting, telegraphy, and English expression, oral and written. The extra curricular work of high-school pupils during the year has included various kinds of assistance to officials boards, such as the filling and filing of cards, the taSulatioti of questionnaire returns, the writing of letters and the addressing of envelopes, the making of posters' , and other public signs; securing membership for the Rod Cross, the Junior Red, Cross, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Knights of Columbus; the making of articles for these organizations; the collection of books for soldiers' libraries; the selling of thrift stamps and bonds; the adoption of orphans in the several devastated countries; aiding in the campaign for conservation of coal and food; gardening and farming. The story of the self-denials the enthusiastic work, and the effective ac- complishment of our boys and girls would make one of the most heroic chapters in the history of secondary education. FARM SERVICE BY HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS. Late in the sprit* of 1917 there were urgent calls for assistance on the farms by high-school boys, and in response arrangements were all over the country hurriedly made by which boys were.excused from some school attendance in' order that they might render serv- ice. In some cases they went mi. the farms as regular helpers; in others they did seasonal work as the crops of the neigithorhood demanded. A number of schools organized their boys into groups who rented and cultivated a farm of their own. Usually school credit was given boys who worked for three months or so, providing their marks were passing; but of course there were different provisions among the many schools whose pupils went to this temporary work. In Philadelphia the board of education granted furloughs lo boys over 16 whose class standing was satisfactory, the furloughs applying to May and June and September and October. In North Dakota the State board of education resolved on May 16, 1917, "that it is the patriotic duly of every school in our State to open not earlier than October 1, in order that as many boys as possible of suitable age can assist in harvesting the crops." This resOlutign was approved by the SECONDARY EDUCATION. 219 State High School Conference. The board very wisely added to its resolution this memorandtim: This board believes that it is also the imperative duty of superintendents, grin- ' cipals, teachers, and boards of education to urge the attendancs It school of all boys below conscriptive age, because the burden of responsibility which will rest upon the rising generation will inevitably begreatly increased by the facts of the war. Although the appeal for boys was made late, there are reports from. all parts of the country that the response was generous, and to the surprise of skeptics the city-bred boy on the whole furnished accept- able aid on the farm. Some of the camps made less money than they had expected, or even after a summer of hard work went into hbt; but the balance was on the right side of the ledger; additional food wads produced, a demand by boys nearing military age for oppor- tunity to serve was satisfied, and there were numerous by-products of no inconsiderable value. Among these may be mentioned an in- creased appreciation by the public of the 'high-school boy, some understanding by the city boy of the farmer and his work, and the introduction of agriculture into several city high schools. Such courses are given in Paterson, N. J., Decatur, Ill., Kansas City, Mo., and Pittsburgh, Pa. The experience of 1917 revealed possibilities for so great national service that in the several States committees were early appointed to formulate more complete and effective plans than the earlier emergency had made possible. Of all the reports none has proved more intelligent and helpful than that of the committee on mobiliza-* tion pf high-school boys for farm'service, Frank V. Thompson, chair - man. From thieeport extensive quotation is made. On the basis of its experience in 1917 with 1,600 boys-566 41,16 camps and 1,100 on individual farmsthe Massachusetts committee made valuable recommendations for the continuance of the work. The following, both direct and implied, are of general interest: The committee is eonvineed'that, given the three eseentials of timethat is, early enrollment of boys and arrangements for employment with farmers, of Proper super- vision, and of cooperation with the local agricultural organis.ationstho work Call be successfully carried on. The committee undertook the development of a plan of placement on farms, as follows: (a) One or more boys on indiiridual farms as requested by farmers, the boys to live in the farmers' homes. (b) Boyr to work through local placement as nettled on the farne in their vicinity, returning to their homes at night. (c) Organization of camps from which boys would go to work by the day or week on tame in.the vicinity of the camp. The season's experience has demonstrated to the committee that the provision made in the high schools, of the State for placing boya on farms for day labor, or for longer periods, can and should be carried on under a plan similar to that worked out for this season; that is, through local placement and under local eupervioore. vo 220 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918 The committee believes that a successful working out of the ramp metbed of supply- ing labor requires substantial modifications of the 1917 plan. Among the modifica- tions to which it wishes to direct attention are the following: 1. The neceasity for immediately beginning a campaign to acquaint the farmers of Massachusetts with the results of camps established this year and the p for next year. 2. The committee should assume the responsibility for and control of the super- vision of camps. 3. The director should have control of the location, equipment. and,eonunissary of each local camp. but should in every possible way seek to utilize existing community reiource+s to the end of making the expenses as low as priseilde. 4. All of these matters mean expenditure of public motley rather than private support by subscription. (An elfin a't. for 50 eon+. in 1t+Iti is made of $50.000. In 1917 there was an expenditure of S10.141.31. or $6.33 for each boy.1 5. The administration of plans the committee proposes involve the following changes: let The appointment of a rather large and representative advisory committee. (b) A small executive coinmittee. seven members, largely noel' up of men who have had experience in the work during the season of 1917, who shall be responsible to the public safety committee for the conduct of the work. (r) The appointment of a director of mobilization of school boys, responsible to the executive committee for carrying out policies, when adopted and ratified by the executive committee of the public safety committee. (d) The director to he enpiloyed at once to carry on the campaign of publicity, of securing cooperation, of making plans for enlistment, of placement- in hort, all the work necessary to get an earl y start on the fann work for the season of 19I S. So far asothe experiment in Massachusetts goes to-day the committee finds: 1. That the right type of boys under efficient supervision are valuable in food Rodin. t ion. 2. That mutually advantageous working arrangements between boys and farmers can be brought about. Th'at the employment of the boys during the summer. belt a ea-sonable occu- pation. can be done on a considerably. larger scale with no 111:416 !age to the labor market. e 4. That 88 rapidly as the men withdraw from productive industry for war service, as increased demands are made upou transportation facilities fig forwarding troops, munitions, and supplies more And more will production of food be neceasary as near as piteible to the point where the food is to be consumed. 5. Thateo far as can be foreman, farm labor shortage will be more acute in 1918 thaii it was in 1917. The committee recommends that the campe be conducted on a seraimilitary basis, that training courses he provided for camp cooks and superisdes. and that a uniform practice in 'conducting camps be worked out embodying the hat urea pn)vod by experience tit be best. The Mnint pint* would probably need modification in some details to be workable , In any other State, but it is of inlaid interest in the present emeicency. The following is quoted from circular imated by the olliciah of the judos volunteers of Maine: MINERAL. INFORMATION. Purpose, The purpose of this movement is to discover, enlist, and train boys and young men to supply the extra demand for farm labor made necevairy thro.ugh the increased acreage propaganda recommended by the Slate and Federal Governments to provide for the vat emergencies. . . SECONDARY EDUCATION. 221 'Enlistment Boys between the ages of 16 and 20, of good moral character, who can pass the physical examination and furnish satisfactory recommendations, may qualify as volunteers. Dates of enlistmentare on and after June 1,' to and including October al, unless otherwise released by the governor, on recommendation of the director general. Application blanks may be secured of the principal of the local high school or academies. If not, write to headquarters. Enlistment for both boys and leaders will be on the same basis as that of the National Guard. The' boys will be known as "Volunteers," and the leaders as "Commanders." All desirable candidatie whose applications have been duly filed at headquarters will receive orders to reprt at the mobilization camp for final examination and enlistment. Leadership. The boys will be sent out in squads to work in different sections, as opportunity may afford, under the direction of competent adult leaders, appointed by the director general, who will have full charge of the boys until they are returned to the mobilization camp, unless otherwise relieved by the director general. Theee leaders will be men of unquestioned Christian character and ability for leadership with boys, coupled with a practical knowledge of farm work. Mobilimtion.- The camp will he mobilized June 1, at the Y. M. C. A. State Camp Farm, Winthrop ('enter. This can be reached from either Winthrop or Augusta by trolley. Instruction and training in general farm work will be given at the camp by repre- tientatk Of the University of Maine and 'other qualified leaders, before assignment to service is matte. The volunteers will he sent out in companits, under their commanding officer wherever and wheinp IT needed. Fer/oughs. - Brief furloughs will be granted to the volunteers in cases of emergency, by the governor, on recommendation of the director general. Corn pews( --O p port u ity for sorvicc. Waiats, El per each secular day from date of enlistment. Subsistence (board and lodging). Uniforms that, blouse, breeches, leggins, shoes, overalls, and (reek). Medical attendance. Transportation. School credits. Full school credits will be allowed volunteers on both the fill and spring terms when engaged in service. The leaders will also tittot,the boys and as fir RN poatible keep them up with their regular school work. Van rprocal. --It wilt 1o neeeaairy for each boy to secure the consent and approval of either his parenei or guardian. Gencral adminisfrahnn.- All matters pertaining to misunderstandings, adjustments of labor !illicit It ie.. change of location or assignment, discipline, enlistment, furloughs, rank, discharge, or other eeneral questions 41411 be referred to thedirector general. NATIONAL ('((ILO/ LABOR COMMITTER PROPOSALS. To send any children to farms without knowing the actual need forthem or without regulation would he wasteful and a hindrance to the farmers, who do not want a horde of inexperienced laborera on tbbir hands. Therefore: 1. Create and appoint a State committee of school officials to confer with the St tta_ agricultural department and organizations of farmer to find out whether there is a real need of school children on farms. 2. If the need exists, draft a set of regulations to ,neet the need and at the same time protect the children, such as these: (al Children 14 and over only, to'be permitted to work on farmi for others than their parents, and excused from school for this purpose from Juno 1 to October 1. . 222 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. (5) Children 14 and over only, to be permitted to work more than eight hours a day, or more than six days a week. (c) Children thus excused must have special work permit!, issued by the committee of school officials or persons authorized by them showing that the child has been examined by a physician and is physically fit for work, permits to be issued only for farms known by the committee to be suitable places for the children to work. 3. The State committee of school officials should be responsible for the supervision of children at wprk on farms to see that regulations are enforced. Transportation, feeding, and housing should all be supervised. As to housing, it is advisable that children sent to farms to work should net be housed with the farmers. It has beep suggested that the Boy Scouts, for instance, can establish camps in a given farm district under Scout Masters. Local authot,ities will be glad to provide transportation from camps farms, and the boys can work in gangs, in one field one day, in another the next, an eturn to camp after work. In this way both work and living conditions will be supe iced, and farmers will 'not have the responsibility and cost of housing them. Similar camps may be estab had under playground directors, probation or school officers. But be sure you know where the children live and how. England is already wishing ehe had not used her children so recklessly at the begin- ning of the war. Let America learn by England's experience. The Massachusetts plan differed in details but not in spirit. MILITARY TRAINING IN HIGH SCHOOLS. In the entliusias'in subsequent to the entrance of this country into the war there were many who believed that military dip should be made compulsory for all boys in high schools. Indeed, before April, 1917, several private secondary schools had offered military training to their older students who hoped soon to enter officers' reserve camps. A few public high schools, notably those of Boston, had for some years given a form of military drill to its boys; and after the declaration of war many schools, ispecially those in cities, introduced military training, usually. optional. Among the cities may be men- tioned Dallas, El Paso, and Waco, Tex.; Aurora, Elgin, Moline, and Chicago, Ill; Stamford, Conn., Louisville, Ky., Bangor, Me., Balti- more; Md., Springfield, Ohio, Johnstown, Pa., Pueblo, Colo., Kansas City, Mo., Richmond, Va., Providence, R. I. and most of the schools of Arizona. In Wyoming an elaborate system was developed and approved by the legislature by the grant of financial aid; the legis- lature of Oregon provided for an elective course in military tactics and training in high schools, to be directed and supervised by the governor; and the legislature of New York, without the approval of the State depart neat of education, passed a law requiring military training of all the older youth. In. Massachusetts and New Jersey more deliberate action was taken. Commissions composed of rep- resentatives of the schools, of business, of industry, and of the Army, were appointed to consider the problem. In both cases they dis- approved military training in high satools. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 228 The arguments for and against military training in high schools are summarized in the two following letters, which are quoted from the report of the State superintendent of public instruction of Minnesota for 1917: FAVAABLE TO MILITARY TRAININO. Some one has well said that one of the great defects of American life to-day is slouchi- ness-- slouchiness of ph ysi9ite, slouchit in the appearance of our towns and villages, slouchiness in the application of d an body to the tasks of the day, slouchiness in discipline and responsiveness to orders in cooperative efforts of all kinds. Com- pulsory military training enforces on a troy promptness in obeying orders, and he muft apply himself to a given task until it is satisfactorily finished. His mental and physi- cal being must always be at the best. All of these phases are being introduced and emphasized when military training is4Aight. It must be introduced in a spirit of civic service, and the cadets must he riught that this is a part of their training for citizenship. Our experience with military training for several years in the Rochester High School leads me to say that it is one.of the very beet courses that we have offered. The discipline of the school is very mu* better, the boys seeing the value of self- control and decent restraints. The cadets are interested in civic problems and their responsibilities. Citizens of Rochester will testify to the value of this training for their boys. I have yet to hear a complaint on the cadet organization in the Rochester High School frorit -the parents of the boys taking this work. The cost of this work is very slight, as we have asked the boys to buy their own suits and capii This year the cost has advanced from $15 to about $23. The boys feel it keenly, and we have allowed them to take the drill and rifle practice without the regular cadet uniform. lieut. W. F. Wright, of the local Machine Gun Co., is the drill master and receives a Plight remuneration. Drill is offered twice a week and rifle practice by squads once a week. During the winter season indoor drill and rifle practice are given, and during the spring, summer, and fall, outdoor practice. Interest in the organization is so keen. that prominent citizens, who are membenoof the local rifle club, offered to take squads of cadets out to the rifle range. The rifle range is owned by the Machine Gun Co., the Rifle Club, and the cadet organization. State-wide military training in high schools has been a decided success in the State of Wyoming, where legislative aid is granted. At first there was a great deal of oppo- sition, but It now has the hearty approval of all the citizens of theState. The State superintendent of instruction has this to say: "I take this opportunity to express my hearty endorsement of the cadet work which is being done in Wyoming. For some time I haN4i been watching the influence which it has exerted upon the young men enrolled in the various schools, and 1 wish to say that 1 consider it most valuable training for. our high-school boys. 1 am glad to see the movement growing in popu- larity." Finally, 1 wish to say that here is an organisation in which the physical'welfare of practically every high - school boy can he cared for. Football takes care of about 15 or 20, basketball about 10 or 15, baseball about 12 or 13; but in drill, setting up exer- cises, and rifle practice, even high-school boy may compete: Where the cadet move- ment has v been .tried, it is a survive. Mafia, Mankato, St. James, and Stillwater, in this State, are ery successful in their experiments. Those who have tried the experi- ment can speak from experience, dthers can only Inlet*, and those who oppose the movement are mostly guessers and mothers who did not raise their eons to be soldiers but want them to be mollycoddles.' 4 Supt. U A. Ukase, Koolau's Mina. 1111MMELmoalilowimmoloolowlionmMMIMIMAIMMIRMIMIMMIAI 224 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1913, T15 OPPOSING VIEW. The world is suffering from a hysteria of fear. Fear has entered the courts of Europe and shaped the policies of kings. The nations at war to-day had but to look aerc& their boundaries any nieht for the last 30 years to behold a horrid, grinning monster, ready to leap at their throats. They talked about "perils," until at last an emperor had himself pictured ridlng in the night of a black world-catastrophe, with uplifted sword, defying the "Yellow Peril." In these later days this fear has reached America. Congress appropriates hundreds of millions to banish fear, but it is not enough. Our schools must ho enlisted in the desperate fight to lay this ghost of fear. And now this State will be asked, as others have been already, to introduce military drill into the curriculum of its public sch..ols. The purpose of this training is that our youth may be enabled to repel the attack of a foreign foe. And it is accepted by all, militarists included, that the prime quali- fication for a soldier, the nece:vity before everything else for the man who fights, is a sound, strong body. The advocates of military drill affirm that their system furnishes the beet training for developing strength and endurance: If this were true, military drill might be justified: for a strong body is as eseentiako the arts of peace as to the arts of war. And may I interject that the deinan0 MPeace during the next 10 years will be a severer test up ou..\merican manlesa than any war to come? But the claim is not true. And I call to witness those who know. . First, Dr. Sargent, veteran director of physical training at Harvard: "Military drill is not an adequate means for physical training. It is not only very limited in its activities, but actually harmful in its effects upon boys less than DI or 20 years of age. It is apt to foster a Ioulltastie spirit of 'tin-s4oldierism' and a false sense of patriotism which does not appreciate the seriousness of war nor the glories of the etniggles of peace." Dr. Hernial' Koehler, of West Point, in his 'Physical Training in the Service," stays: e4The attributes, in order of importance, may be summed up as follows: 00 (Ionentl health and bodily vigor: (b) muscular strength and endurance: (c) self-reliance: and (d) smartness, activity, and precision. It is upou the first of thesehealth and to vigorthilt the development of all the other qualities eo essential in a Bobber are dependent, and for that reason the maintenance of robust health and the develop- ment of organic vigor should be considered the primary object of this training." Sir William Aitkin, professor of pathology in the Amiy Medical School of England, says: "Boys given military training at 18 make soldiers who are lees robust and effi dent than men with whom this training was deferred a few years, remaining in civil life until after their bones, heart, and hinge were more matured and developed." l'HILADELPHIA, May 8, 1916. ro the Joint Committee on Higher Schools. Gatert,suEN: The subcommittee on military training begs to report as follows: The extension and development of the present method of physical training is strongly advised, supplemented by practical instruction in hygiene, prevention of disease, and immediate treatment of wounds and injuries. 1 quote from the report of special commission on military education and reserve appointed by-the Governor, of Massachusetts, in 'June, 1915, consisting of a lawyer, a publisher, two college presidents, one manufacturer, one representative of union labor, and three retired generals,,, two paragraphs: "The overwhelming weight Of opinion from school teachers, military experts, officers of the Regular Army and the nailitia, and the general public is against military drillArdeflned in the, first clause above. It is generally agreed that the military drill which a boy receives in school is of little or no advantage to him from the point otview of practical soldiering. As far as available evidence goes, drill in the schools has had no beneficial effect in promoting enlistments in the militia, except in a few SECONDARY EDUCATION. 225 isolated localitioe. For various reasons it has seemed to create dielike for soldier- ing Military drill in the schools is objected to by many on th ^round that boy' of school ace have not attained sufficient mental maturity to apps -isle what war and fighting mean, and are theretcre unaLle to digest the ideas which anlitary'drill presents to them in concrete Corm. It is worth noting that military dri, as such is given in the schools of no countries of the world except Australia and Ja an. 'Alie commission does not recommend military drill, but is opposed to it." The judgment of the men who know of committees and commiseions and of nations is against military drill in public schools. France and Germany have both tried it, and have abandoned it for a more rational system of physical training. Any person who will inspect the physical training given by skilled experts in our public schools will find now all that is desirable in military drill, much more that is deeirableadded, and whatever is undesirable eliminated. He will see youths, both boys and girls, in large groups, executing complicated movements with precision worthy of tr.iinixr soldiers. He will hear the sharp command; he will see instant obedience to author-- ity. He will be proud of these boys and girls, physically fit, ready to glorify their country in peace, and, if it must he, in honorable war4. The nature of the military training offered in our high schools has varied 'widelyfrom mere marching in formation to the study of tactics. Richmond, \'e.. has published its course of study in mili- tary training, which consists of five hours a week for each class. First year-- drill, three hours; signaling and marksmanship, two hours. ::econd yeardrill, three hours; company administration organization find military hygiene, two hours. nir 1 year drill, three hours; map rending and field engine 'ring, two hours. Fourth yea drill, three hours; tactics and le:Worship, two hours. This is a part of the Wyoming plan of military training, concerning which much has been published. The purposes of the military train- ing. like its nature, have varied widelyfrom improvement in phy- sical well-being to military: preparedness and moral development. Th'e last-mentioned purpose assumes a general transfer of training that has nowhere, especially in countries whore such training of adults has been most firmly established, been proved or even hugely claimed. The examination of the young men who entered the National Army has emphasized, as the schoolman has never been able to do, the need of serious and continued physical training of our boys and girls; and usually military -dAll in high schools has been justified as contributing to this end. The recent manuals on physical education issued by the States of New Jersey and Now York are admirable outlines of work that should be enforced in all high schools. THE FUTURE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. It is generally recognized that the hig4ochool is in the critical stage of its development; 'no other phase Rpublic education is so often discussed and so little understood. Ha ng attained during Amt. Sept. W. I Webster. IllansaPollc Yln 171029° -21Dull: 88-15 . 226 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, the past veneration a r'arvelous physical growth and a ratifying improvement in its internal administration, it remains now to be defined and directed purposefully and effectively toward ends con- sonant not only with elementary and hither education but also with the larger aims of national life. Before this can be satisfactorily done, the newer spirit of democracy and national ideals must he clearly formulated and accepted throughout the Nation as a basis for all national life. Then, to make opportunities equal for all the youth of our country, there must be extensive aid by the Federal Government to public high schools, whickrill thus be recognized as an effective instrument in training leaders in the upbuilding of national welfare. On the basis of definitely declared and accepted ideals of democracy, and witJi the aid of a Federal subsidy, profes- sionally trained principals and teachers of the finest qualities must be secured to reform and redirect not merely the curricula and courses of study but also the social activities of the high schools. Then, and not till then, may we expect them to reach their highest efficiency as agencies in the development of the Nation. .11111/r CHAPTER VIII. INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. By WALTER SARGENT, Professor of Art Education, University of Chicago. Coarrawrs.Introductory Art Instruction in elementary schools Art Instruction in high schools Art Instruction in universitiesArt museums and art schools. The term "art c;ducat ion " is used somewhat loosely in connection with a wide range of school activities: Any discussion of the subject must therefore define somewhat arbitrarily the aspects with which it will deal. This chapter includes the following: 1. DraWing, painting, and constructive and decorative design, whether used to record facts of form and structure in connection with industrial and scientific work,'or to interpret forms and ap- pearances pictorially or decoratively. 2. The advancement of artistic appreciation, whether gained by technical Tractice or by acquaintance with good art through some approach other than that of.actual production, or by a combination of these methods. In the discussion of the advancement of artistic ' appreciation without technical production, the whole field of fine and industrial art is included. In the discussion of technical work, only the graphic arts as just defined are taken into direct consideration. The material here presented is based upon the replies to inquiries regarding recent changes if aims and methods of art instruction, sent to State commissioners .bt. education, and to the superintendents of schools in the three largest cities of each State, to the art depart- ments of State and other leading universities, and upon an examina- tion of a wide iange of courses of study and of reports of art asso- ciations and educational meetings where art was a subject of discus- sion. A survey of this material. shows a number of significant changes, which may be broadly grouped as follows: 1. The changes due to the normal development to- be expected along lines where progress has long been continuous. Prominent among these are (a) A clearer understanding, whichhas come through experiments and longer experience, regardingi what art instruction should ac- complish as a part of general education, and the consequent revision 227 228 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1910-1918. and improvement of methods of teaching. These have been especially evident in elementary and secondary schools and in colleges. (b) A better knowledge of the social and industrial values of ad- vanced art- training for those with special aptitude, and the 'conse- quent modification of advanced art education to meet these needs. These modifications are noticeable in the programs of vocational schools and professional art schools, of art departments in colleges, in the broader range of educational activities carried on by art mu- setuns, in the associations recently formed for bringing art instruc- tion into closer relation with social and industrial needs, and in new art schools intimately related to community interests. 2. Changes due to.the present abnormal conditions of war. Among these are (a) A revaluation of the effects of art in shaping public opinion and in stimulating patriotic activities, and in reenforcing those at- titudes of mind which we include under the term " morale." (b) A revision of methods of drawing in connection with construc- tive work, because of the shortcomings of methods which have been in fairly -common use; shortcomingS which attempts to train enlisted men ip constructive work have made evident. These attempts have emphasized the fact that ability to working drawings accurately and to make dimensioned sketches, mechanical or topographical, with oven among those who have had high-school courses in drawing. is an ability which the present crisis im- peratively demands. (c) A realization of the probability that in the commercial revival which is certain to follow the war, and because of the consequent need of highly skilled designers in the industries, the United States must depend more than heretofore upon those trained in its own schools, and must therefore begin even among pupils of secondary school age to conserve and direct special talent when it is discovered. These changes are considered in detail under the separate divisions which follow. ART INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Art ihstruction in elementary grades has been quite general throughout the country for some Years. Iretreht changes have been mainly .along the line of nollual development. -Among the inhortant directions in which progress is apparent are the following: The tendency elliphasiztd above all others in.the returns received from superintendents of schools and from supervisors of art instruc- tion is'in the direction of bringing art instruction into more direct . and intimate connection with school and home and community ihtesr- eats. The specific points of contact most emphasized are the fol- 16wing: 11.111111111111=11111M/ INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 229 1. More use of drawing to illustrate other school subjects. This indicates a tendency to go to tile other school interests for themes for drawing, instead of selecting -themes arbitrarily for the purpose of developing a logical but detached course in drawing. In this way the correlation with other subjects becomes the first business of the art supervisor, and is not left to chance. 2. An especially close correlation with the manual arts. This means that much of the drawing and design is directly concerned with problems in imIstrial work and in the household arts. In many places this correlation is being promoted in an administrative way by uniting the departments of drawing and of the industrial arts under one supervisor. 3. More definite attention to developing appreciation of good pictorial art and of excellent constructive and decorative deign. The majority of returns indicate that the sort of appreciation desired is that which will increase the range and (nullity of one's enjoyment in his surroundings. and especially will enable one to exercise good taste in home planning and furnishing, in promoting community projects, and in'produeing material for the market: These purposes are n41 new in elementary art instruction. Pub-. fished courses have long stated them more or less definitely_as aims, but an analysis of, recently formulated courses shows an essential difference in method, namely, a tendency to abandon a detached course of instruction planned mainly from the point of view of logical pro- gression in the subject in the hope that the principles and practice gained thereby will be carried over and pint to use in fields where they are needed.- This somewhat formal work is being displaced by courses in which principles and practice are concerned mainly with problems selected fito the field of immediate needs. This pro- cedure appeals to the instant interests of a far greater number of children, and its direct result is to make drawing a general rather than a special school, subject. The history of drawing in public education has been such as to create a tradition that it is a special subject in the sage that it is possible of attainment only for those who have special talent; and that it has value mainly for those who may later have occasion as artists to use it. This tradition has tended t, take the vitality out of the instruction given by grade teachers because- they felt that drawing was neither possible nor worth while for the majority. It has also tended to some extent at least, to concentrate the enthusiasm of the special teacher with art-school training upon the few pupils wIto displayed unusual artistic apitudes. The last two years have contributed considerably toward. making drawingla general school subject as regards its availability and value for the majority of children. Thic. contribution has been. made 230 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. partly through psychological study of special talent and partly through results obtained by applying general pedagogical prin- ciples to the teaching of drawing. Observation' shows that the mere sight of nature's appearances awakens in certain children a peculiar type' of experience and of interest, one characteristic of which is a strong desire to represent graphicially what they have seen. In the case of these children the simple presentation of objects arouses this peculiar interest, together with a corresponding desire W express it by reproducing the appearances in drawing or pilinting. They are the Children who have what is termed " special talent." When antilyzed, this talent appears to be essentially a special type of interest in appearances of things and not a special intinual ability or skill. The skill in drawing which these children display scents to be a natural outgrowth of the practice which this peculiar interest in appearances and the consequent desire to draw them promotes. This view is supported by the fact that if an interest of another sort, but equally strong can be awakened in connection with the appearance of objects, for example an interest in their construction, which can he expressed best by drawing, as in the frequent cases of children greatly interested in engines. bridges, boats, etc., the draw- ing will beAqually good, although different in type. Experim'Fnts indicate that if we can awaken an equal, although -- different, interest on the part of children without so-called " talent " for drawing, they will develop equal skill, provided the interest is of a sort that can be most adequately expressed by drawing. Fre- quently children who show under ordinary circumstances no indica- tions of talent, when the appeal to their particular interest is found, equal or surpass in skill those who appeared at first to he gifted artistically. Elementary school courses in all subjects are appealing to interests many of which demand drawing of some sort, for their expression and practical realization. aln geography and history, shapes of countries, types of mountains, means of transportation and numberless other topics need for their description drawing as well as language. School and home gardens are planned by diagrams. It has become the common language of the school shop and of the house- hold art department. Drawing as a means of expression for this widening range of in- terests is rapidly supplanting the drawing of a few years ago, when: frequently the only interest appealed to was that of representing ap- pearances for their own sake. Lack of special talent in drawing, as an excuse for low grades in that subject,. is coming to be regarded in the same light as is lack of special talent in mathematics and in 1141, language when elementary school attainments in those subjects are under consideration. .,N INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 281' A survey of recent discussions regarding the purposes of drawing in elementary schools indicates that the familiar statement that drawing is a language is now being taken in its full significance. Educators are pointing out that any new medium of expression furnishes a fresh kind of experience with things studied, and starts a type of thinking that a medium of expression different in diameter does not stimulate. The kind of thinking exercised when a pupil describes a subject by drawing does not duplicate to any great degree that involved in description by writing. The first appears rather to supplement the second. Each lays hold of aspects which the other. ne4lects and fails to grasp. The terms used in drawifig are essen-, tially different from those used in writing and describe things in a different way. Each has its own psychology and compels its own charactdristic type of analysis and synthesis. As an outcome of these discussions one finds that art instructors are stating with increasing clearness the function of drawing as an important and unique means of approach to subjects; a means of dealing with topics in a way which supplements that furnished by verbal language and consequently gives a kind of experience with them that is otherwise unobtainable. The changed attitude regarding drawing and design may be broadly summarized in the followiihg statements: 1. That the tendency is less toward trying to interest children in drawing as a subject, and more toward using drawing as an effi- cient and unique means of expressing and promoting whatever inter ests school and home and community life have awakened. 2. That instruction in design deals less with formal exercises, in arrangement, and more with problems directly and practically con- cerned with school and home surroundings and with industi4141 life. The methods of instruction are coming to include. in addition to prac- tice in producing designs, much etperience in Choosing as one must choose when he makes actual purchases. Although an examination of recent courses and of the reports of conferences on the subject of art instruction gives abundant evidence that courses are being reorganized upon the same basis as other subjects; and are being graded so that there is definite progress from year to year' and that the expected results are within the attain- ment of the majority of children, and also that the psychology of drawing and Of art appreciation is being investigated by educators, nevertheless such a survey of.courses and of reports of conferences discovers little in the way of attempts to state what standards of attainment may reasonably be expected in each grade and at the end of elementary school work. Indeed,. expressions suggestive of hos- tilitytoward attempts to establish tests and scales of-measurement 232 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. of achievement in draw.ing are frequently evident. These objections appear to result from misunderstanding a desire to secure some sys- tem in presentiffg the language of art expression, as being a wish to mechanize the thought and feeling expressed thereby. For- tunately, however there is a growing recognition of the fact that sys- tematic' mastery of a means of expression means increased freedom in communicating thought and feeling. Prof. Edward L. Thorndyke called attention to the desirability of some scale fOr estimating attainment in drawing, n article published in the Teachers College Record in November, 1913, et led ".The Measurement of -Achievement in Drawing." He says: Each person uses a settle of his own. Consequently, although we give in verbal statements and on report cards many millions of measurements of achievement in drawing every year, almost no use is made or can be mode of them. A child may learn that his drawings are, in his teacher's estimation, better than those of other children in the same class who get lower " marks," but be does net know how much better they are. He may be told that his, drawings are better than those of last week, Mit not how much better they are. As to learning front ll these millions of measurements how much Letter drawings are obtained from 100 minutes of training per week than from 50. or how much better drawings are obtained by or city's system of instruction than by another's, or how much better drawings nre'obtalned in the same city now than were obtained a decade ago, it is impossible. Prof. Thorndyke then explains a scale which he worked out, de- scribes and illustrates some of its uses, recounts the principles of its derivation, and makes clear its limitations. Further careful woric in the same field is being carried on by other investigators, and addi- tional contributions will doubtless be available soon. The effect of the war, which has greatly influenced industrial work in elementary schools, is also evident in art instruction. Many of the problems for design have included the making of posters. for food conservation, war-savings and thrift stamps, liberty loans, gardening, Red Cross and Y. M. C. A. work, etc. Other design projects have included covers for scrapbooks for soldiers, designs and decorations for toys for refugee children, and the patterns and ornamentation of .itarious objects to be sold for war funds. ART INSTRUCTION IN HIGH SCHOOLS. High-school courses of the past two years indicate some signifi- cant and a few radical changes. Two influences others have been particularly strong in bringing about these developments. One is the wigespreed organization of junioi high-schools, which has re- sulted in a closer articulation of elementary and secondary schools. The other is the rapid progress of vocational %ducation, The organization of junior high - schools has brought into proini- nence many psychological as well as administrative questions. Edu- INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 888' cators especially interested in these questionshave contributed, among other things, important considerations regarding some of the dif- ferences in the attitude of high-school students toward school work as compared with that of elementary school children. One difference appears to consist in greater need on the. part of pupils for, some practical or intellectual justification for the work undertaken. The. fact that certain studips appear in the accepted curriculum no'longer appeals to the majority of the pupils as being a sufficient reason for undertaking these studies with enthusiasm. In addition the significance of the course to them and to their prosy poets must be understood if it is to engage their whole- hearted en- deavor. New social and vocational interests are awake and must be ministered to. Another interest which influences 'art instruction directly and which appears to be much stronger in high-school pupils then in those of elementary school age is the interest in the theories and principles of the subjects of study and in the historical- development of things and 'of events. Accompanyingthis interest is an increased capacity.for developing some genuine appreciation of ateistic styles and of the different possibilities of Aierious mediums of expression. The progress of vocational eduction is recognized in the recent tendencies of art instruction in high-schools as noted by school super- intendents ind by instructors in art. Almost without exception the changes reported are toward a more direct and concrete application of art. The following quotations, entirely typical of the expressions - found in a wide range of returns, are merely statements kti different terms of this tendency: The primary purpose of our act is to relate it to the entire life of the children both in home nial in their occupotionl. . Anseffort to adopt Instruction to the rennireinente of local industries. Tends more nod more toward Industrial work. Vocational art courses, art'related to printing, courses in home testhetics. Have started such work as art in window dressing With practical application In stores,. art in dress.. -- dress appropriate to occasions. Collection and study of good illustrations of furniture. , Much emphasis recently given to having. designs worked out In material. , Advanced courses are highly diffsrentlated with 1110 technical stand- ards demanded. In addition to this concrete tendency, there is on the other hand an increasing recogMtion of what are commonly called the -cultural valhes of art study, its importance as historical material, and its sig-. nificance, in common with Music and literature, as an embodiment of the testhetic experiences of the rate. . . The following extracts from a report by Dr. James P. Haney, di: rector of art in the high schools of New York City, put in clear twins some of these tendencies. 284 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,I016-1918. This training In what may be called "practical restheties" has thus become n subject of keen Interest on the part of many who are engaged in the business of creating_ materials for home or personal adornment. Both " the public" and "the trade" understand more clearly with every passing year the need of this training ; the public that life itself may be made more pleasurable; the trade that its standards may be raised in every aspect wherein art touches industry. The milliner, the dressmaker, and jeweler are interested on the one hand; the furniture manufacturer, the well-paper denier, and the textile mer- chant on the other. Many additional trades are concerned. " Now, as never before, these merchants and dozens more are asking, "What are the schools ci&Ing to make their art teaching practical?" The older barriers which eeparated the school studio from the industrial art studio outside the school have been breached and in some eases quite torn down. Art teachers in numbers have visited "the trade" and have brought back a course of practical suggestions to the classroom. Counter visits have been paid by merchants and mauufa&urers to the schools, and many have sent their trade designers to see the school work and to give to the teachers tied meals the indus- trial point of view. Practical problems have been worked out In material, and not a few competitions have been instituted by trade representatives that pupils might see how Immediately useful M business is the information gained In the school. Every one. must patronize the industrial artist, for all must have chnirs.and tables, dishes toat from, and clothes to wear; and emphasis has been placed on the professional nature of the Work of the school that the student might be made keener to scrutinize the'professional hand which hp sees about him at every turn. , Many thousands of pupils are thus reached every year and are encouraged to visit the museum frequently to enjoy not only the pictures and sculpture, but the splendid carvings, beautiful enamels, the glowing porcelains and the priceless tapestries. Thus they are given what may he called " museum habit." They are taught not only where to look but how to look nud are given something at least of the satisfaction of " the knowing one," the connoiss eur whose nifee- ilon is drawn by InstglIt Into the beauties pf the craft which are displayed In jeweled cup or damascened armor. This interpretation of the museum to the schoofpupli, this revelation of what pleasure may be had In this scrutiny Is held to be one of the functions of the art department of the city school system. It can little profit a city to have within its borders priceless collections, If these for whom the collections are shown see its beauties as through a glass darkly. This training, it Is manifest, is not to be given by talking about it, but rattier by continually, offering to the learner problems in which choice must be ex- pressed in terms of Immediate need. Shall one, for example, In designing a flower bowl, turn the curve thus, or shall it be so? The decision as to which line best expresses the quality of the clay and the purpose for which the bowl is shaped is the decision which makes for taste. Taste in other words is a dis- criminative judgment born of many oppbrtunitles for choice. Some grow In taste rapidly, some slowly, but the process is always the same. One must learn to choose and to choose by virtue of the knowledge of what makes for .better line or color or pattern. Taste is thus not a thing of definite standards. It is rather an Intellectual quality. It is a habit of mind which seeks always to com- pere the better with the poorer and which strives continually to sharpen its own perceptions that it may judge more truly. It has a britIca function but a constructive'lme which alms not only to see that the thing bett but alma to know why It is better. IP INSTRUCTION IN ART IN ME UNITED STATES. 235 The merchant who Is a bad designer will seldom be cured by admonition. The only way to cute him is to catch him while he is still a lad ut school. But granted, on the other hand, that such practical teaching can be givenand It surely canit must be plain that there resides in the teaching of the schools enormous force to affect the art ideas of the public for the better. This force undoubtedly is at work. No one who knew the American home and 'its decora- tions as it stood in the early seventies and now sees the home of the persons of equal social standing will doubt for a moment that great progress has been made. It is a change which has taken place all over the country, but most sig- nificantly where the art teaching of the schools has been nett\ e. Something of this idea that everyone is an artist in his own right has dawned upon thou- sands of men and women. * But with the development of that which we have called the modern art teaching there has been a great change in the attitude of the school toward talented pupilsthat little group which we have called "the few." It has been plainly'seen that it is to the advantage of the school to hold those gifted boys and girls within the character-shaping boundaries of Its walls. On the other hand, it has been seen that it is to The pupils' interest to stay rather than to leave half trained In all that makes for general culture and to p at too early an age Into the ceaseleps grind of business life. For thest ms the modern high school seeks to retain the talented pupil through its entire course. Instead of fitting the pupil to the course, it now devises specjal eourses to fit the pupil. It recognizes that talent is precious, and when it finds it, does all It can to cultivate the gifted and to school them to high technical experience. Certain difficulties are evident in the organization of high-school courses in art, especially in the case of small schools. 1. There are seldom any accepted standards of attainment in art instruction in elementary schotAs which can serve as a dependable basis upon which high-school courses may be planned. 2. A large number of high-school instructors have been accus- tomed only to' art school ways of teaching drawing and design. These studio methods are generally adapted only to those who .possess special aptitudes for drawing. This. difficulty is being remedied be- cause cities and towns in increasing numbers are requiring that the instructor in art shall have some normal training, including general principles of education and practice teaching under skilled super- vision. 8. Except in the larger high schools, where a number of classes exist, it is difficult to arrange a course which offers progress from Year to year, because frequently pupils from each year in high school may register in a given class. For example, an introductory class in drawing may be made up of pupils from the first, second, third; and fourth year groups. Under these circumstances difficulty is found in relating art instruction to other school interests and to varying degrees of maturity with any sort of definiteness. This condition, tends to encourage the treatment of art as a special subject. The in- creased amount and better organization of vocational and industrial courses is improving this situation rapidly and definitely: 236 BIENNIAL SURV4Y OF. EDUCATION, 1918 -1918. 4. In the past the amount of credit allowe'd in art toward gradua- tion and for enitrance to higher institutions was often small. Conse- quently, registration for art instruction was likely to be limited to those who had very i.rong natural desires in that direction and those who had leisure for extra courses. This hindrance is rapidly disap- pearing. High schools are tending to give the saute credit toward graduation for art subjects as for any others in the curriculum. To a corresponding degree, higher institutions have become liberal in the umber of units in the arts allowed for entrance requirements. In addition to these obstacles, which are largely administrative in character, courses planned to realize the aesthetic values of what are commonly termed the fine arts encounter another difficulty which lies in the nature of the subject. In 1915 Dr. C. II. Judd pointed this out clearly. The following extracts are the first and the last para- graphs of his discussion:' The fine arts, like the manual and Industrial arts, have stood apart from the conventional academic subjects and have been given onto a halfhearted recognition in the organization of school programs. From one point of view Ads Is difficult to understand, for civilized nations have always regarded training in music and drawing as higldy desirable accomplishments. We in America have been subjected to criticism by foreign visitors and we have freely criti- cized ourselves for our meager cultivation of the fine arts in our schools. Willie thus recognizing the arts as desirable, we have found it a very difficult problem to make them available for school purposes., liow can one formulate a course In these subjects? They seri to be highly individualistic and vague In their results. There seems to be so large an element of chance in the outcome that we turn by preference to those courses of instruction which seem to be more definite and capable of impersonal formulation. Whatever the method of Instruction, Irt teachers must glye up the practice of indulging in rhapsodies over art and its value, and must learn to define the types of ap- predation which they wish to cultivate. They must show that they know when they have produced one of these aiproved types of appreciation. Finally, they must by practical demonstration convince the world that there is no funda- mental opposition between the habits of mind and action cultivated in the arts and those cultivated in the scientific courses given in the schools. The present- day conditions are a challenge to art teachers and to all of us. Vaguely we all believe in art; practically we are not able to bring It into the schools in any form which we regard as satisfactory for the training of students. To bring it forcibly into the course without heeding_ the objections raised Will he unfor- tunate. To omit it altogether' is to deprive the student of one important aspect of civilization. The challenge to deal with this situation intelligently pereMptory. . The much closer relation which has recently been estabiisted be- tween art courses and industrial and vocational education has gone far toward defining the typo of appreciation and of technical ability 'which art Nourses thus related aim to develop. This result has not only determined the aims and justified for both pupils and instructors 'From tha Psychology of High School Subjects, pp. 845 sod 864. 4* INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 287 the place of these art courses which accompany industrial work, but it has alscf led to a scrutiny of the aims of courses not so related. In consequence, these courses, in revised form, have received new justifi- cation. The revision of these so-called fine -arts courses ha's been mainly in the line of a better presentation of the unique historical material which the field. of lift possesses, of a development of appreciation of the fine arts as a source. of esthetic enjoyment, and of the discovery and conservation of special artistic talent as a social asset. Under present conditions high-school art courses may be broadly classified as follows: I. Courses in drawing and design which are'organically related to industrial and constructive work, including household art. 2. General art courses, which correspond somewhat to traditional art-school courses and which appeal particularly to pupils with special art interests. 3. Courses consisting of illustrated lectures, readings, and class recitations which present a survey of art. The character of these three types of courses is indicated more in detail as follows: 1. Ili0-school courses in drawing and design are coming to be more and more closely correlated with industrial and constructive work. Formerly this correlation was expected to result from a presentation in the' art classes of general principles of drawing and design and an application of these later to the specific problems of shopwork. printing, household art, etc. The relation is rapidly becoming more organic. The problems of the drawing and -design classes are now largely the actual current problems of the industrial and vocational classes. In many cases the pupils spend alternate periods in the shop and the art class- -room, dealing with the same problems. in both clpses. Sometimes the industrial departments take over much of the art instruction dealing with 'their projects. Working drawing, appearance drawing, and design have become intimately related. A common use of drawing closely related to home planning and interior decoration is illustrated by this extract from the course in art and industrial training of the Binghamton (N. Y.) schools: TOPICS FOR DISCUS/MI" AND ILLUSTRATION. 1. Building site: Location, exposure, drainage, water supply, fertility of soil, etc. 2. Building materials: Wood, brick, cement, etc. 3. Freehand sketch of plan of home kitchen, for class discussion of conveniences and necessities in wall openings and furniture. 4. Study of mounted illustrations of plans of kitchen, pantry, and dining room, to scale. 5. Drawing to scale, with custom- ary conventions, of kitchen, pantry, and dining room, show g plan and eleva- tion. 6. Freehand or instrumental sketch showing the PoLble remodeling of 238 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. the home kitchen to secure greater convenience or better lighting and ventila- tion. 7. Study various styles of door and window openings, from the view- point of convenience, beauty, and expense. 8. Floor coverings: Material, color, and wood finish. P. Wall finish: Paint, paper, and color scheme. 10. Neces- sary and convenient furniture for kitchen. The pre.ent tendency to articulate the teaching of design with shopwork is described in this extract from the course of study of the West Ilohoken (N. J. schools: We must deal with design, whether we will or not. Every hour calls for us to settle some problem in design, some arrangement of form, some disposition of lines and masses, some choice and disposition of colors. Man's whole life is a series of designs. The relation is wide, the laws are widespread. Pure or nbstrnct design is not a science. It has one decided lack, it fails to give the constructive vieiv of design. There must first be a problem of con- struction, and second one of decoration wherein we consider balance, rhythm, harmqny, ete. The function of applied design is to add interest to construction. Therefore applied design is conditioned first by structure, second by use or purpose of the thing decorated, third by the convention required, fourth by the symbolic eie- ment that in: In this con tions set forth Introduced, and fifth by the personality of the draftsman. f Instruction we endeavor to plan the work so that the condl- the preceding paragraphs govern the subject matter. The following recommendations regarding the general scope of high-school industrial drawing in connection with shopwork has received the approval of the faculty of the soldier training ireTart- inent of the University of Chicago, and also of that section of the committee of the high-school conference of the University of Illinois which has in charge the revision of high-school courses in drawing. MOH-SCHOOL INDUSTRIAL DRAWING AND DESIGN. I. Freehand drawing of appearances to describe construction. 1. Sketches directly from objects to show the appearance In perspective. 2. Sketches for the purpose of experimenting with and perfecting ideas of construction and design. To do this two things are required: (a) Ability to judge proportions and angles rapidly and with fair accuracy. (b) Mastery of a few basic constructive forms so that these can be drawn in any specified position or modification or combina- tion from imagination. 1 Since a rectangular, a cylindrical, and a hemispherical solid are basic to most forms of construction, the drawing of these from imagination according to specifications should be tb(14.- oughly mastered. Tests Indicate that theories of perspective, including prin- ciples of convergence, and foreshortening are not the et way of introducing the study of these forms. The mos pfd and effective progress appeared to depend upon developing the pupil's ability to judge as to whether the drawings ap- pear geometrically consistent or distorted (that Is, as to whether they look right or not), rather than upon the knowl- sI INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 289 edge of formulated principles of perspective. It should be noted that this method differs radically from the old-time teaching of geometrical type forma by principles of perspec- tive. (o) Knowledge of an effective method of procedure in drawing con- structed objects. I. e., what lines are the basis of the form and *termine the length and direction of the others. For example, in a rectangular solid standing on a horizontal plane. to draw one vertical edge, preferably the nearest, de- termines the scale of the drawing. To draw one main edge extending to theright and one to the left, so as to show their apparent slants and lengths, determines the proportions and apparent position of the whole object. These are the key lines and by them are determined the direction and propot4 tion of most of the other lines, even if the form is consid- erably complicated. II. Dra.ving of plains and patterns to describe construction. . 1. Freehand sketches of patterns and orthographic projections directly from objects to record constructive data. 2. Freehand sketches of patterns and orthographic projections for the purpose of experimenting with and perfecting ideas of construction and of desirm. To do these requiies two things: (a) Ability to rend orthographic projections rapidly and to trans-. late facts of appearance and structure into the 'shop con- ventions of working drawing, with complete dimensioning - according to shop practices. In other words, given an actual piece of construction, to make sketches in orthographic pro- jection which shall include all data necessary for con- structing the object. For all practical purposes it is necessary to understand projection only, In the third angle. An introductory itliseus- Edon of all four angles is generally confusing. (b) Ability to put one's own ideas of a piece of construction first into freehand working drawings with complete specifications, and then into accurate instrumental drawings. Most copying of, instrumental work should be eliminated. Only a very limited amount is valuable to give standards of technique. Much detailed instrumental drawing should be avoided. Freehand working drawings and appearance sketching are the chief channels of constructive thinking. The finished Instrumental drawings hold somewhat the same relation to these that the stenographer's copy does to the author's manu- script. Much instrumental drawing tends to substitute manual dexterity for constructive thinking. (o) Ability to sketch the appearan& of an object from the working drawing. This is particularly valuable in enabling pupils completely to visualize and understand structures when only the working drawing is given, It requires much of the same mort of constructive thinking that is employed when objects are actually constructed from working drawings. In both appearance sketching and orthographic drawing, speed as well as accuracy should be cultivated. 240- BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, III. Constructive and decorative design. 1. Choice of materials and processes best suited to meet the specifications 2. Choke of styles of construction and decoration most appropriate to the piece of work In hand. These require: (a) Acquaintance with a reasonable range of materials and processes, and some knowledge of the history of industries more or less closely related to the immediate project. This calls for class discussions, visits to Industrial plants or other places where constructive work of the sort under con- sideration is going on, and assigned reading planned to open up an Industrial and historical outlook. (b) -Study of artistic styles of construction and decoration and the adaptation of these to the problem In hand. In any par- ticular instance, as for example in furniture. this Involves smile study of the history and development of styles and a knowledge from books and museums. of the best that the past has prodUced and also a practical'acqunIntance with modern products and current faShions as displayed in trade literature and advertisements and in stores. Appreciation and discrimination ore developed by selecting and by CIIISSifyIng examples according to various styles and also according to degrees of excellence In things ol the same general styles. Ni el look collections of sketches and of Illus- trations from advertisements, trade journals, etc., are prac- tical helps. After the chrracteristlem of a style have been given it Is helpful to select, classify, and discuss examples accordingly. (c) Supplementary practice In making good space arrangements and In drawing with ftwilIty fi few typical curves; for ex- ample. arcs of circles, ellipses, and spirals of varying degrees of eurve ure. should he trained to self-reliance in analyzing a problem s' us to outline effective methods of going to work, and to dqhle along what lines investigation or reference material All he helpful. . 2. General art courses. These courses are usually planned to train ability in representation along two lines. One Of-these is descrip- tive drawing, to enable pupils to meet readily the ordinary demands for illustration in connection with any school or home interest not reached by drawing in connection with the industrial arts. Sketches and drawings in connection with history, geography, literature, and the natural sciences are examples of this sort of drawing. The use of drawing as a means of. illustratior. of other high-school subjects has recently received careful attention. It has been found that pupils can be taught methods of procedure in illustrating a theme, which will make their drawing n genuine piece of study in selecting the particular aspects. essential to the points to be described, in choosing the medium, hard' or soft pencil, pen and ink, water colpr, or colored crayon,. or whatever other medium is best fitted 'to give the characteristic effect, in consulting sources of reference mate- INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 241 Hal, and in gradually elaborating sketches which are at first usually crude and inaccurate, but which are gradually perfected hrough many experiments and the accumulation of skill and of data. By working up pictorial themes in this way, pupils gain by experi- ence some appreciation of the manner in which pictures develop. They learn that a work of art, however spontaneous in appearance, is usually the culmination of a long series of sketches, observations, and experiments. This experience contributes to the understanding. of art, something comparable to what the production of themes in English is expected to add to one's appreciation of literary methods. It has been shown that certain methods of drawing may promote keen observation and analysiap whilt other methods may actually hinder these mental processes. In a study of drawing in relation to its use in science laboratories, Prof. F. C. Ayer, of the University of the State of Washington, says:' Representative drawinedoe#1,lot insure a consideration of the scientific Rs- pecty, or an analytical study of an object. The preconceived purpose of repro- ducing a visual copy narrows the scope of observation, and the attention, at best, is directed to itiqa of form and ardor. There is nothing to call up ass- ciations Nu hich have to 410 With scientific ends. The attention is, in fact, kept away from the associations that have to do with science as such. Even in the province of form, sustained attention is not necessary. The pupil's drawing Is always sqbject to direct comparison with the object at hand, so that extended study and reflection over its proportions are not necessary. It is a waste of time for the interests of scientific thinking to require pupils to spend extended periods'of time at representative drawing. In fact, It is worse than a waste of time, for it encourages bad habits of analytical study, which are opposed to InterestEsigf scientific thinking and constructive research. It is no wonder that so few &Four picture-laden notebooks give evidence of scientific grasp or initia- tive. The excessive use of representative drawing is a serious pedagogical formalism which produces copyists instead of scientists and which creates dis- taste instead of enthusiasm for science. After analyzing descriptive drawing in a similar fashion, Prof. Ayer says of analytical drawing: The preconceived purpose of analytical drawing supplies the direction of at- ,tentlon which is lacking fu spontaneous description. The attention is directed to the particular characteristics of the object which are of immediate scientific concern. The successful type, schematic, or diagrammatic drawing can not he Made without analytical study. The student who attempts to make a diagram- ,- matte drawing has before him a definite problem in analysis which necessitates sustained mental effort to the end of the process of representation. A second purpose of these general art courses is to meet the need of pupils with special art interests. This'group of pupils includes these to.whom the practice of art is a continual source of pleasure of a high sort. They may never make art a profession, but it will 'The Psychology of Drawing, V. C. Aim, pp. 163-165. 171029°-21Flull. 88-18 242 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. always be to them a means of discovering n3winterests and enjoy- ments. It includes also those talented few 1Who will make art in some form their life work. For these pupils the courses are-voca- tional in character and help to discovsr and guide their ability into the lines for which they are best adapted. These are the pupils who become industrial designers, painters, sculptors, illustrators, archi- tects, etc. 3. The courses in the history and appreciation of art. Courses of this sort are becoming 'fairly common in high schools. They give acquaintance with the salient characteristics of styles of architecture, painting, sculpture, and industrial design, of the chief historic periods of art. They also bring to the attention of pupils the more important masterpieces of these periods. In such general surveys it is of course impossible to make an exhaustive study of any one topic. Nevertheless, the general features of the arts of different times which express Most intimately the life and artistic ideals of the peoples can be-shown: The pupils become acquainted with many of the greatest masterpieces in a way which gives new meanings to history, litera- ture, and current events. Modern art gains added significance when viewed in the light of a knowledge of past art, and modern life is interpreted from another point of view when the arts of the present are recognized as being its inevitable expression. The effect of war conditions upon high-school art-has been evident, especially in its influence upon the subjects chosen for design; For instance, war posters hay. been produced all over- the country. An- other and more general effect has been the quality of directness and concentration that has come into work connected with thi war. There is in it all an element of emergency which tends to ehiminate steps of doubtful value and to produce desired effects with the great- est economy of time and means. For example, in the drawing con- nected with constructive work in classes of enlisted men, it has been found possible to give in a much shorter time than has pre- viously been considered necessary, a working knowledge of the sub- ject. A considerable part of the teaching in these classes is being done by high-school instructors, and the facts brought to light will inevitably affect their regular teaching. The Instruction Manutils issued by the War Department committee on education and special trainink contain many stimulating suggestions which will doubtless influence all the teaching of the instructors who use them. The fol- lowing sentences from Instruction Manual No. 1 indicate the spirit of directness which dominates them: Methods of instruction must be used which in the time available will best train men to do these jobs. In order to provide for the development of originality, initiative, and real thinking power and also to prevent a ruteot-thumb method, the teaching should INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 243 he almost entirely through Jobs, questions, problems, and guided. discussion about the work The accomplishment of a Job is both the end to be attained and the means for Instruction. Another incidental effeet of the war upon high-school instruction has been the widespread discussion of art values that has been occa- sioned by the destrfiction of so much of fine art. that can not be replaced. ART INSTRUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES. Courses in art instruction in colleges and universities may he broadly classified as follows: (1) Courses in history of art. (2) Courses involving studio work related as laboratory work to academic courses. and dependent- fol credit,upon association with these courses. (3) Studio work credited independently. The. trend of recent development in these 'groups of courses has been as follows: 1. Courses in history of art. Historical and archaeological re- searches have steadily increased the range and value,of the material for these courses, especially in the fields of Egyptian, Cretan, Chinhe, and priMitive American art. Very large additions to the number of original examples of art available for study- in this country have been made during the past 10 years. There is pretty general recognition now of the fact that art supplements literary documents in a special way, because it not only furnishes material in additional quantity, but its records are peculiarly different in kind. The arts of form with their vocabulary of visible shapes and colors can embody and preserve certain significant human interests which literature, from the nature of the indirect terms which it uses, can not express in quite the sante .way. :These records of art are inti- mate and illuminating ill a unique sense, because in many cases the student has before-him the actual forms and surfaces which the artists and craftsmen produced. For Chig reason original art ma- terial is peculiarly confidential in transmitting, in addition to the actual subject Matter, an element akin to what inflections and gesture add to words. In addition to a wider'range of historical material, the courses offered show an increasapin the time...devoted to modern art. -The historical value of the records which pat has left has always been recognized. The fact that the art of to-day is an'equally illumi- nating factor in interpreting certain important aspects of the present has not been as generally evident. Moreover,4he aesthetic standards of historic art have been comparatively well established, so that in- lb 244 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. structors can feel fairly safe in expressing their appreciation without hesitation. On the other hand, the higher type of critical judgi nt and testhetic appreciation required to discern the tendencies to' rd significant expression and the germs of future perfection in 0104 art of to-day have frequently made instructors dils.tent about dealing with this complex subject. An increased willingness to attempt it is, however, observable. The following comments on, the study of modern art are extracts from a paper by Prof. George B. Zug, of Dartmouth College : A professor of (reek once said to me.that he thought most people are really Interested only in contemporary literature. I am Inclined to think that with most people an interest 111 1111 With an interest in contemporary art. Ac- cordingly, in some of my smaller ex.hiitions I have interested the h9ys in the art of Downier, hy means of dralvings of Boardman Robinson. From Downier they were easily it'd to Delacroix, and the latter prepared for a study of Michael Angelo. In the same way. drawings of the cartoonist Cesare have !ell the means Of opening tip the subject of pictorial satire, and CAB has led to Downier, to oya. ond to Hogarth. It Students are interested in the 111PC1121111eS of art. They enjoy seeing the tools and studying the prItess4,' used in the making Tf etchings, engravings, litho- graphs, and other prints. Colleges could attract more students to the subjeet of art by means of exhibit bins of the materials nod, tools and stages in pro- duction 441 various kinds of prints. such as those In the New York Public LI- hrary on "How Etchings Are Made," "How latthographs Are Made," " how 11 Mezzotints Are Made," "The Making of a Wood Engraving." or "The Making . of a Shpanese Wood Block Print." Few professors would want all of these exhibitions, and perhaps none of us could secure material and prints for such complete displays as Mr. Weltenkampf has arranged. But modest exhibitions on one or two of these lines would arouse a new in- terest among the students and would cost a comparatively small sum. At least one such exhibition should he part of a permanent collection of every college art department. Regarding an exhibition of paintings, etchings, and illustrations, he says: .a The latter were chosen not in order to represent any special illustrators, but o p ent selected examples of high quality of work in black and white, of oil tU ful color, water color, charcoal, 'pen and ink, pencil, and etching. Con- siderable Interest was aroused in the class by assigning a paper which s4uld compare and contrast the use of illustration in Harper's, Scribner's, and the Century, and the use of Illustration in the cheaper magazines, such as Cosmopolitan' and the Metropolitan. The best of the essn0 on this subject, which showed decided originality, was entitled "The Big Three and the Pro- letariat." Tliv advantage of this theme was that it lent a vital interest to the subject In that it had to do with the interpretation of contemporary life and *specially that the work was based on the observation of originals and of the relation oi their reproductions to the text. It was a subject, therefore, which . could not be cribbed from books or articles. Some of the best essays by undergraduates were published in the Boston -Trangcript and the. Springfield Republican. The chief aim of a course in fine arts 18 Da to furnish copy for metropolitan newspapers. It is to enhance the 4Ib lc INSTRUCTION IN MKT IN THE UNITED STATES. 245 appreciation of art. The point Is not Only thct these undergradtmte essays were good enough to be accepted by newspaper (mlitors, but also that tikey were the result of personal appreciation, of first -hand observation. Its regurd to the uses to which college exhibitions are turned, I wish tc; speak first of what the instructor can give the students by tins of lectures, personal explunations, and gallery tours; and second, what the student can hint?;etf gain from such exhibitions. The teacher has an opportunity to show such qualities and CharaCteriStIS do not appear adequately in any reproduction. For painting ht can ex- plain hnd actually show such things as tone, bruslmork, harmony of voila-, and other qualities for different periods, and different groups within the same pe4iod. For instance, the handling of color and tone of iivressionist pie- tides, of tonalist pictures, and post-impressionist pictures. For sculpture, of course, there are qualities of color, modeling, and patina which can be abpve- i elated only in originals. The direct appeal of originals, is one explanation of the success of welt: Selected art shoWis among undergraduator. Moreover, exhibitions make tlie student body feel as they never have the importance of ,the study, of tine arts. The feeling of Proprietorship of personal interest is encouraged by having the undergraduates perform actual work, whleh Icings its own reward in experience and appreciation. Students get valuable experienco in the kind of manual labor done in nuuseuws ; they unpack, hang, and repack pdinting4 and sculpture; they make pedestals for sculpture, design labels and posters ; they gain some knowledge of the problems of framing, hanging. and installation. A few also learn something of the business side of exhibitions, where and how to borrow pictures, selec Al of works of art for exhibition purposes, and matters of insurance. Undergraduate correspondents have reported the exhibitions for city papers and for college publications. They have also shown competitive interest in writing es.sayS for small money prizes. But perhaps one of the most happy results of the exhibitimiS has been their use by other depstrtments. The pro- fes§ors of psychology and of English composition have required themes based on direct observation of the originals. Accordingly, over 500 students In three departments had required exercises based on the works of art in one exhibition. 0 . 2. Courses involving actual practice in drawing, painting, model- ing, And designing and directly related, as laboratory work to aca- demic cotirses. The character of these courses is naturally determined by the pirticular departments. to which they minister. Prominent among the dePuttments,under whose auspices courses oikthis type are organized are those of history of art, education, architecture, and engineering. The following quotations fi:om a paper by Miss'Ediih R. Abbott, of the Metropolitan Art Museum of New York, indicate the characr of many of these courses, organized in connection with courses in history of art: In discussing this question, I have assumed that the term nontechnical lab-. oratory work may properly be applied to laboratory drawing .n -vhich the object has been to develop the power of observation, not to achieve technir:al proficiency. Prof. Moore, of Mount Holyoke, says, "The term ' laboratory work, borrowefl fromithe sciences, is not a misnomer here. In science the laboratory fotms the basis of theory; facts are observed, and by, induttive.and deductive 246 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. reasoning general principles are froin them affirmed. In a study of historical art, too, laboratory work is used as a method of close analysis. Such work should be.not merely an accompaniment, but an organic part of the study of the history of art. Our purpose in its use is to enable the student to devote his attention for a time to one or another feature of a picture; the student tries, by drawing or modeling, to copy or suggest these points, and in so trying he is obliged to analyze them with a peculiar concentration that he woilid hardly attain by any other method." The study of this form of expression, I believe, should not differ essentially from that of innate or literature. The work itself must sPeak directly to the observer w: bout any intermediary. The art student should be encouraged to make his own Investigations and to draw his independent conclusions from analysis of the masterpiece itself. Ile may examine the structure of the picture in the same way that he would examine the structure of a symphony; he may look for the idioms of the painter or draftsman taut learn to recognize them as he would recognize the terins of speech which characterize the style of a great writer. In any such analysis, I believe the use of drawing to be invaluable. With the student and beginner, drawing has the important advantage of holding the at- tention focused upon the object for an appreciable time. Let us consider the advantage of laboratory drawilig in the study of compost. Don. Compositions might be called the study of the interrelation of the parts. Baldwin Brown says, "The temptatiOn to consider the parts in themselves rather than the effect of the parts in their relation to the whole Ja to most peo- ple irresistible," The untrained eye finds the plan of composition difficult to odecipher, and yet the artist has based his arrangement upon a carefully eon. struett.sd scheme. Mr. Cox thought it worth while in his analysis of Veronese to tire* n diagram in order to demonstrate-the severe laws of balance upon which Veronese relied for his effects. It seems beyond question that the pic- ture has a greater Interest when this fundamental structure is understood, since it gives the clue to the whole complex scheme. A similar analysis may be made a class exercise, the students being re- quired to sketch from lantern slides the structure lines of simple composition's. A time limit of 8 or '10 minutes may beset, or the student may be left in un- certainty when the light will be extinguished. By this means they learn to think logically and p the "anatomy" of the picture in an organic fashion. Whatev ay be the results on paper, the exercise necessitates concentration ructure and upon logical development. College teachers of English have told me that the clear analysis shown in these drawings was eiactly what they were trying to get in their work in English composition. Laboratory drawing holds the attention concentrated upon form rather than upon any extraneous Interest or associated idea. It facilitittes the understanding of compositional problems with all the delicate adjustniht of forms to spree which they involve. A more intimate acquaintance is gained with the expressive language of art, and the foundation 'is laid for the appreciation of "quality," so that in the final analysis one should be able not only to distinguish the line of this or that painter, but ale° la /iris vivante which characterizes great art. Laboratory work to essentially a means to an end. For the student with artistic ability it can never become a substitute for real studio practice. But once initiated into this new world In which the senses pia, so large a part, the student experiences keen enjoyment. 8. Studio courses not planned primarily as laboratory work for academic courses. INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 247 There is an evident tendency to credit wciLk in art which is more or less independent of an organic relation Uo academic courses, but which is nevertheless considered as an appropriate part of a major in art. In some cases these courses are carried on in an accredited art school. The affiliation' between Brown University and the Rhode Island School of Design is an instance of this type of arrangement. Many colleges and universities have their own department of fine art. The steadily increasing amount of recognition accorded to well- organized studio courses in art as appropriate for academic credit is paitly the result of a realization that art expression is more than a matter of manual dexterity in making a record of what one sees. It involves in addition, the translatign of one's impressions into terms of expression which have been slovAy evolved by the race, and which demand careful analysis and selection, and the knowledge of a body of principles and recorded experience. In the same sense that the test of excellence of themes in English is not their exactness as dic- tographic records of actual conversations nor as literal statistics of observations, so the test of college art work is not its correctness as a record of forms and colors, but its reconstruction of the re.: ma- terial of visual sensation into artistic ekpression. The recent steady increase in the number and size of departments of fine art in universities is destined to exercise an important in- fluence upon American art in two directions; namely, by giving to the future.citizens who will he the patrons of art and the promoters of the standards of civic beauty an early acquaintance with artistic interests and ideals of excellence, and also by offering to those who later will be professional artists an opportunity to Continue. through . college the contact with art which in many cases was begun in high school. Notwithstanding the high degree of skill in handling materials which drawing, painting, modeling, and designing involve, they ate in their higher forms allied to the arts of expression more closely than to the arts of construction. In universities where art may be selected as a major subject,. the student who plans to use Art as his form of expression has the same opportunity as the student who in- tends to enter the profession of literature, to tiegin his work under conditions which will give him a broad intellectual background and stimulating. contact with other vigorous interests. The artistically gifted student in a college or university which has no art department generally finds, early in his course, that he must choose, in. a manner that. the student who .plans to make science or literature his profession is not called upon to do, between a college course and a highly specialized art course. Too early technical facility, unaccompanied by constantly enlarging intellectual.outlook . . 248 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. is as bad for the art student as too late a knowledge of the use of his means of expression. The organization of college art courses is steadily improving. The work of the College Art Association of America is contributing effectively to this end. ART MUSEUMS AND ART SCHOOLS. Art museums have always been a. most important factor in art education in America, and their influence is extending rapidly. This development is due in part to the increase in number of museums and in the size and quality of their collections, and in part to improved means of making their collections available. Most modern museums have established close relations With the communities in which they exist, and have put forth every effort to make their collections of use as a stimulus and guide to the art student and industrial worker and as a means of artistic pleasure and inspiration to the general public. The older museums have existed long enough to be able to weed out much ordinary, but space-filling and mind-confusing, material. The newer museums learned by the experience of older institutions to protect themselves tactfully from mediocre but generously offered material, so that a satisfyingly large proportion of the works ex- hibited in the permanent collections of the museums of to-day have a genuine artistic significance. Where means are limited, it is generally considered more import- ant, in extending the list of permanent acquisitions to have a, small collection of a high degree of excellence than one which is large but only fairly good. It has become customary to regard a sum of money as more wisely expended in the purchnse of one or two ex- cellent examples of a given style or period of art than in procuring many ordinary illustrations of a wider. range of styles. Photographs, and in some cases casts, are generally regarded as better smktitutes for unobtainable fine things than original productions of indifferent merit. In consequence of this policy, the number of commonplace productions on permanent exhibition in American museums is rela- tively small. Besides the regular dkalays of collections owned by the institu- tion, nearly every museum has a succession of exhibitions of works of special interest, including turrent productions of pictorial and in- dustrial art. Societies now exist for the promotion of American art, and their patronage in the form of prizes and purchases is an added influence in bringing to these exhibitions much of the best in modern American* painting, sculpture; and design. While the collections accumulated from current exhibitions by these associations dOubtless contain many things that will not stand the test of time, nevertheless INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 249 after a hundred years the really excellent material they contain promises more than to justify the policy, without taking into account the encouragement that has been given to American art during that time. Besides making art productions of the past and present available, museums are organizing further educational activities with increasing effectiveness. In the galleries, docents and guides are available; literature, lantern slides, photographs, and color prints of good quality are provided; and lecture courses and classes are organized. Mthly museums have their collections of lantern slides selected and arranged so as to be of use in the community, especially in the schools. Carefully prepared lectures in manuscript form, together with appropriate slides, are frequently available for the use of schools. A few museums have collOions of slides which, for a small rental fee to cover packing, will .be sent to various 1 arts of the country. The Metropolitan Museum of New York and the Art Insti- tute of Chicago are notable among the institutions which offer this wide opportunity. The bulletins published periodically by many museums have become important art documents. By diem the acqui- sitions and opportunities of these institutions are made known to the public. The educational activities of museums and _special art schools differ considerably, because each is experimenting with methods of meeting the needs of its locality. Reference can be made here to only a fei', but the following are fairly typical of the various lines of effort. Seine of the lectures and classes announced in the bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, September, 1917, are the following: For the public. Sunday aftemoon.lectures, illustrated and followed by visits to the galleries through the winter season. Story hours for thildren and adults, illustrated and followed by visits to the galleries. Artistic problems in Greek sculpture; five illustrated lectures. For students of sculpture and painting in the art schools of New York. Four informal talks by painters and sculptors, with illustrations. For teachers in the public schools of NewYork City. Gallery talks by the museum Instructors. For elementary and high school pupils. Four lectures in cooperation with the American Museum of Natural History. Textile industries of the United States. The garment makers of primitive times. Historic fabrics and cos- tumes. For sales people, buyers, and designers, three seminars. For the deaf. Four illustrated lectures for those who can rend the lips. Fur the blind. Three talks for children, illustrated with objects from the collection which may be handled. 250 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918., The Art Museum of Worcester, Mass., has set an admirable ex- ample in the activities of its children's department, the informal work in drawing, the Saturday story hour, and the gallery visiting. Inevitably, the most important results of this work can not he measured In figures: they are observed by those whe know the children as individuals, in the increased capacity for spontaneous enjoyment of beauty wherever seen. and the deeper interest in the museum, leading even to a certain sense of part owner- ship in the collections which, through Intimate association, have come to mean much to these " younger citizens," A large number of museums carry on systematic work in direct connection with the public schools and offer to teachers and pupils free admission to the galleries. The plans followed by the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the John Herron Art Institute in Indian- apolis, the Carnegie Instittite at Pittsburgh. and the Cincinnati Mu- seum Association are typical of these activities. The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, among numerous other oppor- tunities which it furnishes, has established in another section of the city a Children's Art Center. Here children may see loan exhibitions and be helped in the study of them and guided in their own efforts to draw. Some 18,000 persons annually take advantage of the opportunity for free admission offered to school children and teachers by the John Herron Art Institute, of Indianapolis. It maintains a series of illus- trate talks for grade-school children on popular subjects closely allied to art study. For high-school students a two-year lecture course is given on the history of art (one term each covering painting, archi- tecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts), a full high - school credit being awarded to each student attending through the two years. A course in "museum study," planned to develop a fuller knowledge of museum material and a better understanding of how to make use of it, is a required part of the Indianapolis Normal School curriculum. In addition to these regular courses, all given at the museum, numerous classes come for special study or for a general museum visit, and fre- quent lectures are given in the various school buildings on the prac- tical application of art in the hOme, the city, the community, and along similar directly helpful lines. In the art school which it main- tains for professional training in drawing, painting, and the deco- rative arts, classes are conducted for teachers at special low prices and free classes for elementary and high-school pupils.- In addition it offers scholarships for advanced work in art to pupils who show special ability. Recently, the free scholarship has been extended to cover the whole State of Indiana and a scholarship offeeed for each of the 92 counties in the State. The Cincinnati Museum announced. its plan in its report for 1909 as follows: INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 251 The question of education on a large scalethat is, of bringing the general public into intelligent and agreeable acquaintance with objects of artis a matter which is occupying the attention of eiwery museum at the present time. It is being variously dealt with. There is, of course, no difficulty in answering the needs of an intlivAgual or of a small group who come with a definite ques- tion or a common want. It is a pleasant and profitable task, for example, to talk over the Greek sculptures with a group of children who know their mythology. But it is doubtful whether the needs of large visiting classes of school children can ever be adequately met by instruction inside a museum. Certainly to attempt locally the systematic instruction of great numbers would be an impossible tax on a small and tWisy staff s. There are times when the request for guidance must be reluctantly refused. Volunteer service of the right sort would be a great boon and would hardly run the risk of becom- ing stereotyped, a real danger to any employing the function too frequently. By far the best results, however, are to be gained by the school-teacher who possesses sufficient knowledge to use the collections. She can reinforce her own work by drawing on an inexhaustible fund for illustration, and by reason of her knowledge of the child's degree of preparation she need waste nothing. If she possess, in addition, a love of beauty, either native or acquired, the conditions for success could hardly be in4roved upon. The museum, then, is putting its main strength along this line Into its work for teachers. Another not uncommon affiliation is illustrated by the opportunity offered at Cincinnati, where high-school' students may elect an art course which is arranged to allow five afternoons of work each week in the museum academy. Each afternoon's 'program includes three hours of drawing and painting. Instruction in the history of art is given to these students at the museum. The museum circulates through the schools certain sets of lantern slidps with a synopsis. The subjects for 191S are: "A Review of the Museum," " The History, of Painting with Special Reference to the Characteristics of the Great Periods," " Metal Work." " Design as Studied and Practiced To-day." A lecturer from the museum is sent to the schools occa- sionally. The way in which the Carnegie Institute comes into touch with the school children is described as follows: The problem presented to us by visits to our galleries of groups of children from the public schools, and the way in which we have undertaken to solve It, may be briefly stated. Through the interested cooperation of the superintendent of schools in Pitts- burgh, and the director of art instruction, and the exceptional liberality of the board of education, the students of the entire eighth grade of the public schools, numbering 5,000, and ranging in age from about 14 to 10 years, come three times during the school year, with their teachers, as part of their regular work, to visit the halls and galleries of the department of fine arts at Carnegie Insti- tute. Each visit is limited in time to an hour and n half, and the three sub- jects, Painting, architecture, and sculpture, are studied, but each period is devoted to the study of one subject and of on', a few works of art. These works are used for the purpose of Illustrating some of the fundamental qualities defined. 252 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1914. As a result of many years of observation the problem presents itself to me In this way. We have, on the one side, groups of interested and intelligent children, eager to see and hear and understand. They come to us from 5,000 homes scattered throughout the entire city, and the majority of theta have had no opportunity to learn anything about art, or even to see works of art. They have had nothing beyond the elemental art training offered by the public schools, and their sole means of observatliin has been practically limited to Illustrations published In books and magazines telling stories or illustrating incidents. This side of art Is,. of course, so obvious that it may be readily understoOd by a child. On the other side of the problem, dPe have the entire realm of art with which to deal, in three sessions of an hour and a half each the history of art, of painting, of architecture and sculpture; the wide field of biography, of painters, of architects and sculptors; the technical side of art, the peculiar or special methods adopted, especially by painters, In the production of their work; and the various elements or qualities which enter Into a work of art. The problem might be approached from any of these angles. It will be seen at once how futile it would he to attempt to give the young people any Idea of the.tistpry of the art of painting in the space of an hour and a half. It might be possible to ``real briefly with the life of .a single artist within the time, but the hapossibilitr of dealing adequately with the wide field of biography within the hour and a half is apparent. And while the technique of art is an interesting field of inqui4 and study, the peculiar manner of doing a thing is unimportant. Supreme examples of art have been produced by various technical methods. Technical methods are of little more hopm Lance than the handwriting of the author. Moreover, these students do not come seeking technical knowledge. They simply want to know why this or that work Is good, to the end that they may better II erstand and enjoy mt. The folly of attempting to teach these young peep tl history, biography, or technique of any art in an hour and a half is evade t. Therefore, it will be readily seen that if we are to give these students any- thing worth bringing them to the institute for, we must select for them with discriminating judgment and concentrate their attention upon some important quality or qualities of the subject. Our chief purpose, then, is to give the student a point of vices from which to examine and study, not one work of art, but all works of art. The scholarship plan'of the Cleveland School of Art illustrates some of the types of scholarships which art schoi)ls offer to talented public-school pupils. This school offers working scholarships] and a few money 'scholarships. Last year the "Mutual service fund" was inaugurated. This is made up at present of eight purses of $350 each. A talented pupil can have the benefit of one of these purses on condition that as soon as his earnings begin, the money be re- turned without interest, in installments to be paid either by the in- dividual or by his employera certain percentage of his earnings monthlyuntil the whole is returned for another to use. The purses are given by individuals or organizations who come into personal touch with the beriaciary. The pupils whose abilities are recog- nized by the award of these scholarships are usually discovered in the, high schools. Application is made through some special teacher of drawing who knows the facts about the pupil and his work. INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 258 The Cleveland Museum, in addition to its regular gallery displays, has exhibitions of selected works of art in a place of honor and under special illumination, each for two weeks only. Illustrated leaflets are issued interpreting these selected works and giving references to helpful literature about them and the artists who produced them. In connection witlr the difficult matter of appropriate gallery talks a much better understanding is evident regarding the ways in which genuinely artistic appreciation is promoted. Sonic fundamental con- siderations on this complex problem are set forth with admirable clearness in the bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago for Febru- ary, 1918, front which the following paragraphs are extracts: There is no form of art lecture capable of greater value to the interested public than that ilelivert4i in the presence of the works under discussion. Here qualities are seen and 'minted out rather than described, and here the emphasis can he laid on a statement of the principle governing the manipulation of those qualitiesthe essential prtwesses of art. And yet there is no situation In which the lecturer can more easily be tempted from the straight and narrow path of scientific truth/ than in the gal- lery talk where the acquiescent pictures seem so ready to corroborate any word he limy utter. The exercise of individual taste and the play of individual fancy have a right to play their part in the appreciation of works of art, and something very like these often stimulates the amateur critic into strange 4: !lenience of statementeither of denunciation or of praiseIn channels. of purely peminal thought whose value for his audience is certainly nothing and may be less. Now this leads to the single deadly sin of the picture talkerthe creation of prejudice. It is precisely the function of the gallery talker to help us to find the artist's angle of vision. The greatest gift he can offer us is to make us sympathetic with the colwepilons which are new to us. His best means of nevomplisbing this is to help us to rid ourselves of the flints of prejudice through which we all are obliged to some extent to peer. For we can not receive our reathetic experience second hand. With the open- minded attitude which is ready to accept a "message" from any work, how- ever old or however new, there must, be combined an Insistence upon receiving that message at first hand and for ourselves. The gallery lecturer who In any way attempts to come letween us and the superlative delight of growing into the love of a work art through our growing acquaintance with It, shows us at the start his (or her) failure to grasp the first essential of leadership in art appreciation. Practically all modern museums carry on one or more of the kinds of educational activity here mentioned. The foregoing examples have been cited only to illustrate types of work, all the specific in- stances of which are fortunately much too numerous to allow of indi- vidual mention. Art education related to industries has,been prominent in America for, many years. It is receiving a fresh impetus at present from the prospect that, after the war, the United States 'will have to depend upon its own resources more than in the past, not only for designers but also for styles of design. A kind of originality must be developed 264 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. that can produce things which are not only new but fine in quality. With this necessity in mind, older schools have been improving their facilities, while new schools intimately related to local industries have arisen. The Grand Rapids School of Art and Industry, in Michigan, and the Federal School of Commercial Designing, in Minneapolis, are types of these newer schools. Most of the schools of industrial art offer special opportunities for school pupils whose vocational inter- ests in this field have become evident. The scheme of affiliation worked out by the School of Industrial Art in Trenton, N. J., is typical of this sort of arriingement. Ilere pupils from the city schools may take courses for which the fees are merely nominal. Technical art courses are provided for pupils who have completed the junior high school, and an art teachers' course is offered for students in the normal school. American students of textile design have only recently discovetikl the value to their work of the extensive collections of primitive art which are gathered in the anthropological museums of this country. These students are recognizing the fact that primitive art is often very good art and that it offers a vast source of suggestion and inspiration for designs that are original, in the sense that they are unlike those to which we have become accustomed. In an article en- titled "Museum Documents and Modern Costume," if the American Museum Journal for April, 1918, Mr. M. D. C. Crawford writes: Above and beyond the artistic merit of these costumes, however, they illus- trate in a definite manner a very important feature of the educational possibili- ties and public usefulness of the American Museum. Every single garment In the collection was founded on a specimen In the collectIon'of this museum. In certain instances, the inspiration is perhaps difficult to trace, but in others it Is quite obvious. These garments represent the first fruits of what I may term "creative research" by the American costume industry. The documents in the museum were studied with the view of applying ideas, either in decoration or In line, to modern costumes. Instead of the usual method of importing modern foreign costumes (themselves based, generally, on foreign museum collections), our designers, familiar "%kith the practical needs of to-day, have gone direct to original documents for their inspiration. The work, therefore, marks one of the most Important movements in the deyelopment of a truly American type of . industrial art. - It is not difficult to understand how important a part our great museums and libraries mast play in the proper industrial expression of art. They are for the artist inexhaustible mines of suggestion. The art of each people and age is an evolution from some former type. The artist, especially the decorative artist, is concerned not alone with purely original creation, but with-the in- spired selection of certain Ideas ind motives of ancient origin that may have a fresh significance for his own time and People- The national need for itadustrial design is strongly influencing the art departinents in high ichools and art schools. In the past, many students have entered art work because of theirstrong liking for that work, but in only a Poi institutions has the training been directed INSTRUCTIOX IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES. 255 and vitalized by any definite knowledge of the actual demands for the product. Consequently, many art students with marked abili- ties in design but not in pictorial art have received only formal training in design or have given their time to painting pictures, thinking that overcrowded field to be the only place for art expres- sion. Many with valuable talent have turned to work other than art because they had no knowledge of the opportunities offered. Prom- inent among the agencies which are remedying this condition is the Art Alliance of America. This association was organized in New York City in 1914, with headquarters at 10 East Forty-seventh Street. One purpose of this association is to promote working rela- tions between art producers and the industries. It brings artists and art students into personal touch with industries whith need art products. The New York division of this association was organized in New York City in 1914. Galleries are maintained in the heart of New York's shopping district, where exhibitions, organized in close cooperation with artists and with the trades, are held every month. Positions are secured, work sold, and advice given by artists and educators. Hours are assigntrd daily for personal interviews and examination of work. The Central States division was organized in the fall of 1918 in Chicago, and maintains an office in the Art Insti- tute. At each monthly luncheon the artistic possibilities of some industry are discussed. The movement has the friendly cooperation of the Illinois Manufacturers' Association, and plans for a compre- ,hensive exposition in the fall of 1919 which will illustrate the neces- sity of art in industry are under way. Additional divisions are being organized in other centers in the country, so that the alliance is likely to exert a strong and direct influence upon the methods of teaching of design, and upon the vocational guidance of students of warked artistic abilities. CHAPTER IX. INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. By WALDO S. PRATT. CONTRNTR.--Depletion In the number of tenches and pupilsSome decrease among lode- pendent schools -The transference of music teachers into Army workMilitary band developmentCamp singing and community musicDiscussions about standardlaa- tionSchool credits for outside musk studyOther points of progress in public schools--Notable features in private Instruction. In instruction in, music. as in other related fields, the outstanding feature of the biennium 1916-1918 is the interference or readjust- ment occasioned by the European War. On the whole, although there has been sonic serious disarravgement, the direct or indirect benefits overbalance the Josses. In the present rapid summary it will be convenient to mention .(l) one or two lines of disturbance from war conditions; (2) several. dirktions in which these conditions have induced novel efforts; and (3) certain points of discus,sibn or progress not connected with war conditions. DEPLETION IN THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS. Depletion in the active staffs of music schools, both independent and affiliated, in the large body of music instructors in public schools and in the host of private teachers has been notable during the past two years. The drain has come not only from direct enlist- ment or drafting into military service, but from the manifold de-. minds for indirect service. Institutional faculties have been much affected by calls tti members to give up their usual forms of work for temporary activity in otther-directions. The same causes have operated to produce a decided decrease in ninny instances in the total number of students, both in institptions (except public schools) and under private instruction. Pupils have been considerably in- fluenced by the economic stringency of the war/period. The small private teacher and some of the detached musiqschools seem to have been the most affected. Some individuals ha? suffered badly. SOME DECREASE AMONG INDEPENDENT SWOOLS. A considerable number of the independent music schools have ceased to exist during the past two or thee years. It is not clear whether or not this is due to war conditions. But the fact is notice- able enough to call for a-word of comment. 1710295-21Bull. 88-17 257, 258 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. . There is no accepted criterion as to what constitutes a "music school." Ten years ago, when Dr. Arthur L. Manchester prepared for the Bureau of Education his bulletin on "Music Education in the United States" he was constantly confronted by this problem of definition. The name of a "school" is occasionally claimed by an individual, or a married couple, or some-casual combination of two or three. It is common when a larger number agree to pool expenses and exchange clientage. A surprising proportion of the "music schools" of the country are not .much beyond this rudi- mentary stage of organjzation. Comparatively few have a cur- riculum, or require anything from students except regular attend- ance and prompt payment of bills. The large majority of these 'students would in any other analogous professitmal institution he classed as "specials" or." irregulars." . - But all small and loosely organized schools are in competition with two other kinds of institutions. One is the strong conserva- tory in the large'city, drawing Students from a wide area, with a nu- merous, and diversified faculty, offering many collateral advantages in the way of recitals, concerts, and lectures, and having traditions' that favor breadth of 'raining. so as to gain some degree of general musicianship. The other is the department or school in a college or university system, where the organization and spirit of the total in- stitution naturally control the work of each constituent. part. Both of these types offer much that small and isolated private schools can not give. It appears that the stress of/war conditions has heightened this contrast. Of course, a small school is rtot to be 'disdained be- cause it is small. Some such are efficient and useful. There is also no objection to cooperative unions of teachers for business reasons. The criticism is to using the name "school" for that which has no clear scholastic purpose or pOlicy. If the pressure of war condi- . timis is reducing the number of these institutions, the progress of musical education Will not be much damaged. THE TRANWERENCE OF MUSIC TEACIIERS INTO ARMY WORK. A conspicuonseffect of theaway has been the widespread summons to teachers of singing, particularly supervisors in the public schools, with many instrumentalists as well, into constructive; musical work at army cantonments, with the forces abroad, or in public situations related to these. The basis of all this 'has been the recognition by the Government of the recreational an moral value of music in life, and the parallel recogniiion-by the Young Alen's Christian As- sociation and similar organization_ s engaged welfare. work among soldiers and sailors. The effect of all thiS has been twofoldIthe effect upon theSe this called as individuals, and the effect upon those among *hom they have worked. INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 259 It is clear that the army experience of the scores of teachers thus drafted into novel service will be of lasting benefit to thensperson- ally. Those who came from the public schools, and many others as well, had been dealing almost wholly with children or adolescents, and more with girls thanwith boys. In their new work they were confronted by throngs off'., growii men. This experience has been wholesome and broadening, since the work must justify itself to minds of a critical and impatient order. No doubt in most cases the authorities regarded musical drill mainly as a means of intensi- fying martial ardor, while the men themselves accented merely jolly goodfelloship and heedless diversion. Yet every serious musical worker has seen the chance to turn even camp music into a real educational force. Particularly has this been stimulated in some situations across the sea, where American troops have been in close contact with Frenclj or Italians, and could catch from them a readi-, ness and delicacy of artistic appreciation that is rare in this country. It much too soon to say what will be the result of all this army work when demobilization has been accomplished. It would be foolish to expect universal or spectacular consequences. But con- sidering that perhaps four millions of young men have been more or less touched by-this musical work, it is likely that large numbers have discovered in it what they had not realized in-the way of emo- tiohaluplift and also of associational value. It is probable that their attitude toward- music for themselves, for their families and for their communities will be more sympathetic and enterprising than in the past. Even if the percentage of such recruits in musical -in- terest is small, their absolute number will be large and their geo- graphical distribution wide. . - MILITARY BA ND DEVELOPMENT. At this point a few words should be said about the development of bands and band music in the Army and Navy. Not having had any extensive military e4ablislnent, the United States for half a century has given slight attention to this subject. When the Expe- ditionary Force was first gathered and dispatched there were neither leaders nor players nor instruments available properly:to equip the various units. Yet it was speedily seen that band music was of more than decorative importance. But it could not be instantaneously created. All sorts of expedients were tried, both here and abroad. What has been accomplished was creditable, considering the difficul- ties. For a period Walter Damrosch, the well-known New York conductor, served efficiently in France as a center for some inten- sive training. But the problem has had only a partial solution. Although we need not look forward to the long maintenance of / 4 260 BIENNIAL SU VElt OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. the last year or two, yet for a conside- remain larger than anything that we For these careful provision of band ediate need, with regard also to the e establishment of one or more gov- eaders and phiyers or to arrange- special instruction.' Something imperfect form. One large New uraged successive classes of pu- rnor's Island, sand other institu- cilities. Now, we may hope, elop the cultural possibilities ds, to be used both in min- such huge forces as during able time their number will have had since the Civil War. music is demanded. This imm future, will probably lead to th ernmental schools fOr training I ments with existing agencies for of this sort has long existed in an York school, for example, has enco pits from the military post at Gove tions are well equipped with band fa still' further steps will be taken to dew of many permanent and well-drilled ba tars connections and in public service. The value of this can be seen by re cal meant for generations in the military and ing European country. Great Britain, Fre have been solicitous for this and have ma popular education. It is interesting to refine forerunners of the Paris ConservatoiSe was t founded in .17021swhich was primarily a school master Surrette, became the' first director'of the maining in office for 20 years.- In every garrison the military band is one of the established agencies sentation. We have something analogous to this in city bands, but these have not yet attained the influe generally that is possible. ling what band music has social life of every lead - nce. Germany, and Italy de it a real branch of tuber that one of the ie Institut National, for military music, is head, the band- Conservatoire, re- town of Europe of musical pre- our town and nce or dignity CAMP SINGINO AND COMMUNITY MUSIC. At first sight the cultivation of singing in soldiers' camps and the far. more general interest known. as community music have little \dinwt connection. It is n fact, however,-that the efforts put forth imarily for the former have had a marked influence upon the a ante of the latter. The two will therefore be treated hbre softie- wh in combination, as has already been done by the Secretary of War 'n his Annual Report for 1918:. A gr t deal of attention has been given to music through mass singing In camps n 1 communities, singing on the march, Competitive regimental and com- pany singing, recreational singing in soldiers' free time, the organization of quartets, glee clubs, end choruses, and the training of company and.r(Vmental -song leaders to aid the camp song leader. In order 'to have all the men singing the, same songs, songboOks containing patriotic songs, folk songs, popular and service song*, and some Ilymns were published and distributed, Experiments with vocal null les4umentar music in hospitals proved so effectiie with certain types of calsel and no acceptable_to the hospital authorities that the matter was t. IIISTRt/CTION n; MIJS/Ct. 261 referred to the Surgeon General's Office with a view to it transfer to this department. The services of the camp song leaders have frequently been borrowed by nearby communities. Community singingthe singing of songs the soldiers have been singinghas spread all over the country, and the pOssibilities, as to both military and civilian morale, are highly significant A singing nation will emerge from the war. The immediate educational influence of the soldiers' singing has been widely recognized. Although the grade of music attempted has not often been specially good, to many men it has been a revelation that they could sing, that choral music has a singular fascination and power, and that music thus produced is worth working for. Chorus practice is always impressive as a practical illustration of cooperative effortas a demonstration of democracy in action. Hence, in addi- tion to the artistic development that it brings, it has important social reactions. The universal testimony is that the system that has been put in force in all cantonments and camps has been immensely valu- able. One reason for its success is that many leaders of superior quality have been secured, that they have seried under authoritative commissions and with the full support of the commanding officers, and that from the firSibtheir efforts have net with enthusiastic welcome by the majority of the men. Directly radiating from this camp music have been two or three undertakings outside. One has been the supervision to some extent of the recreational opportunities in the neighborhood of cantonments and camps, including both musical and theatrical features. The mu-. sical importance of this has probably not been great, except in the exclusign of some inferior performances. Another, which is of de- : cided significance, is the organization of so-called." liberty choruses" in towns and villages generalry. Comprehensive statistics about this are not yet available. But in Connecticut, which was more or less a pioneer in this work, some 90 choral centers were established last sum- mer in the space of abOut three months. Many of these seem likely to continue active for a long time, perhaps even to grow into per- manent choral societies. This line of effort is so promising that it is now being supervised and systematically promoted by a commission called the War Camp Community Service (1 Madison Avenue, New York City), conducted by the PlaygAund and Recreation Association of America for the War Department and Navy Department Cotn- 'missions on Training Camp Activities. Besides a general director there are State directors already in service in a. large number of States. All this hat obvious relation to every other. enterprise that looks tow* the stimulation4f community music. Such music has been promoted more or less for a considerable time. , The methods used have varied' mach according to Circumstances. In some cases rather 262 BIENNIAL rRVEY EDUCATION, 1916-1918. large community choruses have been set up, with regular rehearsals and some concerts, occasionally with soloists and orchestra. In other cases neighborhood "sings" of a much humbler variety have been the goal. Municipal orchestras and bands, supported by public authorities, are growing more commonslightly resembling in func- tion the old "Town Musicians" that -once flourished in Germany. A number of cities maintain regular series of free organ recitals by a resident city organist. The most comprehensive plan just now seems to be that of Flint, Mich.; which has appointed a city director of music on a liberal salary, expecting him to devote his whole at- tention to developing community music in every possible form. Here reference 'should be made to the fact that more than one of the State universities is giving special attention to this subject. The University of Illinois announces that one of its main objects in cur- rying on its large and well-equipped department of music is to encourage and uplift the plane of community music. This univer- sity has for years made a specialty of band music, and its bands circulate more, or less through the State for educational purposes. 'the University of Wisconsin has long emphasized the holding of local singing assemblies distantly' related to the old-fashioned "mu- sical conventions "and the training of teachers co etent to act. as leaders in popular music. The opportunity for This-sort of in- fluence is beginning to he recognized by some independent music- schools, as well as by an increasing number of private teacherik. The movement is still very much in its infancy. It has no tra- dition behind it and not yet an organized momentum. Many would- be supporters are in the dark how to proceed. In some places there is a Jack of suitable leaders. Everywhere there is a lack of varied music for singing. A few small collections of " familiar " pieces have been put forth, which are good enough as far as they go, but they do not go far. The circulation of much material of present interest is hampered by copyright restrictions. Our Ameri- . can population really has no body of traditional songs. This is partly due to our racial and national complexity. And the custom of singing has not been general among us, nor that of frequently gath- ering.for the hearing of music. Yet what has always been affirmed by thOughtfurmusicians 'is being demonstrated more and more, that there is latept in people generally a large capacity both for song and for appreciation, provided that the proper opportunity can be sup- plied. It is increasingly Clear that difficulties will be overcome and' that true community music will spread throughout the Union.. This movement has a vital relation to formal education in music. The latter can never safely allow itself to become exclusively pro- ' fessional. Adyanced musical culture cannot be Supported except on a basis of popular interest, and it will be unhealthy in quality INSTRUCTION, IN Ammo. 268 unless it refreshes itself by contact with the unconscious and even homely sources of all universal fine art. Before leaving the subject, brief mention should be made of one phase of the military work that stands slightly apart from what has been mentioned above. This is the development of singing in the Students' Army Training Corps. Here the men in view were mostly from schools or universities. Musical work adapted to them was hardly organized and pUt in motion before the signing of the armis- tice opened the way to their demobilization. But it is felt by those who have been specializing in this work that the response to it was so promising that a way should be found to continue it nationally. Whether i'suitable method for doing so can be found is not yet clear. But if such a method is feasible, the result would be to connect the well-known zest for singing among students with the larger. move- ment for community music. DISCUSSIONS ABOUT STAN DARDIZATIQN. Turning now to matters disconnected with war conditions, there is probably no question more discussed among musical educators than that of standardization. This question especially concerns pri- vate teachers and those working in the public schools. It- may progress to results that will profoundly affect the entire circuit of education in music. A few years ago much emphasis was put by some upon the value of fixing a minimum standard of qualification by requiring all music teachers to secure a State license or certificate. This aimed at debar- ring ignorant and incompetent teachers from " practicing," as it is called in medicine or law. Detailed efforts to secure the enactment of such restrictive statutes were made in more than one State, but without much result except to demonstrate the extreme difficulty of the enterprise. This line of effort seems lately to be less prominent. It is to be hoped that it will not be presSed, at least in the form thus far advocated. There may come a time when some restriction of music teaching by law may be both practical and useful. That 'time, however, has not yet come. Meanwhile two or three other lines of effort under the name of standardization are being actively discussed or undertaken. In gen- eral, these divide into two "classes: Those that aim to standardize teaching proficiency, though not by statute, and those that aim. to standardize methods of study and credits to students. ,Both of these are more. or less before the national and the several State music teachers' associations. and some of these bodies have worked out plans that are in operation. Both are voluntary in nature rather than coercive, and both therefore appeal, primarily to ambition as a motive. Whether or 'not either of them results in the adoption of ! . 264 BIENNIAL SURYEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. a system of wide application, agitation of the subject is proving profitable because it increases the thoughtfulness and precision of music teachers as to the aims and methods of their work. In England and Canada the certification of music teachers has long been carried out with great thoroughness, especially with refer- ence to work in the board schools, but extending by popular favor more or less to all teachers. It accomplishes. nearly the sue results as have here been sought through legislative action. Something parallel to it is gradually being established here. Established music schools, music, departments in certain colleges and universities and many normal schools have courses for teachers that lead to certifi- cates whose value is recognized, and applicants for some positions are expected or required to hold such certificates. Efforts have re- cently been made by more 'than one of the State music teachers' associations to setup a system of examination and certification of their ownas was done years ago by the American College of Musicians. This line of effort is now engaging the thought of many serious musicians, and it is leading to the formulation of interesting and valuable schemes of knowledge and accomplishment to be demanded for teachers of singing, playing, and theory. Its reaction upon those who are discussing it is evidently stimulating, and also its effect as concerns those to whom it is applied. But whether it is to have large influence depends upon, two incalculable factors: The number who will be moved to take advantage of it, and whether the public will'value such certificates.enough to demand that teachers generally shall hold them. Another practical question is as to the persistence, patience, and wisdom with which the aSs(wiations pursue the matter from year to year. Dependence upon unpaid officinis who shift more or less is precarious. And at present there is no State association that includes any dominant proportion of the music teachers in its territory. Though this fact detracts somewhat from the authority of such associations. the moral influence of what they undertake Vtuld be considerable if steadily and strongly exerted. Rather more practically hopeful are the constant debates about tipulated courses of study in various musical subjects, with the rking of successive grades of attainment desired. From the na ure of the public school system it follows that where music is intr*luced in parallel with other subjects the course of study in it must\be marked out with much precision. Hence formulated courses have long been establishing themselves in public school music. Amilogiutii conditions exist wherever music is introduced into the 'syittem of colleges or universities, though the nuniber and variety. Of 'Peel& topics considered are much greater, The difficulty of the problem. in higher education is obviously More serious. There seems INSTRITCTION IN IMMO. 265 to be a growing conviction that formulated or standardized methodseither of the ordering of topics and material or of peda- gogical presentation, or bothshould be urged upon private music teachers, generally, if not to a degree demanded of them. The ques7 tion is in part whether private teachers should be expected to follow the system that is somewhat necessary in public schools and colleges. In part it is whether music as a subject of teaching should be made to conform in method to various other subjects. In either case, it is claimed, its methods should be standardized. It can hardly be said that the discussions of the past two years have contributed vitally to the solution of the very complicated problem thus outlined except in one direction, that will be separately treated in the next section of this survey. Yet they have been fruit- ful in clarifying thought. On the one hand, foolish notions of an immediate and rigid scheme. that would regulate everything and everybody have been discountenanced. On the other, many rational and suggestive plans of work have been drafted, and these have doubtless served to correct the slipshod or eccentric methods of some .individual teachers. There is certainly a growing understanding of the nature and elements of the problem. But there is no obvious consensus as to final details. It is natural that the interest in this matter should have stimulated the promulgation of series of textbooks or other manuals that claim to embody .a " standard " course and method of study. This idea has been often exemplified in the history of modern musical education, as in ocher education. It always serves to increase the store of literary contributions by what certain workers can use to great advantage, and kepresents the mature thought of one or more experienced authors or editors. All such publications are tkerafore to be wel- comed But they are liable tb bring in commercial elements of doubt4l value, especially when improperly promoted.. It should be clear tlist authoritative "standards" can not be established by pulig lishers merely as a business proposition. Anil, in general, the .sub- sidizing of teachers to use "exclusive" systems is to be deprecated la ,demoralizing. It is to be noted, finally, that through all discussions about stand- ardization there runs a line of persistent objection. The basis of this is that music is not a thing nor even a precise muscular or logical discipline, but a psychological experience. It has its objectiveor physical aspects, of course, which can be somewhat.precisely stated and can be learned or acquired like other technical matters. But these, it is well known, are external or accessory to the art itself. It is because of this that so much of musical instruction has always been individual rather than by classes, by the personal impact of a teacher upon a pupil rather than by means of iMperional textbooks. Much. 266 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19IS. I of the .current talk about standardization seems to overlook or mini- mize this fundamental peculiarity of all art education as compared with science education. And, at all events, the range within which standardization can hope to operate is small. It can do little more than fix some irreducible minima of purpose or attainment. With the reaching of the possible maxima it can have little place, since the higher the level of advance the more infinite and intricate become the paths that may be followed.1 SCHOOL CREDITS FOR OUTSIDE MUSIC STUDY. In public-school music the most notable event in the past two years is the interest in plans fof granting credit for music study with out- side teachers. This idea is not new, but at present seems likely to be put in practice in various places and ways as soon as war conditions are over. The elements of the case for such credit are readily understood. It is generally agreed that musk study, to be educationally effective, should begin during " school age," and this is true not only for the few who may choose music as a life work, but for others. Investiga- tion shows that a very large percentage of the boys and girl; in the public schools, especially in cities, are taking, or much desire to take, music lessons while attending school.' If such outside work is edu- cationally worth while, or can be modified so as to be so. pupils ought to gain credit for it toward' school advancement rather than be forced to get it as an extra. With these propositions as a basis the practical questions have been two: (1) How shall the educational value of such studies be guaranteed? (2) Will the school authorities allow credit for such study thus guaranteed? The onus of defense has been thrown back and forth between the parties in interest some musicians feeling that the schools must show cause why the innovation is not auk pled forthwith, and some superintendents feel- ing that either all music study is frivolous or the method of it is too *loose to be deserving of credit. But during the past two years there has been an increasing disposition to turn from vague presupposi- tions pro or con and consider soberly in precisely what ways outside study could be allowed school credit. This has forced school authori- bles and music teacher's to combine in drafting specific plans. The most carefully elaborated plan now accessible is one drawn . up by a commission of 15, appointed by the National Education As- sociation, most of whom are also active in the Music Teachers' Na- tional Association, and which represents the best views of both I gpettany useful papers upon this subject are contained in the last two volumes or the Proceedings of the Musk Teachers' National Association, namely, 1916, pp. 165-185; 1911, pp. 199-228, See also further references to these volumes under next section. a see a remarkable account of an Investigation made In Hartford, Conn., In 1912 In the Proceeding. of the Music Teachers' National Association, 1913; p. 179. INSTRUCTION or mum. 267 sides of the question.' It makes provision for special registration of the students eligible for such courses, for periodic reports from the outside teachers to the school authorities, and for examinations before credit is allowed.: Data are not at hand as to how far thiti plan, or some moaification of it, has actually been put hi force. But that the idea it embodies is now meeting with extensive interest is evident, especially in the East and the Middle West.' Incidentally this movement in school music is effecting some defi- nite results in the way of standardization. The subjects that have been specially considered are the playing of the piano, the organ, the violin, or any drchestrtll instrument and singing. In each case it has been necessary to work out in detail a definite plan of study that shall be satisfactory at once to outside teachers and to school author- ities, and this plan has had to be adhered to firmly in order to meet conditions.. Every such effort does something toward erecting prac- tical "standards" by experiment rather than by theory, Another excellent result of this line of effort is that it brings to- gether the interests of private music teachers an he tenche the schools. Each group may learn much from the other, st a pro- fessional musicians generally, as a group, and the teachers of ad- vanced music in colleges and universities, as a group, may also learn from each other. There has been too much division of the music- teaching profession into separate camps, each jealous or suspicious of the other. OTHER POINTS OF PROGRESS IN PUBLIC SCIIOOLS. Many signs indicate that several forms of class-instruction in the public schools have made decided advance during the past two years. Conspicuous among these is work in music appreciation, in ad= vanced chorus singing, and in orchestral playing. The gain in the first .two is simply in detail of method and in scope of influence. Both are well established in high schools and are being handled in many places in such a way as to render genuine artistic service. The institution of school orchestras, not as an outside feature of school life, but as some way a part of school instruction, is more recent. But this, too, is commending itself as peculiarly valuable. This latter promises to develop in most of the larger cities. All of this mass instruction in the public schools has an evident relation to the future advance of community music. The orchestral instruction also may prove to have an interesting vocational aspect.. 'This report, so far as relates to this suhJect. was first printed in the Proceedlop of the /dusk 'Vertebrae' National Assoeistion, 1916, pp. 103-1A/7. It is also given in the Proceedings of the National Education Association. t a Besides the Proceedings of the National Education Association and the Musk Teach- ers' Nationol'AssociatIon, to which refereuct has been made, the Music Supervistirk Journal of the Notional Conference of Music Supervisors rupplit.s many practical notes. 268 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. NOTABLE FEATURES IN PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. The pagftwo years have not seen many notable changes in the aims or methods of private instruction. Regarding two points, however, a brief remark may be made. There is a steady increase in the emphasis put by intelligent teach- ers upon the careful training of little children. Many teachers spe- cialize in work for them, and these have often developed methods of their own that are effective in evoking permanent musical interest and ability. And all teachers of thoughtfulness are realizing that true artistic life may begin in the child's mind before it is ready for effort of a logical or scientific order. It may be .ti at the comparative rarity of evident musical enthusiasm or .aipacity in the general American public is partly due to a failure hitherto to give due atten- tion to the education of younger children. In the teaching of harmony. there is a marked tendency to desert the paths that once were considered regular and to experiment with all the new speculations concerning musical construction that have appeared in recent years. It is evident that musical thought on these matters is passing through a period of reconstruction. Procedures that were once condemned its unlawful or barbarous are being freely used, not only by composers for effect, but by teachers for technical development. So far as this serves to break up mere academic rigid- ity and the notion that composition is a matter of rule, it is whole, some. But when it produces an exaggerated interest in chaotic ar- rangement or eccentric melody and harmony for mere oddity, it may be unhealthy. The point of general interest is that leading teachers are showing a fine balance of judgment about the subject in its pres- ent stage. They- are generally ready to consider and use all of the new theories that are being proposed, but they are also conservative in believing that these theories are tenable only so far as they can be connected organically with the procedures of the past.. It seems likely that in the next decade there will' be many textbooks prepared that will offer judicious combinations of things old and new for the guidance of future teache; and scholars CHAPTER X. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION,' I WILLIAM T. ISAwmtx, Specialist in Industrial Education, Bared of Education. CONTENTS.- Importnntfnetora of progressThe Federal Board for Vocational Educe- tion--The Students; Army Training CorpsVocational training in Army hospitals Special training in the shipbuilding industryVocational eduction in the Navy Conferences on special phases of industrial educationThe continuation 'school Prevocolionni education and the Junior high schoolManual training In secondary schools receives new impetus- Criticism examined. IMPORTfANT FACTORS OF PROGRESS. The tivo yeai-s under review constitute a period of unprecedented progress in vocational education, since it is probabjy conservative to say that the tangible results accomplished equal those of any decade preceding. The important factors in this development may here be noted, briefly, as follows: (1) Most important of all has been the culmination of a 10 years' campaign for securing Federal aid for vocational education, resulting in the enactment of the Smith-Hughes law and the creation bf the Federal Board for Vocational Education. (2) Second in importance only to the activities under the Smith - I-lughes.Act has been the gigantic experiment in industrial education conducted by the Committee on Education and SpeCial Training of tlrelVar Department. The practical working out of this plan for traitiing the " fighting mechanic " will undoubtedly be regarded as one of the achievements of the war. (3) The Emergency Met Corporation of the United States Ship - ping Board developed a unique and comprehensive plan for greatly increasing the available supply of skilled mechanics for the ship- yards. The need assumed such large proportions and the emergency was,so.threatening that those in charge of the work were forced to devise a\ special system of teacher training, which involved original and suggestive methods aril plan of organization. 14) Important contributions were also made by a number of other governmental and other agencies, including: The'Navy Department:. the Department of Labor, through its Training and Dilution of Labor Service; the Council of National Defense, through the War: Industries Board and other channels; the National War Work -240 270 BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Council of the International Young Men's Christian Association, and related. organizations; the Bureau of Education through a series of conferences, by bringing about the formulation of a constructive pro- gram of industrial arts instruction, and in other ways. (5) During the past two years there has been an unprecedented re- liance upon the machinery of popular education for the accomplish- ment of undertakings of the gravest importance, riot to this Nation only, but to the world. This has been true not only in official circles, but nearly every individual and every organization that has had a program for helping to win the war has conceived of the public- school system as an indispensable and prominent feature of the meas- ures proposed for bringing about the desired results. It is signifi- cant that a conception of the intimate relation between education. our recent achievements as a Nation, and the future security of the Republic has caught the popular imagination, and is reflected in the public statements of responsible officials and other leaders of thought. Itelof the greatest significance also that the great bulk of this con- d educational effort, certainly one of the phenomena of history, has found its inspiration and its expression in terms of the vocational phases of education. (6) There has been an observable increase in both the amount and the proportion of attention given to the problems of vocational edu- cation in pliblic discussion. In this increased tendency to think and talk and write in terms of vocational education, it is believed that evidence can be found of a disposition to consider " practical " educa- tion and so-called "cultural" education as complementary, rather than alternative, as sonic alarmists would have it. (7) This widespread popular interest in educational matters has been accompanied by a new and more critical appraisement of school programs and courses of study and an inquiry as to just what. service is being rendered to children. New emphasis has been given to the meaning and aims of education; education is being thought of more and more as something having a definite purpose, other thten simply preparation for more education; there is increasing demand that this purpose shall have more definite relation to life and the means and manner of living. The increased emphasis on definition of aims-and purposes of types of school, curricula, and special subjects of study, has undoubtedly been stimulated by the operation of the Smith- Hughes Act. The very fact that schools of certain types have been set up, with definite aims declared, has raised these inquiries as to aims and purposes with respect to other schools which have been accepted hitherto without question. (8) Another significant evidence, of progr is to be noted in the gradual diffusion of-the idea that seconds education should be thought of as .something to be adapted to the needs of young per- ,. VOCATIO AL EDUCATION. /( 271 sons of ages 12 to 18' years approximately, rather than something whose content and methods should be determined by the fact that its students are expected at entrance to have completed the prescribed routine of ascertain' number of grades, and are expected at graduation to meet the arbitrary entrance requirements of higher institutions. Out of this conception comes the growing interest in the junior high school, the continuation school, the cooperative school, and, in part at least. yrs:at lona) guidance. (9) More general recognition of the fact that the work of teaching demands special fitness and preparation is one of the encottraging signs to be noted. There is a technic in teaching, as there is in a skilled trade. As an indication of the extent to which this view is spreading. it is worthy of note that during the summer of 1918 there. were special classes for the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects conducted under the direction of State boards or depart- ' atoms of education in 20 Slates, with length of session ranging from 2 to 10 weeks. At the same time it is becoming more and more ap- parent that the average mechanic, with his lack of education and limited opportunity for acquiring a broad outlook 9n life, can not with certainty be made into a skillful and inspiring teacher through the medium of these short courses alone. -, (10) Our experience in the great war has served to emphasize one serious national weakness, to which, however, attention had fre- quently been called before. The old-time, all-round apprenticeship system has been allowed to disappear in certain important trades, without any adequate provision for something to take its place, either in industry or in education. No effective steps were taken to insure a tinual supply of all-round mechanics, even in those trades in the need was recognized. lb 11 One of the serious shortcomings in the program for voeft- tional educnt ion in this country is that, as.yet, no adequate measures have been taken looking toward the proper coordination of compul- sory-education legislation, vocational-education legislation, and child- labor legislation. There can be no justification for neglecting the fact that in most States a hiatus exists between the close of the period of Compulsory schooling and the beginning of the period when young persons are permitted by law to work for wages. The dangers, both to society and to the youth are obvious. (12) There has been a noticeable tendency in public school manual training shopwork toward the 'industrial point of view, in subject matter as well as method. "Projectsi shop experience, community service, jobs, not models' are the common objects of discussion" on the programs and in the conferences of manual'training..directors . mid insteuctors. . 272 BIENNIAL SURVEY Of EDUCATION, 1910-4918. (13) There has been a notable increase during the pait two years in both the volume and the quality of textbooks and reference mate- rial in practically the entire field of vocational education. A number of special activities during the war period had the effect of stimu- lating immensely the production of this material. - (14) Some indication of the development of industrial education in the United States during the past few years may be obser.ved by comparing the "Directory of Vocational Education" issued by 'the Bureau of Education in 11)14 with that issued in 1918. The former, *us a leatict consisting of 6 pages of names and addresses; the latter contains 29 pages and a supplement. Obviously this comparison does not give a direct measure of the progress in vocational education, since the pilhiibhed lists of both dates are known to be incomplete. Nevertheless; certain facts are quite suggestive. In 1914 a systematic attempt was made to compiler complete list of "Schools in which trades are taught." This designatipn was used in preference to "trade schools," for the reason that a considerable number of schools which are not properly classed -as trade schools maintain departments or Classes in which real trade instruction is given. The list as published is accompanied by the following note: In the above list are included schools offzing one or more courses which prepare students for thi inedianical tradeswand industries, by teaching the technic oplie occupathM IF whole or in port, with the expectation that the training gina In such ConDie shall serve to Shorten the usual period of learn ing or apprenticeship In the occupation. The number of schools listed 'on the basis of the returns om a widely distributed questionnaire, was 86, located in 19Sta s. A similar inquiry made in 1918 resulted in the li ng of 285 schools, located in 40 States. Rechgnizing the diffici y of defining a trade school or a trade class in such terms as wil ield figures giv- ing an accurate account of the progress taki place in this im- portant field, the-1918 inquiry was accomp ied by the following note:. It is intended to include in this list those pools, public and private, which offer one or more (lay coufses which pre students, male or female, for the mechanical trades and industries, by teaching the technic of the occupation in whole or in part, with the expectation that the training given in such course shall serve to shorten the usual period of learning or apprenticeship in the occupatkin. This expectation should be justified by the provision of conditions which look definitely toward this end, and should Include at least the following: (a) Th9 students should spend notiless than 10 tiours (AO minutes each) per week in thepractieal shopwork or other technical processes of the occupation; and (b) the instructor should have had practical experience as a wage- earner In the occupation for 'which he is giving instruction. In 1918 also; for the first.time, an attempt was made to compile a complete list of "Trade continuation schools." Of these, 144 are VOCATIONAL EDIWATI 273 listed, located in 29 States. The inqu' y was accompanied by the following note: It is. intended to include in this list t se schools, public and private, which offer one or more coursest, day or eve ng, for the benefit of students, male or female, who seek, by means of thee courses, to' prepare themselves for ustful employment or for prordotIon In elr preseni employment, including schools offering cooperative or part:ti classes, In which employed persons attend school a certal4 number of h' rs,per week during working hours, or alternate between school and emplo suet. also includes a list of State officials having nistration of 'vocational education in the several ther of persons listed in tiliS section is 157, represent- 48 States, as well as the outlying possessions of the es. With the exception of perhaps a score of positions eight States, this entire official personnel has come into ex- during the past four years. The same statement.is trute also The 191R directo charge of the:Itil States. The nu ing all of ti United St in six o istenc of ie official staff of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, w numbering upwards of 500 individuals. ' THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. The Smith-Hughes Act was signed by. President Wilson on the afterno9n of Friday, February 23, 1917, while the National Soc ay for the Promotion of Industrial Education, to whose efforts this legislation is largely' due, was holding its tenth annual convention in Indianapolis. The appointive members of the board were nomi- nated by the President on June"4/9434 the same year, and confirmed by the Senate on July .17. The first meeting of the board was herd on Saturday, July 21, in the office- of the 'Secretary of Agriculture in Washington. Under the Smith-Hughes Act Federal aiipropriations ultimately aggregating over $7,000,000 per annum have been made available for cooperation with the States in the promotion ofvocational education . in agriculture, in trades d industries, and home -economics, in- cluding the preparation of achers. The principle of 'Federal. aid through the States to educati n in institutions, of subcollegiate grade has been established. Its early. enactment was strongly urged by President Wilson in addressing. Congress in December, 1916, as of vital importance to the whole country because it concerns a matter too long neglected, upon which the thorough industrial preparation of the crrntry for the critical years of, economle,development immediately ahead of. s In very large measure depends. It contains plans which affect all interests and all ports of the country, and I am sure that there is no legislation now pending before the Congress whose passage the country awaits with more thoughtful approval or great impatience to see a great and admirable thing set in the way of being done 88---18 274. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. NEW EDUCATIONAL POLICIES. As an expression of educational polity, the new act embodies some important departures from previous legislation. It makes provision for the training within the schools of a large group of our popula- tion unreached directly by the Federal Government. On the other hand, by offering instruction along vocational lines and of subcol- legiate grade, it supplements the Morrill Act, the expressed purpose of which is to maintain colleges "to teach such branches of learn- ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts * in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." On the other hand, since it contemplates a system of training in the schools, it also supplements the Agricultural Extension Act of ]91-1, in which the service provided is "the giving of instruction and practical demon- strations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attend- ing or resident in State colleges in the several commpities.'" Since it impoges definite requirements as to the training of teachers, it also represents a material extension of authority over the purely plirmis- sive provisions of the Nelson amendment of 1907. The Sqiith-Hughes Act creates a Federal Board for Vocational Education. This board consists of seven members, including the Secretaries'of Agriculture, Commercea.nd Labor, and the United States Conirnissionr of Education, ex officio, with three members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, ultimately for a term of three years each. One of the appointed members is a representative Of the manufacturing and commercial interests, one of the agricultural interest* and the third of those of labor. The board selects its own chairman each year. The Federal board is charged with Ore administration of the act, the details as to the care of funds, the certifying of the States, etc., in general plan resembling the legislation for the agricultural colleges and turptaiment stations. In addition it is empowered to make, or have made, investigations and reports to aid the Stafes in the estab- lishment of vocational schools and clas:s'es and in giving instruction in agriculture, and the trades and. industries, .commerce and coin.- mercial pursuits,. and home economics. These studies include agri- culture and agricultural prockysies and the requirements upon vricultural workeq, shnilar studies a>3 regards the trades, industries, and commerce, home unagement, dotnestic science, and the study of related -problems, and the principles and problems of administra- tion of vocatio is and of, courses of study and instruction in vocational subjects. In the discretion of the board, the studies con- carting agriculture may be made in cooperation with or through the Department of Agriculture. Similar cooperative arrangements ntay d' VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 275 be made with the Departments of Labor and Commerce for industrial subjects, while the studies of the administration of vocational schools, curricula, and piethods of instruction in eocational subjects may be taken up in cooperation with or through the Bureau of Education. An appropriation of $200,000 per annum, available from the date of passage of the act, is made to the bbard for its expenses. STATE BOARDS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. to cooperate with the Federal board in carrying out the act, eadh State when accepting its provisions is to designate a State board of at least three members. The State board of education or some board having charge of the iidministration of public education or of any kind of emotional education may be designated as the State board, or an entirely new board may be created. Of the 48 States, 35 have designated the State board of education or the State department of public instruction ; 11 have desi atedip. State board for vocational education or industrial educatio 1 a State board of agriculture; and 1 a State high school board: The State board is to prepare plans for the approval of the Fed- eral board, showing the details of the work for which it is expected td use the appropriations. These plans it is specified must show the kinds of vocational.educationcontemplated, the kinds of schools and equipment, courses of study, methods of instruction, and the quali- fications and the plans for the training of the teachers and agricul- tural supervisors. In all cases the work must be conducted under public supervision and control. The plans of expenditures for salaries in agricultural and indus- trial subjects must show that the controlling-purpose of the education is to fit for useful employment, that the training is of less than col- lege grade, and that it is designed to meet the needs of persons over 14'y-ears of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon agricultural or industrial work. ' The Federal appropriations to the Stites are divided into. three 'distinct groups, providing, respectively, for the payment of Aalaries of teachers, supervisors, or directorsof agricultural subjets; for the payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and indus- trial subjects; for the preparing of teachers, supervisors, or directors- of-agricultural subjects, and of teachers of trade and industrial and home economics subjects. The main initial appropriation for salaries in agricultural sub- jects is $500,000. This is Increased by $250,000 per annum during the next six years and then by $500,000 per,annum during the next two years, ttiakiDg an, appropriation of $3,000,000 for the fiscal year 1926 and annually threafter. Like. appropriations pre made for talaries in industrial subjects. . , 276 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. The main appropriation for preparing teachers and supervisors is likewise $500,000 for the first year, but increases to $700,000 and $900,000, respectiVely, for the next two years, and then becomes $1,000,000 per annum thereafter, The Federal- appropriations for teacher training must be divided among agricultural, trade and in- dustrial, and home economics subjects, no one of these subjects being granted more than 60 nor less than 20 per cent of the Sire's allot- . ment for any year. The training of,the teachers provided for will.throw a very heavy burden of responsibility on our higher tech*cal institutions and par- ticularly the land-grant colleges. These institutions have been'very successful in training technical experts who have contributed in large measure to the success of our industries. They have'not as yet paid any large attention to the training of teachers for secondary schools of the strictly vocational type. The pedagogy of this class of edu- cation is yet in its preliminary stages. It evidently will not do sim- ply to copy what has been workgd out abroad. There is therefore great incentive foi men (If original thought and inventive skill to enter this comparatively new ,fieldof teacher training. ACTION BY THE STATES. Up to January 1, 1918, 48 States accepted the gmith-Hughes Act either by specific provisions of the legislatureNor by acts of the gov: ernors and by that date the plans of the 48 States had been, examined by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, approved, and. the board had certified to the Secretary of the Treasury that these States were entitled to receive the allotments for the year 1917-18, . apportioned by the terms of the act. Federally aided vocational courses have been set up in agriculture in 41 States, in trade and industrial subjects in 32- States, and in .-borrla economies in 29 States; 22 States have 'organized courses in each' of these three fields; in 46 States.tealher-training courses have been organized. V The record of the States in this .work is impressive, especially when it is borne in mind that the record covers an initial period of only 10 months. In Massachusetts, for example, vocational agricul- ture is taught\ in 19 .secondary schools with Federal aid; trade and industrial subjects, in 86 schools; and home economics, in 29 schools. In NBA,' York, the number of Federal-aided secondary schools is 4, 4griculture, 60, and for trades and indestries, 40; in Pennsyl-: vania, for agriculture, 88; for trades and industries, 131; and for' home economics, 69; in California, for agriculture, 12, for trades and indbstries, 14, and for home economics, 14; in Indiana, for agricultUre, 87, and for trades and industries, 21; in Mississippi, or agriculture, r VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 277 34. for trades and industries, 1, and for home economics, 3. These States are illustrations of the widespread development of secondary vocational education. The chief handicap in the promotion or introduction of vocational instruction was the lack of qualified teachers. This was dre,largely to the war'emergency, many of the teachers being drafted or volun- teering for service in the Army. THE 83ITTH-8EARS ACT. In June. 1918, Congress passed the Smith-Sears Act, providing for the vocational rehabilitation and return to civil life of disabled per- sons discharged from the military or naval forces of the United States. The act delegates to the Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation the, responsibility of reeducating the disabled men in some use- ful employment, after their discharge from the Army or Navy, and provides for a plan of cooperation-between the board and the Surgeon General's Office, covering the 'work done in hospitals, in order that the men may have the advantage of a continuous and coordinated. plan. 4t is provided that there shall be full and bomplete cooperation of the several Government offices concerned with the future 'welfare of discharged from the Army and Navy,, includingthe medical and . surgical services of the War Department and the Navy Department. the Bureau of War Risk Insurance in the Treasury, and the labor ex- changes in the Department of Labor, and the Federal board.- Each will render service in retraining and returning to civil employment men disabled in the war. The Federal board will act in an advisory capacity in pro,viding vocational training for men during their convalescence in the military hospitals, before their discharge from the Army and Navy, and will atitinue such training to finality after discharge, as the civilian agency flauehabilitation and placement in industry. THE STUDENTS', ARMY TRAINING CORPS. . The StudentS' Army Training Corps represents a unique educa- tional undertaking on he part of the Government. The work was under the direction of the Comtnittee on Education and Special Training of the War Department. A circular of informationigsued by the committee stall the purpose in view as follows: The prtnia' ry purpose bf' the Students' Army Trainitig Corps is to "utilise the executive and teaching perionnel and the physical equipment of the educa- tional institutions to assist in the training of ou'r new armies. Its aim is to train , officer- candidates and ,technical experts of all kinds to meet the needs of the service. This tratiOg is conducted In about 560 colleges, universities, professional, technical, and trade schspola of the country. 4.1111, 278 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. The corps was divided into two sectionsthe collegiate or "A" sec- tion and the vocational or " B " section. Of these the former is discussed elsewhere in this report under higher education. Concerning the latter, it is to be noted that the experience of three years of war in Europe demonstrated the need, f large numbers of skilled mechanics and technicians of many kinds. When the United States entered the war, therefore, and undertook the organization of an army, it soon became apparent that a plan must be devised to train mechanics quickly and in large numbers. To accomplish this result the War Department did not depend on the establishment of new schools, but utilized existing institutions Which had the neces- sary facilities. The men, in uniform, were assigned to institutions in units of 200 to 2,000, where they were housed and fed under mili- tary discipline for periods of two months each. Military drill and industrial instruction, including shop practice, were provided in an intensive form as the regular daily Tontine. The initial assignments of men began worTE on Aprill, 1918. Some idea of the magnitude of the undertaking is conveyed by the announcement that on August 1, 1918, there were 52,025 soldiers under instruction, in 35 different trades or occupations, in 144 institudens, located in 46 States and the District of Columbia. It was estimated that by the close of the fisca.1 year, June 30, 1919, if the plans had been carried out, more thari 300,000 men would have received instruction in these courses. suffi- cient to make them definitely serviceable in some mechanical or technical duty in addition to their training as soldiers. EFFECT ON EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. Without' question the work of the Section J-3 units of the Students' Army Training Corps will prove to have been the most significant experiment in vocational education thus far undertaken under a democratic form of government. It is too Soon to appraise the results in full, but as soon as adequate, reports are'available, educators, aid especially students of industrial education, are urged to examine them with the greatest care. It 'is believed that our public-school system may with profit learn a number of valuable ltssons from the experience of these Army training units. In this connection it is possible to refer briefly to two points only, but these will serve to suggest others that will develop later: (1) The experience of the Army training units seems to demonstrate the futilik of short shop periods; that is, shop periods too short for the ittident to see work processes in complete wholes. The amount of ground that can be covered in a short course, eight weeks in length, .00nsiling of daily periods of six or seven hours in shop, drafting room, or laboratory, proved to be greatly in excess of all expectation& VOCATION Ag EDUCATION. 279 Numbers of competent observers have predicted that the results of this experience will revolutionize educational practice, not only in trade instruction classes, but in colleges and universities as well. (2) Experience seems to indicate also that small classes, with a reasonable amount of individual instruction, are essential to accom- plish the best results. Individuals vary greatly in capacity and per- formance, and can not be instructed efficiently in mass. VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN ARMY HOSPITALS. The subdivision of education in the division of physical reconstruc- tion under the Surgeon General, United States Army, was begun in October, 1917, for the purpose of devising plans for providing educa- tional facilities for disabled soldiers and sailors during the period of hospital treatment and convalescence. On May 20, 1918, Dr. James E. Russell, dean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City, was appointed chief of the subdivision. The work undertaken has been'Practical, so far as possible, and has inNuded work needed for the hospitals. Activities include, be- sides repair work of various kinds, basketry, typewriting, telegraphy, academic studies, agriculture and gardening, bookkeeping, free-hand and mechanical &cawing, auto repair, carpentry, cobbling, and other handicrafts. In all, more than 100 different activities have been in- troduced into the hospitals. Sixteen general convalescent and,re- construction hospitals have been provided for, or one in each of the 16 military districts. Tho records of 516 cases which have been treated in four hospitals shoW 184 men able to return to full military duty, 210 fit for return to limited service, and 172 who are eligible for discharge. In the last group, 12 are classed as helpless or institutional cases; 121 are able to return to their former occupations; and 39 will need further training to fit them for earning a livelihood. These figures show the division of responsibility in the work of reconstruction. The task of fitting men for further military service is at present the most urgent need, because wherever an able-bodied man behind the lines can be replaced by one less fit physically but vocationally.capable, a soldier is gained for active duty. 4 . SPECIAL TRAINING IN THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY. In October, 1917, a comprehettsive project of the greatest interest and importance, looking toward the training of instructors and skilled mechanics for the shipbuilding industry, was undertaken by the Emergency Fleet Corporation of the United States Shipping Board. For this purpose, an industrial training section was organ- ized, and at its head was Egbert C.'MacNary, who obtained' leave of absence from his pogition as director of industrial education in Springfield, Mass. >< _ . 280 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. The object in view was to organize a training dipartment in each, shipyard, at.the head of whicji was placed a director in full charge of all matters pertaining to the training or breaking in of workers and general supervision of the training department. It was understood that it would be necessary to allow the director and his staff of inkructors to be free from the usual duties of production foremen, in order to devote their entire time and energies to training men. ' It early became apparent that the necessary expansion in the ship- building program depended absolutely on the creation of increased forces of skilled and semiskilled men. The country was scoured for -Thme having knowledge of any branch of shipbuilding, and yet the supply of mechanics proved utterly inadequate to meet the demands of the Shipping Board. It was decided, therefore, tlet the necessary increases of working forces must be made through training men, and that the task must be undertaken immediately and on an unprece- dented scale. EXTENT OF DEMAND. The extent of the demand for skilled workers in the shipbuilding industry was not at first generally appreciated by the public. until recently the largest shipyard in the United States was one containing five ways. When running at full capacity each way provides em- ployment for approximately 1,000 men, including the contributing shops and drafting rooms. At the time this training plan was under- taken, there was under construction at Hog Island, near Philadelphia. one shipyard consisting of 50 ways. The Emergency Fleet Corpora- tion. announced in October, 1918, that fully 60,000 additional men would be required within a few months in the Philadelphia Aistriat,.... alone. The solution of the problem evidently was to take skilled and semi- skilled men from kindred trades, in. large numbers, and give them short intensive courses of instruction in selected fragments of the shipbuilding trades. Since the typical foreman possesses no special skill in giving instruction to the men who work under him, the first step was to organize for the entire chain of shipyaids a source of supply of trained directors and instructors. For this purpose an instructors' training center was established if the plant of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., New- port News, Va. Asgriated with Mr. McNary and hi charge of this training center was Charles R Allen, of Massachusetts. To this center the cooperating shipyards sent relays of selected men for courses of instruction six weeks in length. In most cases the yards sending the men paid their wages and expenses whjle in attendance. For one-)ilf of each deg the Men were instructed in the methods and devices of teaching. During the other half they were employed. in VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 281 *1. actually instructing groups of workers in the yard, under the supervi- sion of the training, staff. When the men completed this preparation they returned to their yards to set up training classes for break- ing in new men and for advancing employees from their present jobs to those requiring greater skill. Students of- industpal education' will await with great interest detailed reports of the means and methods employed in this project and the results achieved. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE NAVY. The section on education in a recent report of the Secretary of the Navy presents a phase of activity not generally appreciated by the civilian. The following passages are quoted: Every man in the Navy is a student, from the Admiral in the War College to the midshipman at the Naval Academy and the apprentice in the training station and afloat. The, beneficial result of the whole educational system in the Navy is that theoretical knowledge is almost immediately put into prae. Lice. . The man why does not wish to go to school ought not to knock at any door in the naval service. The Navy Is the greatest educational institution in America, and in it theory is valued only as it Is put into practice. The Navy offers a wide variety of industrial courses to ambitious young men. 1 In the electrical schools at the Brooklyn and Mare Island Navy Yards the course of instruction comprises machine-shop work, reciprocat- ing steam engines, steam turbine engines, internal-combustion engines, mag- netism and electricity, dynamos, motor geneTators, alternating currents, and .the like. In the radio group there is thorough practice in the radio mechanism for receiving and sending. In the Artificer School at the Norfolk Navy Yard men are taught to be shipwrights, shipfitters, blacksmiths, paidters, and plumbers. Both at Newport, It. I., and San Fiancisco are yeomanry schools, where the men are perfected for the clerical work e Navy, to become expert stenographers, typewriters, bookkeei L etc.' In addition, there is the Hospital C , with schools at Newport and San Francisco. Schools for musicians are located at Norfolk and San Francisco. There are schools for machinists and coppersmiths at Charleston, and commissary' sellools at Newport and San Fran- cisco. The school of aeronautics is located at Pensacola, and the 'gunners' school at Newport. Referring to the outlook for the blue- jacket, the report well says,. "He has the fourfold opportunity of serving his country, learning a trade, improving his mind in study, and travel." CONFERENCES ON SPECIAL PlirASES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. During the period under review the Bureau of Education had conducted a series of important 'conferences of specialists in indus- lAnnual,Rwort of thi Secretary lf the Navy for.the year ending Dec. 'I, 19111. 282 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. _ trial education, superintendents of city. schools, and others. The le conferences were organized for the purpose of discussing certain spe- cial problems.of industrial education and related topics, and of mak- ing the conclusions arrived at available to students of the subject by means 'of published reports. (1) RAISING THE STANDARDS OF MANUAL ARTS INSTRUCTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The vital relation between the right kind of manual training in the public schools and subsequent industrial education has been em- phasized constantly by the Bureau of Education -since the beginning of its interest in these fields. For the purpose of studying certain phases of this relationship, a conference of specialists engaged in the training of teachers was held at Peabody College for Teachers, Nash- ville, Tenn., December 7-9, 1916. Twenty-two institutions, from 11 States, were represented./ The topics discussed included: (1) Analysis of the contacts with possible future vocations that should be represented in the manual arts work, as a basis for determining the task of the institution that , is to prepare the teachers. (2).How wide a range of shop subjects may a_ superintendent reasonably expect one teacher to handle of- ficiently in combination? (3) Tao what extent should preparation for vocation be 9 motive in the work of the elementary school? (4) . Definite standards for manual arts work, and means for testing the . results of teaching. (5). 'Problems of practice teaching in preparing teaohe of manual training. (6) Qualifications of teachers of man al arts subjects. The following conclusions may be noted: 'S (1 he develoliment of the manual arts has made a real contribu.. tion to other phases of education, in that the units of construction, Serving as units of ing/ruction, are setting good examples of organiza- tion for other subjects. a (2) The whole development of the manual arts seems to be pointing toward a solution of the problem of vocational education. - Inevitably the majority of boys and girls are going into other than professional occupations, and we must recognize the importance of the " prevoca- tional " value of manual arts work in the elementary school, furnish: ing, as such work does, a basis for the education of the whole people much brohder and more complete than has been hitherto available.' To discover how to assist young persons ifibthe adjustment to possible future vocations 'is one of the most important educational problems before us. (8) It is important to distinguish clearly: (a) Manual arts subjects ' offered primarily for general educational purposes; (b) subjects of- di VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 283 fered primarily for the purpose of affording experience in practical activities fundamental to a variety of occupations, to be utilized as a basis for choice of vocation or of subsequent vocational courses; and (c) technical subjects offered primarily for the purpoSe of affording definite preparation for specific vocations. (4) By opening the high-school shops during vacant periods to special classes of pupils of less than high-school preparation, the high schools should become the centers for whatever training is needed in many cities for some time to come. (5) No manual arts teacher can reasonably be expected to teach more than two acliclemic subjects in connection with the usual shop subjects demanded of hurl. - (6) The coursepf study in manual training is not to be thought of as simply a series 9f " stunts." The student should be confronted with a series of " problems " to he solved ; and the solution of a problem should involve not only (a) study of materials, and (b) manipulation of tools and processes, and (c) the construction of some finished ar- ticle, but also, and very important, (d) the 'planning and working Out of the solution. (7) There is need of more definite standards for measuring or test- ing the results of teaching. and for determining the progress of pu- pils in manual arts subjects. (8) The work in manual arts affords a better opportunity for the preparation of lesson plins (in practice teaching.) and careful analy- sis of processes and procedure than rs to be found in any other subject in our training schools. Furthermore, through the emphasis on de- , sign an intellectual content has been put into manual arts work to the extent of making it stand out among all the intellectual studies. (9) The tendency to employ teachers in manual arts and vocational' subjects who are not properly qualified for the work to be undertaken is unfortunate, alike for the school, the teacher, the pupil, rind the subject. Present methods of aim ining and certificating teachers, in some localities, are manifestlyefot udapted to insure the appointment of competent teachers of special subjects. (10) It is worth while to call attention to the magnitude of the problem involved in producing a person who is a graduate of col- lege, a broadly educated and cultured citizenoitid at. the same time a professionally tiained.educator, as. well as a specialist in certain technical lines or in certain special vocations. In -this we are at- tempting a tremendously difficult thing. There are involved here cer- tain types of knowledge and skill that have never been required of the school-teacher heretacire; and-; furthermore, these are to be measured by standards usually set up only in the various occupations concerned. - 284 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1K6-1918. `( 2) POLICIES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.; . A conference of specialists was held in Indianapolis, Ind., February 23, 1917, to consider plans and policies ih vocational education, and especially the types of investigation which Should be undertaken. ( 3 'ItEV)CATIONAI. EDUCATION IN. THE SMALL CITY. A conf ence of superintendents of public schools in cities having a popula on of 10,000 to 25,000 was held in Kansas City, Mo., Febru- ary 28, 17, to consider the problems of prevocational education in the smal city. Twenty-four States, the District of Columbia, and Canada were represented by superintendents, p'rincipals, and teachers. The general topic was " assisting pupils in the upper grammar grades to plan ahead." There were 371 cities in this population group according to the 1910 census, and the problem becomes complex when the great variety of conditions is considered. The small city can not expect to offer the same variety of work given in the larger centers,. but if the State be taken as the unit, types of experience may he selected from the various industries of major importance, which are especially emphasized in the community. The conference resulted in the following conclusions : (1) A larger . amount of time is necessary for prevocational .work than is now usually 'allotted to manual training or home economics in the grades. It is, further, not only a question of time, but of what is done in the tithe,: hence (2) conditions must resemble those of industry with re- spect to materials, methods, and speed. A more formal procedure in the school is necessary, however, because of teaching large numbers. (3)" The teacher has the responsibility of selecting 'the " type " ex- periences, and his success in this depends upon his knowledge and insight. Upon the superintendent rests the responsibility of select- ing teachers who can do the job. r4) The equipment now used for manual training and home economics may be used for prevocational work, but there must be a ,wider range 6f work than is possible in woodworking and cooking and sewing in a 90-minute period weekly if the work is to be truly worth while as a basis for intelligent choice of future vocation. (49 nor.s.u. AID UNDER THE SMITH-HUOHES ACT AND TILE PREPARATION OP TEACHERS. of specialists was held at the University of Missouri, December 18-15, 1917, to consider the genkal question of Federal aid under the Smith7fiugheis Act, and the preparation of special. teachers. Eighteen institutions' engaged in thetraining of teachers in 12 States,as well gs three State departments of public instrao- t4on, were represented. The topics.discussed included: Feder-al aid . . 1 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 285 under the Smith-Hughes Act the preparation of teachers of trade and industrial subjects; curriculafor the preparation of teachers of the manual arts; present conditions in respect to practice teaching; n proposed kogram for practice teaching; problems connected with the examination and certification of special teachersi- content of technical courses of study in the intermediate or junior high school. The following conclusions may be noted: (1) The selection of properly qualified candidates for the teacher- training course is an important matter.. Many difficulties will be obviated, and the line of action in specific cases will frequently seem more clear, if it be recpgnized that no individual may claim an in- herent right to teach. 'The burden of proof, so to speak, should rest on the individual. He should be required to d'Tmonstrate his fitness for special service, rather than simply permitted to pursue an-ex- pressed desire to secure a position. (2) New machinery and a new basis for the examination and cer- tification of teachers are urgently needed. These should include means for testing and evaluating: (a) Vocational experience; (h) education and professional training; (c) personality; (d) ability to teach. (3) For some time to come the scheme should include some effec- .tive provision for the training of teachers in service. (4) 'Adequate time must be allowed in any curriculum in order to Kepare teachers who will be competent to tend', and do the given line Of work. (5) The institution should define more clearly (in terms of pros- pective teaching position) the aim or goal which it is proposed to assist the student. to attain as the result of following any given cur- riculum. (6). Observation and practice teaching are'essential factors in the preparation of every teacher, and adequate provision'should be made for them in normal-school curricula. (7) It is more important to have a supply of the teachers needed in these new 'types of school than it is to enforce and perpetuate tra- ditidns in the matter of teachers' examinations and certificates. (8) The discussion of the last topic,on the prograin served to em= phasize the following advantages and-disadvantages of a school. pro- gram involving a range number of "acquaintancecourses," designed to afford the individual pupil opportunities for shopworkain each of several vocations: Adranteiges.(a) Wide vocational acquaintance; (b) remarkable basis for the cultivation of appreciation;. (c) gets the interest'scif.. pupils in real we&. Dioadilantage8.(a) Danger of lowering -:fitandards of workman- ship (compared with a program attempting fewer lineS of shop- C 286 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-MS. work); (b) technical processes in all lines necessarily confined to the beginning stages; (o) impossible to pursue any one line to mastery: (d) difficulE to obtain teachers qualified to conduct the variety of shopwork proposed, especially in a small school or system. (5) EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS. in order to consider the problems of examining and certificating industrial teachers, a inference of specialists was held in Philadel- phia, February 22, 1918. Nineteen States and the District of Colum- bia were represented. Theteneral topic was " Prelitaieary sugges- tions as to desirable basis and machinery for the examination and Icertification of special teachers." The followingconclusions may be noted: . - (1) Measures which depend on industry to supply teachers ready- made, or approximately so, must be regarded as merely temporary, and the machinery necessary for detecting such prospective teachers should not be permitted to determine the ultimate forms which such measures should take. (2), A teacher capable of doing the job effec sly represents an , indiVidual of a high type, who is'already making a distinct success of the vocation in which he is engaged. To divert such persons into the work of teaching will require the payment of adequate salaries. (3) Tests to be applied, must be free from'the defects of existing plans'for examining and certificating teachers. (4) Existing methods of examination should be modified so as. to include adequate tests of personal characteristics. (5) Suitable use should be made of practical tests and demonstra- tions of sky and ability of various kinds. (6) It is essential thab provisidn be made for examiners who are themselves competent in the field covered by the examination in each case, and whose ratings will thits command confidence and respect in that field. .(7) Every plan for examining and certificating teachers should be supplemented by a systematic and effinent plan of probationary tes4hing andtraining in service. THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL. One of the notewbrthy factors in recent progress hikocational edu- cation is the continuation school. During the past decade a number of the States have enacted legislation encouraging the organization of . schools of this type. Massachrettsi, Wisconsin, and Vennsylvapia, especially, have developed strong systemsof continuation schools on a etate-wide basis. , VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 287 During the past two years a new stimulus has come from the Federal subsidies made available under the Smith-Hughes Act. As already noted, in 1918 there.were 144 trade-continuation schools reporting to the Burenuof Education, located in 29 States and the District t)f Columbia. The program of the National Education Association commission on the emergency in education contains a strong plea for a more general development of the continuation school, on a broader and more serviceable basis than has hitherto been characteristic of this institution in this country. The following paragraph' is quoted from the recommendatigns of the commission,: The continuation .school is not an experiment In this country. In maw of our industrial communities it exists add has proved its usefulness. But it needs extension up al a much larger scale than has as yet been contemplated if it Is to counteract the danger that threatens. It needs a broadening of Its scope, as well. With us the continuation school has developed as a phase of the movement for vocAtional education. As It exists In this country to-day, it is essentially a vocational school, limited In its Instruction to those subjects that are directly related to employment of the student. This is a narrow conception fur narrower than the conception of the continuation school that has been taking root in England and France. without sacrificing in any essential way its service to industry. the scope of the continuation sche 3 should be broadened to include those elements of general and liberal education that are so fundamental to sound democratic citizenship. It should supply to the boys and girls who must leave school and go to work something of the insight, something of the broader outlook, something of the stimulus to mental growth that the full-time high schools and colleges provide. It should be not a thing apart, a cheap makeshift for the unfortunate, but rather a recognized and well-supported unit in democracy's public school systema terrrary unit, let us hope, serving a useful purpose until the day when democracy decrees that every boy and girl to the age of at least 18 years shall have the privilege of attendance win a full-time school the work of which is adapted both to his capacitiesas a learner and tohheneeds as a citizen' TIIE COOPERATIVE SCHOOL. Much attention has been given recently to a special type of continu- ation school which has come to be known as the " cooperative school."' Deyelopekfirst in connection with the administration of the coils& of engineering, the plan has been successfully adapted to secondary school conditions, and is in operation in a number of cities. The essential features of the plan seem to be: (1) A definite cooperativ arrangement between the educational institution and one or more in rial plants, by which the theoretical instruction is given by the instil ion and the practical experience is A National Program for EducationA Statement issued by the Commission on the Emergeney in Education and .the Program for ReadjUstment; National Education Asa*. elation, Washington, D: C. June, 1918, 'pp. 24, 25, 288 BIENNIAL SURVEY -OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. given by the industries, and both are coordinated in a systematic and progressive educational program. (2) Willingness on the part of the indittrial plant to make such adjustments in equipment, processes, and metliods as are necessary for promotion of the educational aim. (3) 'Willingness on the part of the educational institution to elim- inate nonessentials and to base theoretical instruction on what act ually happens, and sufficient skill in organization to secure " realization of theory through its pnictical applications." (4) Careful selection of employers-. instructors, and student:work- ers, who are capable. of being inspired with a vision of the responsibili- ties as well as the possibilities of the plan. (5) Administration of the device of alternating periods in such a way as to secure continuous and progressive action on the process or job in the factory, as well as in the work of the student and the in- structor in the school. SPFrIAL ADVANTAGES IN SECONDARY SCITOOLS. In considering the advantages of the cooperative plan in the high school it is necessary to recognize that the first appeal is made to boys and girls not now in schoolto those who,. because of economic necessity or indifference, have left school to go to work or to loaf. The number of these has been variously estimated by different au- thorities, but it can hardly be Soubtedithat it is in excess of 75 per cent of all minors over 14 years of age. If any considerable number of these can be brought back into the schools, it must be regarded as worth the effort. In the next place, a strong appeal is made to many boys and girls who are in high school at the cost of much real sacrifice and self- denial. If some way can be found to meet a part of the cost they can and will remain in school. Again, some lessons can be learned only through practical experi- ence in the ways of the world. Some of these lessons include the proper relation between the material and the spiritual phases of life, the meaning and value of money, the meaning of work and 'wages, and the relation between them, the importance of life motives. The lenrning of these lessons is of as much consequence to one individual as to another, irrespective of economic, intellectual, or social status. The cooperative plan is a cmitribution to the solution of. some of the problems involved, and hence its advantages should be placed within the reach of all youth. With these considerations in'mind, the special adviintages of the cooperative plan in the high school may be summarized as follows: (1) The safeguards thrown about the young people in their places of employment, through the supervision exercised by the school- and VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 289 , the cooperation of employers, chow an almost unbelievable improve- ment over the conditions hitherto characterizing the employment of minors in many places. (2) The cooperative plan makes it possible for some boys and girls to continue in school, because of wages earned on half-time. Pro- longing the period of active connection with the school, and of con- tact with sympathetic teachers and advisers, confers an incalculable benefit on growing boys and girls, and should lead to a permanent impetus to better things. (3) The plan will doubtless induce some to remain in schoo l be- cause the school work is thus made more interesting, and the student can see a more direct relation between schooling and the promotion of his own interests. (4) The experiences involved promote a more earnest and thought- ful attitude toward work and the.responsibilities of life. (5) The plan discourages idleness and unwholesome use of time, since the longer school day and year are fully occupied with inter- esting activities. (6) The opportunity to engage in gainful employment son half- time, under suitable auspices, has a definite prevocational value, assisting young persons to discover their tastes and probable apti- tudes. (7) The successful operation of a cooperative school or class sf- ford a convincing demonstration that.a reasonable amount of work, under proper conditions, can be made to contribute definitely to the development of youth, instead of being, as frequently heretofore, a demoralizing, disheartening, and stuiting influence. (8) The plan gives the student, at the very least, a foothold in some industry or occupation, so that he does not *feel'lost when the time conies to letrie school and take up the responsibilities of self- support. (9) It should be emphasized that this plan does not neglect thii need for general education, but insures to each individual an amount of cultural and liberalizing education sufficient to serve as a founda- tion for further study if he later finds it possible to continue his education. He certainly gets more of the cultural sideof education than he will if he leaves school entirely to go ,to mirk. PREVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL One phase of progress in vocational education has resulted from ' the enforced examination of proper methods and procedure in the preliminary or preparatory stages, which have come to be included under the generally. accepted term of " prevocational education." This development is taking the form of a new interest in the special 171029°-21Bull. 88-19 290 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916l918. educational problems presented by boys and girls during the last year or two of the period of compulsory schooling and the year or two immediately following. During the past few years certain propositions seem to have been emerging above the surface of discussion: (1) The amount of school- ing prescribed by law in most States is not sufficient to guarantee the general diffusion among the population of those qualities of high intelligence. sound health, good citizenship, and economic inde- pendence which are regarded as indispensable to our national life; (2) too many of our children for one reason or another, or for no reason, fail to go beyond the legal requirements in the matter of schooling, or even to attain themfor too many, boys and girls the minimum has become the maximum; (3) modifications in school programs and methods have induced many children to remain in. school beyondthe age of compulsory attendance, who otherwise would have left, and doubtless will retain many others if made effective; (4) if we must accept the fact that many children will leave school at the earliest legal opportunity, we can at least give them some- thing during the last year or two they are in school which will be more serviceable to them than the traditional formal citrriculum of the elementary school. In discussing this phase of current progress, Dr. Snedden says: The efforts now being made in various States to reorganize currirula of training and instruction for children 12 to 14 or 15 years of age constitute un- doubtedly the most significant and important of contemporary movements in education. The educational needs of pupils of 12 to 14 years of age are variable to such an extent that, if conditions of educational adtninstration permitted, a number of courses of training and instruction, dissimilar as to many important elements and also even as to quality of results expected In common studies, should be provided.' One of the concrete expressions of this new inter" and an attencipt to realize the aim herein referred to, is the intermediate school, or junior high school. On this point Prof. Noyes well says: It is the glory of the junior high-school plan that it has arisen out of the study of the needs of the adolescent child, that it is a constructive effort to bridge the gap between the elementary school and the high school, by vitalizing the curriculum.' THREE TYPES OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL Prof. Noyes distinguishes three types of junior high school: (1) In this type the teaching is departmentalized, each teacher having I David finedden: Manual Training Magasine, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, De ember, 1318. p. 158. *WIllisai Noyes: The Juotor High School and Iodnertal Education. ManualTrainina Magiasine, Vol. XIX. No. 6, Jamul,. 1918. pp. 153-157. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 4' 291 but one or two subjects. In some cases there have been notable changes made in curriculum, but in many such schools there has been no change in either the amount or the method of industrial work. (IL) In this type specialization has been the determining factor. The boy and girl and their advisers decide. so far as possible. upon entering the seventh grade whether he or she is to go to college. to the farm, to the countinghouse. to the kitchen. to the factory, or to the studio. That such courses arecalled optional should not divert attention from the fact that the effect of such an arrangement is early choice and specialization in vocational lines." (3) This type is founded on the principle that the boy and girl should have as great variety of experience as is practicable, and that definite vocational choices should be deferred us long as possible. In its extreme form, the pupil would pass through a cycle, not only of Indus- trial but also of commercial. agricultural, artistic, and academic activities. It assumes that at the are of early adolescence it is impossible to foresee what the predilections anal abilities of any child, boy or vigil. are goiat to be. In America more than in anY other country in the world free vocational choices arc possible. and examples are constantly brought to our attention of men. and to a less decree of women. who try one vocation after another before settling into their life work. And if we grown-ups keep changing for so many years, by,hat right should we impose a-choice on children under 15'0 ImvotITANT F.LEMENTS. In the conduct of the industrial work in the junior high school it is important to maintain what Mr. Bowman calls the " vocational guid- ance flavor." By way of further atudysis be points out three im- portant elements which should characterize the work t (II The boys should become familiar with tools, form habits of good work- manship, a ad come in (konlact with edicient shop organization In each line of work. (2) They should learn how these constructions are made in industry, how the things they do in the shop are placed "outsik," and gain some industrial intelli- gence evld insight. (3) They should gain information through studies, discussions, talks, visita- tions. and readings about wages, chances for advancement, working conditions, and the like, in the work outside related to that which they are doing in school. This work will lend to investigations of lines not represented in the school' The junior high-school organization provides, or may provide, most favorable conditions for the vqcational guidance and prevocational phases of education. That the movement Co introduce the junior high-school plan seems to be spreading, as noted elsewhere in the Report of the Commi,sioner of Education, is significant of further developments to tte expected in these fields. I William Noyes: The Junior High School and Industrial Education. Manual Training Melamine, Vol. XIX, No. 5. January, 1918, pp. 158-157. s Clyde A. Bowman : Industrial Education tor the Moeller Community, Manual Train. lag Mega:Ina Vag. XVIII, No. 6, January, 1017, pp. 177-180. 292 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918. As has been pointed out by a number of students of current ten- dencies in secondary education, however, it is possible in this as.in other things to have the form without the subsornce. Some such ......_...Systems have advertised the introduction of the junior high - school plan, whereas examination. will show that nothing thore has been done than to take the seventh and eighth grades from the elementary school, and the ninth grade from the high school, and put the three together in a building of their own. It is of the utmost importance that there shall he a more definite and authoritative determination of the purpo,cs of prevocational education, the junior high school, and other departmental or special schemes or organization, and then a careful che-king up of the means employed and the results secured. Formal reorganization is of no avail if actual results desired are not secured. MANUAL TRAINING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 'RECEIVES NEW IMPETUS. It has been well said that there are two products of the war which we should not willingly relinquish from our national life: "One is the spirit of thrift which has been brought out by the Liberty Loan -campaigns: the other is the enthusiasm for education which has been developed by our training camps." THE NEW EDUCATMN. This enthusiasm for education will necessarily be colored by the experienves through which we have passed., and will reflect the new spirit of patriotism and service. Education must continue to pro- vide for culture and self-development, but from now on it must do more. It has been shown that it is possible for education to de- velop efficiency of the most rigorous and exacting type, and at the same time to generate idcalism and nobility of motive. Even the educational program of our training ramps, which many thought of only in terms ofinexorable military discipline and short cuts to well- defined ...objectives, made definite prOvision for the humanistic ele- ment-0 "morale." of the troops. It has been discovered that education can be vocational, and cul- tural; henceforth we shall not be satisfied with education that is mot both. The OW point of view that seems to be making definite head- way suggests' again the essential unity of the thing we call educa- tion. Vhe immediate effect upon education of the war and its concomi- tant events unquestionably will be a new emphasis-on certain special phases: .(1) Education for health, (2) education for vocarron,- and clutlook, edltorlal; Dec. 18, 1019, p. 019. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 298 (3) education for citizenship.. The urgent need for attention to these matters has been brought home to the consciousness of the people as never before. It is interesting to note that. contrary to the prophecies of some of our educational leaders, the Nation has been afforded a most convincing demonstration that these objectives are positively attainable without the sacrifice of those finer qualities of human life and relationshipsthe humanistic elementand, what is even more to the point, the machinery and methods 'for reaching these ends were iii process of being definitely worked out. One of the most helpful and constructive contributions, most needed at the present time. would he the formulation of policies of vocational education which will show clearly and definitely the rela- tionships which a program for vocational education should bear to a program for health education, to a program for citizenship educa- tion, to a program for complete education. In the past this country has suffered and been handicapped by the - lack of engineers, scientists. and skilled mechanics, and took no ade- quate actiop. During the war the point Nlas reached where measures for remeding this lack became an nape tive necessity, and hence schemes for vocational and technical training were developed on an unheard -of scale. We came to realize that we must make a more determined effort to secure for a much larger proportion of our people a serviceable amount of technical and scientific training. In the accomplishment, of this purpose we must vitalize the work of the elementary and secondary schools, as well as the higher engineering and scientiOk schools, and stimulate them to do their part in this great pro; .am. SUGGESTIONS OF EDUCATORS. For the purpose of aiding and guiding this development, the Com- missioner of Education summoned to Washington during the-week of May '20, 1918. a group of educators, and requested theinto cooperate in the formulation of the outlinesvof a definite program that might be submittedatrthool authorities for adoption. The committee in- cluded men from the staffs of city superintendents of public schools: principals of high schools, representatives of trade and technical schools, and teacher-training institutions. This group was repre- sentative alike of the technical, administrative, and instructional phases of the problems involved, and pooled the results of extensive a;td varied experience in both education and industry. Consequently; the program and, recommendations of this commit- tee, as set forth in a report published by the Bureau of Education,' fto 1 Industrial Arts In Secondary Schools, etc.; Secondary School Circular ND. 4, Sept4tov Der, 1918; Bureau of ii4lucation, Washington, D. C. M. 4! *294 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. carry great weight, and deserve the careful study of school authorities. Included within the brief compass of 30 pages may be found defitiite, practical suggestions, some of which may be carried out in the seventh and eighth grades and high-school years in almost any 'school system in the country. RECOM M ENIATIONS. The recommenAtions of the'committee may be summarized briefly, as follows: (1) Boards of education should make it possible to offer training preparatopy,to'some of thetrcupations specified, at least the founda- tion work courses, in practically all high schools. (2) Wherever practicable time cooperative shopwork plan (part- time division between schooling and employment) should be intro- duced, under the direct supervision of the public-school authorities. (3) The daily, weekly, and annual school sessions should be length- ened. (4) Wherever practicable a number of elective two-year vocational courses should be offered, with the following division of time: (a) 15 hours per weeit in shopwork; (1,) 15 hours per week in related and general subjects. (5) For industrial arts work in the general high school. the mini- mum amount of time should be 10 hours per week, for a period of three tears. (6) From 4 to 10 phiods per week in the seventh and eighth gratts should be devoted to handwork, with the olnphat:is on pract seal shop, work in wood and metal preparatory to the work suggested for the high school. Other recommendations relate to consolidated and rural schools. and to the'importance of securing properly qualified teachers to con- duct the work. The underlyir'r purpose of the program and .the recommendations presented in this report is twofold : (a) T9 increase greatly the num- ber of boys and young men receiving instruction in technical and in- dustrial work; and (b) to increase the practical effectiveness of the instruction by bringing about a more definite coordination between the work of the schools and the needs of the individual and the Nation. CRITICISM EXAMINED. In conclusion, it seems desirable to refer again to certain objec- tions which have been raised to the philosophy underlying, the voca- tional phases of public education. There are still those who appeai to be unable or unwilling to perceive that education must he some- thing more than mere cultivation of the intellect.- 'It is difficult to VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 295 argue with such persons on the basis of the current conception of publicly supported education in a democracy, which is that educe-. tion should include at least : (1) Education for citizenship and civic responsibilities; (2) education for health; (3) education for economic self-support, the vocation; (4)' education for the human relationships, culture, refinement, use of leisure time, the spiritual values. In particular, the notion t' lat children who are about to leave school permanently, or who. having left, are recalled for the purpose, may safely be given specific, instruction that will assist in getting an' sinomic start in lifethis notion has proved a stumbling- bl to 'me who believe that this process involves the sacrifice of nettling of supreme value to the child and to the State. An at- tentive reading of certain criticisms which have appeared suggests that the argument, if reduced to the form of a syllogism, would read: Major premise: Many children leave school as soon as they are legally free to do so, regardless of whether they-are qualified to look after themselves or not. Minor premise: An effective program of vocational education may Induce' numbers of such children to remain In school longer than they otherwise would in order to prepare for some wage-earning position. Cone/a:don: This additional schooling definitely and permanently prescribes the future careers of the children, making it Impossible that they shall ever be other than " hewers of wood and drawers of Nter," and Is therefore an offense against both the Individual and society. The principal defect in this argument is that the process of reason- ing is invalid, and the conclusion non sequitur. Students of edu- cation have repeatedly pointed out the fallacy of assuming That a vocation once entered upon by a young person must be followed through life. . Furthermore, the obvious alternative, and the only one seriously proposed, is to accept the fact that the overwhelming majority of boys and girls will continue to drop out of school before attaining adequate peparation for life's dutiei. And it is precisely against amiable acquiescence in this ineffectual alternative that ciirrent popu- lar interest in education, has been aroused. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION NOT AN ENCROACHMENT. One of the most conclusive summaries othe case against the criti- cism referred to is a statement recently, prepared by Dr. Snediten. It is in answer to the thoughtlessly repeated charge that xocational education seeks (1) to destroy or supplant the public school, and (2) to establish or subititute a ncrow type of education which, by teach- . ing mere skill of hand, will limit the ssible futures of youtig people and prescribe for them qareers without porospect of growth aid development. 296 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. In reply to these two charges it is aptly pointed out that, whereier vocational schools have been established, the entrance conditions are substantially .the completion of the requirements of compulsory school attendance. In most States these requirements are expressed in terms of age of pupil and school grade completed. in other words. no youth may enter u vocational school until he has reiled the.pOInt where he Is equally free to enter the shop or office as a full-time worker, or to spend Ills (or her) days exclusively at farm or home work. To the entrge sometimes made that the specialized vocational school Is "narrow- ing,"'It is a fair retort to question whether It Is more "narrowing." than the place in the department store, the specialty In the factory. or the daily routine of office, farm, or home. For these are certainly the prevailing alternatives.' In this connection the following.statement made by the Secetary of Commerce in President Wilson's Cabinet, and member of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, is pertinent: Let me say that Industrial education is not educating men into the mill. I have been told that It was..and that what was sought was to train a working class; that it attempted not only to train our children Into the mills. but also to develop class legislation on their account.. The allegations are., utterly Untrue. Industrial education Is for every .phase of inilustry, and those who teach it most and urge It strongest are against confining It to any narrow groove of single processes.' Instead, there-fore, of being chargeable with limiting the oppor- tunities or prescribing the future careers of youth, the vocational school must fairly be credited not only with providing a substantial extension of educational opportunity, but also with equipping boys and girls witintthe means to mike th..careers whatever they will. Every. step taken in the diection of p oviding practical education preparing for wage-earning efficiencyhvill lessen rather than increase the handicaps which beset those boys and girls who can not look forward to college or.. university education. Snedden: Public!), Supported Vocational Education: Is It Undemocrnticr; Manual Training Magazine; Vol. XVIII, No. 8, April, 1017, pp. 321-324. I William C. Reddeldi Manual Training Magazine, Vol. XVIII, No. 6, April, 1017, p. 252. ' CHAPTER XI. AGR RAli EDUCATION . By C. II. LANE. Federal Agent for Agricultural Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education. Cognacs.Agriculture in secondary schoola---The elementary schools Agricultural Wu- cation at ineetIngaAgricultural education la other countries EdueatIonal work of the Department of AgrIculture--The agricultural eollenes AppropriationsExtension and short courses The graduate school of agriculture. AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. In the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act another important step has been taken by the Federal Government in its relations to educe- tion. Under the new measure, Federal appropriations ultimately aggregating over $7,000,360 per annum have been made available for cooperation with the States in the promotion of vocational education in agriculture, the trades and industries, told home economics, includ- ing the preparation of teachers. The principle. of Federal aid through tlyStaies to education in institutions of s-tibcollegiatA grade has been established, nd an additional set of administrative ma- chinery has been devised to operate the new stein of education which is provided. As Z pioneer measure, the new legislation inevitably recalls the original Morrill Act. Primarily both laws were apparently intended to provide training in agricuaiire and the industries, the one in col- legiate, thp' other in subcollegiate institutions. They were thus both designed to develop a type of education of the utmost importance to our country, but previously never directly supported by the Federal Government and to only a limited degree by the States mid local communitieel Likewise both acts involved the introduction of a new system of education into the existing system. It is somewhat remarkable that these two measures, separated in. time by a period of over half a century, should both have been enacted in a period of great national crisis. The -Morrill Act. of At was of course signed in the midst of the Civil War, while the vocational education act of 1917 antedated by only a few weeks the formal 297 298 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918; entrance of the United States into the present conflict. The coinci- dence is the more striking since both measures were designed to foster agriculture and the industries, foremost among the arts of peace. and since both had been,pending 4,,Congess for years before the outbreak of hostilities. The measure ultimately adopted was introduced into the Sixty- fourth Congress by Senator Hoke Smith on December 7, 191.1, and was passed by the Senate with amendments .11 1911i. Its early enactment was strongly urged by President W ikon in addressing Congress at its reopening' in the following December, as of ;dial importance to the. whole country because it concerns a matter tooling neglected, neon which the thorough industrial prepanition of the countrt for the critical years of econonde development immediately ahead of us in very large measure depends * It contains plans which affect all Interests and all pnrts of the country, and I am sure that there is no legislation now pending before the (longres; whose passage the country awaits with more thoughtful approval or greater impatleime to see a great and admirate thing set In the way of being done. As an expression of educational tad icy, the new net embodies some important departures from previous legislation. It makes provision for the t raining within the schools of a large group of our popula- tion hitherto unreached directly. by the Federal Government. .0n the one hand, by offering instruction along vocational lines and of subcollegiate grade, it supplements the Morrill Act, the expressed purpose of which is.to maintain colleges '' to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts * * in order to promote the liberal and practical education of , the indus- trial classes in t several pursuits and professions of Oil the other hand e it contemplates a system of training in the schools, it also supplements the agricultural extension act of 1914, in which the service provided is "the giving of instruction and practical demon- strations in agriculture and home economies to persons not attending or resident in State colleges in the several communities." Since it imposes definite requirements as to the training of -t4chers, it also represents a material extension of authority over the purely permis- sive provisions of the Nelson amendment of 1907. The most radical innovation in the act deals with the method-of its administration. Previous legislation along these lines has ligarded the college of agriculture and mechanic arts as the State unit, whether for college inst.ruction under the Morrill Act and acts supplementary thereto, the preparation of teachers under the Nelson amendment, the conducting of research, in agriculture under the Hatch and Adams Acts, or the- carrying on in cooperation with the United States Departinent of Agriculture of extension work in agriculture and home eco<cs under the extension act.. The adminieration of AGRICULTURAL EDITATION. IDIG-1918. 7 2.99 those measures dealing with college instruction has centered in the Department of the -Interior, and Of those dealing with research and extension work in agriculture in the Department of Agriculture. The vocational education act in-both respects establishes a new ad- ministrative system. As its head there is provided a Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation. This board consists of seven members, including the Secre- taxies of Agriculture Cornmerce, and. Labor, and the United States Commissioner of Education, ex officio, with three members appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, ultimately for terms of three years each. One of the appointed members is a representa- tive of the manufacturing and commercial interests. one of the agri- cultural intere,ts. and the third of those of labor. The board selects its own chairman each year. - The Federal board is charged with the administration of the act, the details as to the care of funds, the certifying of the States, etc., in general plan resembling the legislation for the agricultural col- leges and .experiment stations. In addition it is empowered to-make, or have made. investigations and rejairts to aid the States in the establishment of vocational schools and classes, and in giving in- struction in agriculture, the trades and industries, commerce and commercial pursuits, aqd home economics. These studies include agriculture and agricultural processesboond the requirement upon agricultural workers, similar said ies as regards the trades, industries, and -commerce. home management, thnnestic science, and the study of related foods. and the principle4 and problems of administration' of vocational schools and of courses of study and instriMion in vo:.. cational subjects. In the discretion of the board, the studies con- rerning agriculture inaly be made in cooperation with or through the Department of Agriculture. Similar cooperative arrangements may be made with the Departments of Labor and Commerce for indus- trial subjects, while the studies of tla\ administration of vocational schools, curricula, and methods of instruction in vocational subjeAts may be taken up in cooperation with or through the.} ureau of Edu- cation. An appropriation of iP.00,000.per annum, available from the date otpassage of the act, is made to the board for its expenses. To cooperate with the .Federal board in carrying out the act, each State when accepting its prOvisions is to designate a State board of at least three members. The State b rd of education or some board having charge of the administrati n of public education of any kind of vocational education may e designated- as the ,State board, or an entirely new board may be created. T . The !State board is to prepare plans for the approval of thel,Fed- eral board, showing the details of the work for which it is exp1ced . , 300 BIENNIAL SURVEY. OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. to use the appropriations. These plans, it is specified,*rmist show the kinds of vocational education contemplated, the kinds of schools and equipment,' courses of study, methods of instruction, and the qualifications and the plans for the training of the teachers and 'agricultural supervisors. -In all oases the work must be conducted under public supervision and control. The plats of/expenditures for salaries in agricultural subjects must in addition show that the controlling purpose of the achication is to .4t, for useful employment, that training is less than college grade, and that it is designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 years of age who have entered upon or"-ho are preparing to onter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home. ' The Federal appropriations to the States are divided into three distinct- groups, praiding respectively for the payment of salaries of teachers, supervisors. or directors of agricultural subjects: for the payment of safaries of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects; and for 'the Preparing of teachers. supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, and of teachers of trade and-industrial and home economics subjects. - The main initial iippropriation for salaries in agricultural subjects is $500,000. This is increased by $250,000 per annum during the next .six years and then by $500,000 per annum during the next two years, making an appropriation of $3,000,000 for the fiscal year 1926 and annually thereafter. The main appropriation for preparing teachers and supervisors is likewise $500,000 for the first yar; but increases to $100,000 and $900,000, respectively, for the next two years and thee becomes $1,000,000 per annum thereafter. The Federal appropriations for teacher training trist be divided among agricultural, trade and in- dustrial, and home economics subjects, no one of these subjects heft granted more than.,60 nor less than 20 per cent of the State's allot- meift for that year. Tlie act embodies a system of Federal and State administration of vocational education which is a compromise between the views of those who thought a separatesystem of public education should be organized for vocational purposes and those who beliel,eat that the unity of our present public-school system should be maintained. Each State is left free to establish a separate system or to make the ..voeational schools and courses a part of its existing system. It is probably very fortunate that so much flexibility of organiza- tion has been incmforated in this act. This btoad measure, which will affect the educational system of our vast country with its great . variety of industrial conditions and possibilities, gives an uneclhaled opportunity. for the study and trial of curricula, methods of' teaching, yr- AGRICULTURAL pUCATION, 1916-4918. 801 practical work, equipment, etc., adapted to a wide range of vocations and very diverse environments. The training of,the teachers provicktd for will throw a very heavy burden of responsibility on our higher technical institutions and par- ticularly the land giant colleges. These institutions have been very successful in training teohnical experts who have contributed in largo measure to the success of our industries. They have not as yet paid an:c large attention,to.lhe training of teachers for secondary schools of the strictly vocational type. The pedagogy of this class of educa tion is yet in its,preliminary stage. It evidently will not, do simply to copy what has been worked out abroad. There is therefor4 great incentive for men of original thought and inventive skill to enter this comparatiely new field of teacher training. For purposes of administration and- inspection under the Smith- 'Hughes Act the Federal board has divided the country into.Ve sec- tions or regions. In defining these regions the States are grouped as follows: I. North Atiartic.Maine, New HampshireVerniont, Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Maryland. Headquarters in New York City: II. Southern. Virginia. North Carolina, South Carplina, Georgia; Florida, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Headquarters in'Atlanta, Ga. III. North Central.Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia; Indiana, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Illinois. Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. Head- quarters in Indianapolis, Ind. _ IV. 11-c8t Central.North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, Oklahoma, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New. Mexico. Headquarters in.Kansas City, Mo. V. Pacific.Idalio, Utah. Arizona, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, and California. Headquarters in San Francisco, Cal. An agent of the Federal board; for the fields of agriculture, trade, and industrial subjects is assigned to each region: the agents for. home economics reniin in Washington. These Federal agents are, in general, to act as administrative representatives of the Federal board in the field, to'gather information regarding methods adopted by the several State boards for the administration of the act, and to inspe4 the work of the State boards in so far as it has to do with the requirements of the law, with the decisions and policies of the Federal board and with the approved plans for the States. Up to January 1, 1918, 48 States have accepted the SmithHughes Act either by specific visions of the legislatures or by act.of the governor, and u January 1, 1918, the plans of'48 States had been examined by e Federal BoArd for Vocational Education, approved, 802 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION', 1916-1018. and the board had certified to the Secretary of the Treasury that these States were entitled to receive the allotments for the year 1917- 18. apportioned by the terms of the act. Over 500.agricultural schools and classes were approved by State and Federal boards for carrying on the work in agriculture under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. The chief handicap in the promotion or introduction of vocational agricultural instruction was the lack of qualified teachers. This was due largely to the present war emergencymany of the agricul- tural teachers being drafted or volunteering for service in the Army. In practically every State the State board for vocational education has provided a State supervisor of agriculture. In some cases this supervisor is a part of the organization of the St ate hoard and in some cases he acts in a dual capacity as head of the teacher-training work under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act and State supervisor of agriculture. This arrangement is clue largely to a lack of funds on the part of the State boards for carrying on supervisory work. In every State but one the State board for vocational education has designated the land-grant college as a teacher-training institution in agriculture. As a result of their elesitination as teacher-training institutions under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, they have organized departments of agricultural education and are proceeding along very definite lines to train vocational teachers of agriculture. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. There has been continued effort on the part of many agencies to promote the various phases of elementary agriculture in the common schools. Minnesota The work in agriculture in the rural schools has practically all been in the form of boys' and girls' club work. The majority of county superinten have acted as county club le*ders directing the work. The rk hag been taken up along 10 lines of hothe projectscorn, potato, pig, calf, garden, canning, poultry, cow testirig..bread making, and sewing. Something like 5,000 boys' and girls' clubs *ere organized in the rural districts in 1918. Most of these come from the rural schools as a unit, with the teacher as the local leader and the county superintendent ks county club leader. New Hampshire. For The past five years efforts have been- made and plans formulated fox' converting the old-time nature study in rural schools into elementary agriculture of a practical type. During the year 1918, that effort has culminated in enrolling 32,000 school children in home-project gardening. This has been directly tinder schOol management through the State department, local superinten- dents, and teachers. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1016-1418. 30$ Caifornia.The California State Board of Education passed the following regulation relative to agricultural instruction in normal schools: " For students entering after June 30, 1919, one unit shall be required in manual training or household arts or both, and one unit in the elements in agriculture, including practical work in garden- ing, floriculture,- and plant propagation." .11a8sachu.setts.As a result of the appointment of county club leaders in each one of the county farm bureaus in the State, a thorough canvas of the rural schools has been made in an effort, to interest them in both home awl school garden work and junior ex- tension club work. From 75 to 35 per cent of the rural schools have . been reached during the past two years through these' agents. In a few instances this has resulted in the establishment of some definite course in agriculture or home eeonomics in these schools. The extension division of the college of agriculture during 1918 made an Wfoyt to arrange a course satisfactory to high-school men that would be accepted by the college for credit on admission. It is felt that this would lead to steps to establish the work in elementary ). schools to fit the work in the high schools. yoming.--The only teacher-training institutions below .college grade in the State are some high schools offering one year of normal training. These schools were established in the fall of 1917, and thi only work in agriculture offered in such schools is a short general course in agriculture that is designed to prepare pupils t.o teach in the elementary schools. _ Michigan.ThNe new county normal training classes have been established in the tate in the past year and a few for the purpose of training rural teachers, making in all 53 such institutions. A law was passed in 1917 requiring all persons who are teaching in the elementary schools to have at least six weeks of professional training before a teacher's license can be issued to them. In all institutions giving training for rural teachers a semester's course in elementary agriculture and in the pedagogy of such subjects is given. Montana.In 1918 a bill passed the legislature making agriculture a required subject in the elementary schools. A course of study has been prepared including agriculture. Home project work is a part of the course. of study and the Stake superintendent of public instruc- tion has approved credit for project worke.to the extent of 50 per cent each year. Kaneae. The teacher-training institutions beloW college grade offering work in agriculture, are the high schools which are reim- bursed from -§tate funds for normal training_ work. These high schools are offering either pne-half unit or' a unit of agriculture'as a part of the high-school work for those who are planning to teach. Previous to 1916-17 agriculture was not a fixed requirement, now at 304 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. least one-half unit is required in all normal-training nigh schools. About 90 per cent of them, however, give a full unit of tliat work. The State grants aid of approximately $200 -for this work in ap, proved high schools. The number of high schools giving the work now is 234;and the number giving the work before 1.916-17 was 185. North Carolina.At the last session of the general msembly a bill was passed 'providing for a. commission to be appointed by the goy- , ernor for the purpose of preparing leaflets and bulletins containing courses of.study, practical outlines in agriculture, to be used by the teachers as supplements to the text. Two bulletins, one for the sixth and one for the seventh grades have been prepared. These bulletins are somewhat in the form of laboratory manuals following the pro- ject plan, and it was thonght by State officials that they are going to prove a great help to the teachers in making their agricultural work more practical. New York.An act of the New York State Legislature for 1917 pro- vides for the employment of directors of agriculture in cities, towns, and school districts not maintaining a school of agriculture, me- chanic arts, and home making. The purpose of this:act is to employ a person who shall devote his time to interesting 3rung people in practical agriculture and to giving technical instruction accompany- ing their practical work; to encourage cities and villages to employ supervisors for school, home, and vacant-lot gardening. The com- missioner of education will apportion to each city, town, or school district employing or joining in the employment of a director of agriculture a sum equal to one-half the salary paid to such director, not exceeding each yefir the sum of $600 for each director employed. The purpose of this work is to encourage boys and girls to undertake' agricultural enterprises adapted to their home conditions. The projects may include poultry; pig, and calf raising, groWing a cer- tain area of general garden or corn, potatoes, or other farm crops: A complete scheme is found in Bulletin 654 of the University of the State of New York. Indiana.Educational Bulletin No. 82 of the Vl'ocational Series No. 1,7, entitled, "Supervised Home Project and Club Work," con- tains what is considered the ideal organization for club work in a county. It is described as follows: Au attempt is being made in Montgomery County to perfect a more complete organization than has been possible herttofore in the State. With the financial assistance of the States Relations Se ice of the United States Department of Agriculture and the cooperation of all the agencies of the State add county, it is hoped that an organization will be perfected that will serve as a model for other counties. The work in this county is being directed by the county titipertntendent of schools and the county agricultural agent, working through a committee repre- senting the board of education itnd such allied spunty organizations as the coin- 666111111111111Mr_ AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 306 munity association, the county fair association, the home economics elssodatton, the chamber of commerce, and the live-stock breeders. The fullest cooperation is assured from the hanks, grain elevators, and business men. The teachers and their officials and supervisors are interested and in sympathy. with the movement. Each township will employ at least one teacher as a club supervisor. This local supervision will begin February 1, and while the schools are In session each township supervisor will devote time outside of school hours to- visiting schools, arousing !Merest and getting the enrollment. At the close of school, the time of the township supervisor will be spent In visiting club members and giving instruction. A county director of club work, giving full time to his task, is emploYed for the full year. lie is to work with the township supervisors and teachers, under the direction of the county superintendent and county agent. He will train supervisors, assist in supervising the instruction in agriculture, distribute litera- ture. and corre'ate the work generally. Township and county exhil4its, deOnstration teams, club meetings, and frequent conferences are planned. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AT MEETINGS. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION.FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. The annual meeting in 1917 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science is one of the great scientific events of the year. It is a vast clearing house for ideas and results in science, and for the testing and molding of views. It presents the largest forum in this country for healthy, tempefed but searching criticism in sci- ence, without which science becomes self-complacent, lax, and unex- acting in its requirements. The section of agriculture confined its program to a single session and was presided over by Dr. AV. H. Jordan, of the New York State Experiment Station. Taken as a whole, the discussions were a frank acknowledgement of the present limitations of our agricultural knowledge, especially the full understanding of it, and some of the difficulties in its application in successful farming. It was a some- what critical analysis of experimental methods, and it sounded a caution against premature generalization from laboratory results to the farm. As Dr. Jordan stated, the stations have been and are still putting too much time on mere variables that have no broad signifi.. cance. and too little time on broad fundamentals. He called attention to the fallacy and unwisdom of attempting to state results in terms of dollars and cents, since these have no real permanent or scientific significance. Speaking of the training of the investigator, Dr. L. H. Bailey hpld that the the research man should be a student-in all that the- name implies. The investigator in 'horticulture should have a grounding in chemistry, physics, and physiology, for the grasp they give on 171029*-21Bull. 806 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918 -1918. methods and approach. And he should have training in systematic botany, not alone for i6 knowledge of plants but for its'key system, for the drill in comparing things that are actually comparable. His training should also give him a contemplative, reflective habit of thought; and he should always continue to be a student. Unless he continues to acquire much of his preparation as he goes, his research spirit has got its growth. The investigator must prepare himself for each separate piece of work. In addition to this training in the sciences, emphasis was laid on the need for much study of English, to give familiarity with words and terms in order to make sharp discriminations and comparisons, and to enable clear expression of thought and deduction. This is an all too frequent lack at present. Science is exact, in expression as well as in essence. No worker has a right to he anderstoolexcept in the terms of his own language. Good training in logic vras also ad- vocated, in weighing of evidence, because ability in that line is one of the prime essentials of the investigator. ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL' COLLEGES AND EXPERIMINT STATIONS. Following the general policy adopted many years ago of meeting in alternate years in Washington, D. C., the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations held its thirtieth an- nual convention in'that city N9vember 15-17, 1916. The selection of the Nation's capital this year seemed especially appropriate, in view of the predominance in the program of questions of nation- wide significance, the important relationship developing with various branches of the Federal Government, and the plentiful evidences of the growing realization of the essential kinship and community of purpose of the institutions comprising the great Federal system of education and research for whose interests the association stands. The program of the association was by no means restricted to agri- cultural lines. The interests of the association are, of course, con- siderably broader in,seope, and this year, in particular, much em- phase was put upon what may be termed its nonagricultural phases. In the general sessions especially, aside from the.addre.s.ses of the Secretary of Agriculture and the president of the association and the presentation and discussiu of the reports of the standing committees, attention was centered quite largely on the proposed establishment by the Federal Government of engineering experiment stations, the development of military training in the land-grant colleges, and the best ways of conducting extenslon work home economics and similar lines of interest to farm women. s trend of the conven- tion, howevei, in no sense betokened a inution of interest in AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 307 agricultural education and research. On the contrary, it may be whether4he realization of the outstanding importance of these phases, and especially the need of adequate and systematic provtisions for research, was ever more strongly in evidence. For example, it was the dominating note in the presidential address, given by Director C. E. Thorne, of the Ohio Station, upon the subject of Progress of education and research in agriculture." Director Thorne reviewed the history of the land-grant colleges, especially in their relations to the experiment stations, and sounded a note of warning that the temptation to neglect the work of thi7, stations in order to take care of the great pressure for educational workonust be strongly resisted if permanent progress is to be made. As he pointed out science can not stand still.. Every extension of the horizon of our knowledge only expands the boundary of the unknown, and makes yet more imperative the necessity for further research, and the institution which contents itself with present knowledge will scion find itself forgotten. College instruction in agriculture was discussed, from several points of view. The report of the standing committee on instruction in agriculture dealt with the question of college credit for high- school agriculture. This included a study of existing conditions by D. J. Crosby, Ni,hich indicated that agriculture is now accepted as an entrance subject in 44 of the 48 States, but that only one institu- tion allows advanced credit. It was found that agriculture is now taught in 19 per cent of the high schools of the country, and the committee considered this a factor which might well be taken into account in college instruction to a greater degree. Certain funda- mental principles of ag6culture, it pointed out, might be taught as effectively in the high schools as in the freshman class, or even better if the college instruction is delegated to fellows and assistants of limited years and experience. Some obstacles, however, were recognized to the acceptance of high-school agriculture, especially the wide variation in the grade of work accomplished. Care is needed in the selection of textbooks and apparatus and the outlining of courses, and it was suggested that thit colleges might here render a useful service. - In 28 States there is no systematic supervision of high-school instruction in agri- culture. In some States the college and the State board of educa- tion cooperate, but it was believed that the efforts'of the colleges in thi field should be suggestive rather than- arbitrary, and should scrup ously avoid the appearance of dol atictn. " Met, ods of improvement in teaching college agriculture " was. irt discussed by Dean W. W. Charters, of the school of education of the U7ersity of Missouri. Dean Charters pointed ,out that the im- . 308' BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. portant thing in 'education is not apparatus or buildings or equip- ment, but the classroom intercourse of teacher and student. He be- lieved that the present teaching of agriculture is very uneven in quality. One difficulty is that the results of teaching are less tan- gible than those of research and therefore easy to judge in a com- parative way. The code of professional ethics which bars instructors of ratik from the classrooms of others.also hinders improve- ments and obscures the merits of efficient teachers. More attention to the fornmlation and application of pedagogical principles of agri- cultural instruction was earnestly advocated. It is of interest to note that very similar views were expressed in the section on engineer- ing as regards instruction in that subject; and that close cooperation with schools of education was a suggested remedy. The thirty-first annual convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, held in Washington, D. C., November 1.1-16, 1917. seems likely to he long remembered as one of the most interesting and inspiring in the history of the organi- zation. The important service of the land-grant institutions in this country' was attested by several speakers. Thus Secretary Houston declared that while at the time the ccamtry entered the war the Nation was not fully prepared for war in any respect it was fortunately circumstanced in the character of its agricultural organi- zation and the number nail efficiency of its expert agencies. In fact. In OH- dent machinery for directing Agricultural nctivity as 'represented by the land- grpnt colleges, the Federnl Department of Agriculture. farmers' organizations, ail its alert and patriotic rural population, It excelled any other two or three- nations In the world combined. "The Nation may well pride itself," he said, "on the fact that it had had the foresight generations ago to lay deep its agricultural foundations." He congratulated the representath-es of the land- grant colleges on the fine opportunity for service presented to them and bn the splendid way in which they had seized it: The Department-of Agriculture has had great comfort In the thought that these institutions, ably planned and wisely directed, existed in every part of the Nation and stood ready not only to place themselves at the ser'ice of the National Government but also to take the initiative in a vast number of direc- tions. The duty of the agricultural colleges in teacher training was pointed out by the standing committee on.instruction in agriculture in its report on college teaching in agriculture, with particular refer- ence to the improvement of methods. In this report the committee expressed the view that: Strong departments of agricultural education will be needed under the ad- ministration of the Smith - Hughes Act in order to give the colleges of agricul- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 809 tore the positions they should occupy In the training of teachers of agriculture. Unless these colleges take up the teacher-training work actively at the present time, the Dpais provided for this work under the Smith-Hughes Act are likely in ninny States to be divided among a number of Institutions, including some of relatively low grade and poor equipment, with the result that our whole system for training teachers of agriculture will be fundamentally weak. The agricultural colleges ought to have a clear leadership in this field, and they can not have this unless they adequately equip their departments of agricul- tural educat ion. The committee also urged the development of such departments as a means of improvement of college teaching in general. It was recognized that in the past a large proportion of college graduates without special 'pedagogical training have done well as teachers, but they have succeeded in spite of the' lack of professional training, and the per- centage and degree of successes might have been much larger if the profes- sional training hail been provided. No matter how well manned and equipped the subject matter depart-M*111s of the colleges 9,$/agriculture may be, they need the help of strong departments of agriculturareducation, not orrty in the train- ing of undergradmites for teaching positions but also In Improving the quality of teaching within the subject matter departments. The 1917 convention revealed how closely the war has been brought home to the land-grant institutions, depleting the faculty and student body. interrupting many well-established projects, and compelling a redirecting of their entire program and point-of view. More strongly, however. did it indicate how largely the Nation is relying on these institutions in the present emergency, and how im- portant are the functions which are 'theirs to fulfill. It put this great body of public-service institutions, already conspicuous for a season's successful endeavor, formally on record as enlisted for the war, and with their full resources mobilized in the national service. NATIONAL DAIRY SCHOOL. The first New England meeting of the National Dairy Show was held at Springfield, Mass., October 12-21, 1916, on the grounds of the Eastern States Ag,rrictiltural 'and Industrial Exposition. All previ-. ous records for attendance, exhibits, and profits are said to hayi been broken; Nearly 1,000 entries of.dairy stock were on exhibition and the attendance is estimated.as averaging close to 80,000 per day. Much prominence was given to educational features at the show. The United States Department of Agriculture gave special atten- tion to its extension work among boys and girl's, with several thou- sand exhibits of their work and many demonstrations by boys and girls illustrating methods in canning, bread making, dairying, lection of seed corn and potatoes, gardening; treatment of plant 310 BIENNIAL SURVEY Oli EDUCATION, IC16-1918. diseases, etc.' A working -dairy was also in operation by the de- partment. The intercollegiate stock judging contest was participated in by 18 institutions, many being represented for the first time. The highest rating for all breeds was attained by the University of Ne- . .braska, with New Hampshire first on Ayrshires, Kansas on Guern- seys: Massachusetts on Jerseys, and Nebraska on Holstein; Friesians, There was also an intercollegiate butter judging contest, arranged for the first time. In this contest nine institutions were repre- sented, first place being awarded to the Pennsylvaniaectillege. 41 After a lapse of three years, occasioned by the foot-and-moutb disease situation, the Fourteenth' International Live Stock Exposition was held at Chicago intlecember, 1916. The agricultural colleges were again strongly in evidence, both the grand champion :11;4 the reserve champion in the bullock section coming from the University of California. A new feature of the-show is to be a special exhibit each year from some one agricultural college. The institution selected to initiate this practice was the University of Illinois, which depicted in minia- ture its campus and buildings and likiewise a model farm divided into fields supporting a profitable and soil-building rotation as well as much other illustrative material. At the students' stock judging contest, 16 institution's were repre- sented, 3 for the first time. The first place was awarded to the team from Purdue University, second to the Iowa State College, and third to the Ohio State University. 'Following a meeting called by the American Pomological Society, a National Congress.of Horticulture was organized at Washington, p. C., in November, 1916, to serve as a central clearing house of hor- t ticultural interests. Active membership is- to consist of delegates appointed by affiliate 1 horticulturWorganizations on the basis of4 membership, and it is hoped thus to enroll representatives of from 50,000 to 60,000 members. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR TILE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL TEACHING. - The seventh annual meeting otthe American Association for the Advancement of Agricultural l'aching was held in Washington, D. C., November 14, 1916. Two main topics were presented for dis- cussion, the content of the course in the col of agriculture for prospective high-school teachers. of agric nd the' high-school course in agriculture. .- `Under the first of these, Dean C. F. Curtiss discussed the 'relation the sciences. He thought that the science taught- ought to be' AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 311 applied science, which will directly connect tip with the work of the farmer and the community ia which the teachers will serve. As to general professional subjects, K. L. Hatch held that psy- chology is the basis of the professional preparation, but that whether or not there should be a course in general education is doubtful. The student's time is s(; taken up with technical work in agriculture that an effort shottld be made to reduce the professional preparation to the minimum. The course in agricultural edrumtlion ought to include the principles of general methods. A certain amount of practice work should be required with real students, with real classes and conditions, and with problems teachers are going to meet. Prof. Hatch also discussed at length the growing demand for a course in the college known as general science or elementary science. In dis- cussing this paper H. W. Stinson laid stress upon the importance of training college teachers of agriculture, if for no other reason than Aliat the prospective teachers coming under their inlThence may imitate good teaching. Ci. A. Works took up "The content of the methods course for high- school teachers of ageiculture," outlining the work given in the New York State College of Agriculture. This course, Which is given three ,o four times a year, is open only to seniors. It runs for a term with two discussion periods and one laboratory period 2i hours in length each week. The class is limited to 50 and each laboratory section to 12 students. The laboratory and lecture work are closely correlated throughout the course, and special attention is given to the selection of material adapted to the high-school pupil and to its arrangements in seasonal sequence. Other topics. taken_ up are the place of the home project and the organization of study material for the recitation lesson, the laboratory, and the field trip. A visit to a near-by high school is made for the purpose of studying equipment, library, and home projects, and some work is done in chart making and bulletin collecting and cataloguing. In a paper on "How to connect.tbe high- school work with practi- cal farm operations," A. K. Getman suggested (1) a seasonal distri-+ bution of the topics studied, the study to coincide with the operations on the farm; (2) provision for field and laboratory work; and (3) the use of the home project properly planned, accounted, summarized, and supervised. C. IL Lane, in a paper on "The content of high-school courses in agriculture," said that it is note merely a question of what is worth teaching anrstudying, but what is best considering all local condi- tions, equipment, time, teacher, community interests, adaptations, etc. Thus, the determination of the content and arrangement of a course in agiculture. becomes a local problem and no general solution can 312 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. be given that will apply equally well to all localities. The following outline of work was, however, suggested: First year, practical work on how plants grow, soils and fertilizers, and field crops or fruits and vegetables, the choice -depending upon local conditions as regards available material and interest in home project work. The second year should be given to the study of live stock. After such general courses the student is prepared for more special work. In sections where horticulture is important the third year may well be spent iti such specialized branches of plant production as fruit growing, prac- tical work on soils -and fertilizers, cover crops, etc., as relate to the production of fruit, or market or vegetable gardening, and one-third of a unit on improvement of home grounds and ornamental planting. Similar specialized courses should be provided in districts where one or more field crops, dairying, or sonic other special phase of ani- mal husbandry predominates. In districts having broad interests in agriculture the school should be equipped to offer a number of spe- cial courses during the third and fourth years. While the subject of tools, implements, and machinery is necegoarily considered in con- nection with crop production, the .subject 01 farm mechanics is deemed sufficiently important to receive,specillattention during the fourth year. A half unit in rural economics and farm management should not preclude careful accounting in connection with the proj- ects of each of the previous years nor the study of simple methods of accounting in connection therewith. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCINTION. The usual attention was given at the meeting of the National Educa- tion Association at Portland, Oreg., July 7 -14, 1917. The general topic considered by the National Council was "Agricultural prepared- ness and food consevation." W. H. Campbell, representing the Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union of America, presented a paper at the section of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education on " The rural people a strong factor in rural education problems," which dealt with the revision of the whole educational system of this country from the top down and with the Imilding of a centralized school and its development into a community center for the people in Johnson County,,Nebr. The speaker urged that the universities and normal schools be pit on a full year, four-quarter plan, and have a department that will receive mature students who have completed the rural school. These universities and normal schogls will then be in position to release students for winter va- cations for the purpose of teaching short winter terms an the country. These termEishould include a course strong in agriculture And domestic science, farm accounting, manual training, and math matics. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 813 In art illustrated address on "Results achieved in secondary agri- culture and methods pursued in actual practice," H. N. Goddard of the Department of Education of Madison. Wis., indicated the prog- ress in the development of secondary agricultural instruction. He . stated that two viewpoints have developed in relation to the work, the informational or cultural and the vocational. The latter has gained in relative importance while the informational idea lacks suf- ficient motive and.fails to give vocational training. , In the opinion of the speaker the school plat is a valuable school project and is desirable wherever it can lie made certain that it can be well cared for during the sunimer vacation. The school farm of large size offers many ditliculties and should not usually be under- taken in high-school departments.. Anevg successful school or group projects, aside from the school plat, are steer fattening, keep- ing dairy cows, cow testing, poultry work. shopork. and construc- t., tion of till kinds of farm -buildings. The school plat , ould. be used for crop production demonstrations. illustrative maters and out-of- door experiments. Home or individual projects, regarded as the more fundamental, have included practically every phase of farm practice that can be.carried out on the home farm or garden. Ex- hibits and contests have been very commonly developed in connec- tion with the projects. Most important of all is the -inual school fair held in most high-school departments. where the productive re- sults are rounded up in direct connection with the school community. A large amount of extension work has been carried on. X large general result of till the work lipS been evident in greater interest and intelligence in the best farm practice and in rural life. A large per cent of the boys and girls in these courses are actually going hack to the farms with minds awakened anl trained for enthusiastic and efficient work. Many city boys have also been directed to the farm for their future occupation. It is the unanimous opinion of this department of the-association that the time' haS fully arrived for the establishment of special normal schools whose sole function is the study of industtial, social, and educational'rural problems, and the training of teachers who are able to cope with these problems. - . AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. KERMA. A fifth school of agriculture has been erected at Glen, in the Orange Free State, the opening of which has been postponed because of the financial stringency created by the war. It has a farm of 4.000 acres, acquired at a cost of $97,200, and school and farm build- ings erected at a cost of $194,400. 4t. 814 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. The schools which are located at Elsenburg. Middelburg, Cedara., and Potchefstroom, and the new school at Glen, are located on large, well-stocked: and well-equipped farms, and offer the following courses: A one-year certificate course including theoretical and prac- tical instruction in agriculture and 'live stock, farm economics and bookkeeping, agricultural engineering, veterinary science, poultry husbandry, horticulture, Viticulture (at Elsenburg), and dpirying; a two-year,diploma course, including, in addition to' the preceding subjects, agricultural chemistry and geology, agricultural botany and bacteriology, and agricultural zoology and entomology; a three- year advanced diploma course; a special course in dairying at the Grootfontein school at Middelburg, followed by practical work in a factory dairy ; a two-week short winter course open allo to Women. At the request of the university council of the Cape of Good. Hope. courses have been prepared and submitted for the third and &fourth years at the agricultural schools for the degree of B. S. in agriculture. BRITISH ISLANDS. In 1918 the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, dealing with the agricultural education work of the various institutions and local authorities in England and Wales, decided as a measure of war econ- omy, to suspend the grants to the Harris Institute, Preston, and to the Royal Horticultural Society's School at Wisley. The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, and the Agricultural Coflege, lick - field, Sussex, were closed in the summer of 1915, owing mainly to the serious decrease 'in attendance. All of the institutions have suffered as a result of the vt'ar. The new buildings at the Armstrong College, Newcastle, have been wholly utilized as a hospital since the beginning of the war, and rooms in the School of Agriculture, Cam- bridge, and sin Wye College, were occupied for a time for military purposes. The Royal Veterinary College, London. is the only insti- tution whose activities have not seriously diminished. To encourage cheese making instead of butter making, with a view both of con- serving the food supply and the economical utilization of surplus milk, the board developed a scheme of establishing traveling cheese schools, under which it loaned sets of apparatus to local authorities who agreed to make new and additional provisiop for itinerant in- .struction in this subject. Nineteen authorities availed themselves of this offer, and 33 new schools were created in addition to 5 previously in existence. 4 kreport in 1916 on the question of education in its relation to agri- culture, with special reference to the problem of how to increase the annual output of skilled cultivators of and workers on the land, by the education committee of the Central and Associated Chambers of Agriculture of Great Britain shows that 50 years ago the number of men working on the land in the United Kingdom was greater by AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1918.-1918. 815 1,000,000 than it is to-day and to the concurrent steady decline in the production of the land. The committee recommends that the instruc- tion of the eleMentary schools be made more practical and more truly based upon surrounding life; that new schools of the following types be created: (1) Centralized continuation day schools of the type ex- isting in Canada, (2) the creation of a system of lower-grade instruc- tion centers with courses that would review, complement, and give a more directly vocational bearing to the practical work already done in the schools for boys and girls, (3) a new type of.farm school for boys and girls between 13 and 18 years of age to contihue the in- struction from the elementary school and definitely prepare them for settling on the land either in the United Kingdom or in the British 'Dominions, and (4) farm lads' clubs; that definite measures should be taken to interest the children in town schools in country life and to induce more poor law children to become interested in the cultiva- tion of the land; that as far as possible all reformatories and indus- trial schools should have farms attached and the pupils be more di- rectly encouraged to study agriculture; that continuation instruction should be comptilsory; and the development of training to enable country children to enter the teaching profession. Plans are under consideration for the establishment by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Board of Development Com- missioners of Great Britain of a research institute for problems re- lating to agricultural machinery at Cambridge University in eon- cection with the existing schools of agriculture and engineering. A movet# is on foot to raise kfund of $750,000 for the erection of new science buildings at the University College of North Wales " as a memorial to the men of North Wales who have fallen/ in the war." A gift of $100,000 has already been secured. It is announced that special prominence is to be given in the new buildings to agri- culture and forestry. The Southeastern Agricultural College at Wye, England, has or- ganized a research and advisory department distinct from the teach- ing side of the college and governed by a separate representative anti- mittee, composed in part of research workers at the institution and in part of other scientific men. Some of the work in progress and in contemplation includes problems connected with the general prac- tice of fruit growing, the biologieil study of flax, the conservation of fruits and vegetables, 'pasture studies, diseases of . sheep, hop breeding, and fungus diseases and insect pests and their treatment by spraying. The tropical school of agriculture which was opened at Peradelliya, Ceylon, January 15, 1916, received 77 students durhig its first year of operation. Each student had to cultivate one-sixteenth acre and grow three crops on it, a pulse, a grain, and a vegetable, conducting 816 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. all the operations himself. The average age of the students was 21 years. The school staff consisted of a registrar and four agricul- tural teachers who held the diploma of the Pooma Agricultural College and who carried out the ground work in all subjects. Ceylon had a total of 327 school gardens in 1916, an increase of 40 over the previous year. Government grants were received by over 160 schools for school-garden work. CANADA. In the four years that the agricultural instruction act has been in operation it has contributed a total of $3.400.000 to the Provinces. With the year 1917-18 the grants reach their maximum of $1,100,000 'a year to continue until the completion of the act on March 31, 1923. In the Province of Prince Edward Island, $2,500 is set aside for bonuses to teachers who give instruction in nature study and agri- culture. Teachers especially trained in two sessions of the summer school receive $7 for the first half year and $5 for the second ; those especially trained in one seion of the summer school receive $6 and $4; and those who have not attended summer school but are doing creditable work receive $5 and $3. The requirements for grants in- clude: (1) Systematic instruction in rural science in the school every week throughout the term; (2) a written report on the provided form to the department of education at the the term show- ing the instruction that has been given ; (3) pupils' records of the work systematically kept in special rural science no books; and (4) supervised projects or gardens at the pupils' h Or a well-kept school garden in which there are some valuable onstrations and ex rim is with vegetribles or field crops, or with both, as well as eta e flower beds and borders. A school garden neglected in the summer holidays will disqualify for part or all of the bonus. In 1916 the provincial ministry of agriculture of British Colum- bia, which until then had always been united with some other min- istry, was made a separate and distinct department. Agricultural instruction has recently been iintroduced into the high schools of British Columbia in a systematic way. The first class in the Province was organized in September, 1915, and was followed by similar instruction in foir other high schobls in Sep- tember, 1916. The instruction is being given by agricultural spe- cialists, and is attended by a total of about 130 boys and girls. A two-year course has been outlined for these schools. Equipment costing about $400 is available in each school, with from one-half to one acre of land for experimental and demonstra- tion plats. The salary of the instructor is paid by the provincial de- partment of education, and the remaining expenses by the local authorities. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 317 The Alberta Department of Agriculture began extension work in agriculture last spring with strict agents in the field at various points in the Prpvince. The .nister of education is cooperating to the extent of making the time of the classes in school available to the agents for the carrying on f the work in cooperation with the teacher and inspector. The plan s to have the pupils take actual part in the growing of garden crops, the raising of chicken's, and the feeding and management of young stuck on their own farms. Initial group instruction in the laying out. planning, and general cultiva- tion of the home garden is given in the schools, where leaflets and bulletins, seeds, and a limited number of eggs are distributed. Com- petitions in caring for stock are carried on and the season's pro- gram culminates in a fall fair held in conjunction with the district fair or at the most convenient school or village center. The work is being conducted in five centers and about 100 schools are taking part in it. In a special effort to populate and bring under cultivation large areas in northern Ontario, an agricultural high school and demon- stration farms at New Liskeard, a government -creamery at the same place, a 50-acre demonstration field near Matheson, and a plant breeding station_at Fort William are to be established. Plans are also under way for the necessary buildings and equip- ment for a new agricultural school to be established, through the Ontario Department of Agriculture, near Kemptville in eastern On- tario. It is intended to give useful and practical instruction in agri- culture to young men between the ages of 16 and 25 who have left school. It is not proposed to duplicate anything already being done in the Province unless to some extent the first two years of the course at the Ontario Agricultural College. The regular course will not be longer than two years and there may also be a number of short course* Special provision Inis been made in Ontario for furnishing home- steads to returning soldiers. These soldiers will first be sent to an agricultural training depot being established at the Government ex- 'perimental farm at Monteith, where they will receive instruction. When a sufficient number have been trained, a farm colony *ill be opened at some point along the railway in charge of a competent superintendent. Farms containing not over 80 acres will be laid out and so planned as to Wing the various farm houses as closely together as possible. A 10-acre tract will be cleared on each farm, and when this is completed the farm may be allotted free of charge to a soldier. He may also receive machinery, live stock, etc., to the value of $500, this being reimbursable within.20 years. The final title to the land will be given after five years. The community system will be fol- 818- BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. lowed in supplying horses, other stock, and implements, and coopera- tive methods of buying and selling will be used. Other plans for placing soldiers on the land are also under con- sideration. The chief of the Military Convalescent home of Sans Bruit, Quebec, )ms made arrangements for teaching agriculture to conva- lescent soldiers, the courses being in charge of a district agricultural representative. Instruction has been given in practical work in drainage surveys and rotations on the hospital farm, ;:ommercial poultry keeping, market gardening, and, beekeeping. Some of the convalescents have Iso helped in field husbandry, soil preparation, harvesting, etc. What are known a the royal agricultural schools, incorporated by the legislature of Qu iec, are designed to give instruction to the sons of soldiers. These sc ols and farms are situated in the township of Howard, Argenteuil County, and are open to the sons of all soldiers who have taken part in the war. The property of the schools consists of 3,468 acres, with a large residential building to accommo- date 25 boys, a residence for teachers, and a number of cottages for workmen. The parents of the boys will be under no expense for their sons while they are at the schools, and when of sufficient age the boys will be assisted in making a start for themselves. . CHINA. Considerable attention is now devoted in China to agricultural education and experimentation in various classes of institutions.' An experiment station was located at Peking in 1907, under the control of the boird of agriculture, industry, and commerce. An experimental tract of nearly 300 acres is available, and departments of crops, soils, animal husbandry, horticulture, floriculture, entomology, botany, for- estry, bacteriology, and biology have been put in operation. In 1907 an agricultural college was organized in connection with the sta- tion, but this was disbanded in 1915. Subsequently an agricultural college and experiment station was established at the capital of each Province along much the same lines as at' Peking, and many other stations in additions. There are now reported to be 130 stations in the 22 Provinces, of which 31 are in Chihli, 25 in .Szechwan, 15 in Hu-Long-Kiang, 7 in Hupeh, and 7 in Kwangtung. Among these are two cotton-experiment stations. one at Cheng Ting Hsien, Chihli, and one at Nan T'ung Chou. Kiangsu, with a third under consideration at Tung Haing Chou, Hupeh. Experi- ments are being conducted at these stations in seed selection, seed distribution, plant harvesting. soils and manures, treatment of pests, and cotton weaving. A corpesbf students is also being trained at dress stations. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 319 Stock-raising experiment stations have been established at Kalgan and Shih Men Shan, Anhui. These are expected to study -the im- provement of breeds of domestic animals, promote the breeding and sale of stock and stock raising enterprisel, and the cultivation of forage crops. Considerable attention is also being devoted to forestry in China. A department of forestry Nts organized in January. 1916, with a forestry commissioner is4ach province. Forestry-experiment sta- tions and training schools have been established at Ch'ang Ch'in Hsien, Shantung. and in th6 Temple of Heaven at Peking. The university at Nanking has maintained a college of ,agriculture and a school of forestry 44everal years. This is an American- supported institution, and iir1915 had enrolled about 70 students in agriculture. A colonization association has been organized under its auspices, with pitovision for the reservation of about 35 acres in each colony for a model farm.. A tract already purchased on Purple Mountain, just outside Nanking, is to be used as an experiment sta- tion in connection with the different colonies. An agricultural experiment station was opened at NanksuChou, Anhwei, iii 1915, as a part of the American Presbyterian mission sta- tion. Agricultural work was taken up at this institution partly as a practical way to teach Christianity, partlyto make friends, and partly to improve economic conditions. The station is located on the.railway between .Nanicing and Tientsin, and attempts to serve an area of about 6,000 square miles and from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 people. The farming methods in nse are those of from one to two thousand years ago. Special prcninence is being given in the experimental work to seed selection, better tillage methods, more and better krtilization, drainage, and animal husbandry. The Rork is to -be largely of a demonstration nature during the present pioneer stage, and will also include an agricultural school, a school farm,and short winter courses for farmers. LATIN AMERICA. According to the Bulletin of the Pan American Union a practi- cal school of agriculture has been opened at Aconcagua, in Chile, and steps have been taken to found an agricultural school for women in the Province of Aconcagua. The agricultural school at .Challapatrb Bolivia, for the instruction of the natives has been moved to Rosario Plantation, near the town of Challapata7 and enlarged. A recent executive decree in Colombia provides for the establish- ment of a tropical agricultural station annexed to the nationalinsti- tute of agronomy in the municipality of San Lorenzo, Department of Tolima. General instruction is expected to be-given in .various branches of agriculture and allied sciences, including veterinary. science, and courses will also be arranged fo etndenta who desire to 320 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. specialize along certain lines. Particular attention will he paid to teaching students how to di,tinguish benehcial from injurious insects met with in practical agriculture. The government of the Depart- ment of Antioquia has taken preliminary steps to establish a labora- tory for the manufacture of vaccine to be used by stockmen in the prevention of murrain and similar diseases of cattle. A recent execu- tive decree places the national meteorological service, established in 1917, under the department of public instruction. The school of agricultural mechanics at Bahia Blanca. Argentina, which admits pupils of not less than 17 years of age, had an attend- ance of 32 in 1910. The shops of the school have been equipped with new machinery. The Department. of Agriculture of the Dominican' Republic has provided a traveling agricultural instructor to reconpt nd measures for obtaining more abundant yields of staple crops. An agricul- tural school was recently organized at Charpentier, Haiti. An- agricultural experimnt station of the coeducational schools of Amatitlan, Guatemala, recently began operations, the equipment having been donated by a philanthropic citizen of the community.. In Mexico a school of agriculture was opened in Hermosillo, the capital of the State of Sonora, in March, 1917, under the direction of the governor of that Commonwealth. In the same month a national forestry school was inaugurated at Coyoacan, a suburb of the City of Mexico. The agricultural experiment stations in the States of Vera Cruz, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Oaxaca, and Tabasco have been supplied with modern machinery and appliances, as well as improved seeds, and instruction by experts will be given to farmers in these States. A. publication entitled Rivista Agricola has been founded in the national capital. An agricultural school has been established in the Department of Leon, Nicaragua, with Manuel Godoy as president. The Government has also formulated a plan for a course of instruction in the new national school of agriculture, according to which there will be a section for. the instruction of laborers or farm hands, a section for. agriculturists or farmers, and a section for agronomists or agri- cultural engineers. The governor of each Province is to select by competitive contests two boys who have passed the fourth grade of primary instrueflon and are over 13 years of age for entrance into this school at the expense of the State. A school for boys not over 16 years of ago who have studied agronomy for at least a year was Vend recently at Chinandega City, with an appropriation of $5,000 for its installation. It is equipped with up-to-date machinery and implements necessary for the proper cultivation of cereals and other crops, tind makes a specialty of teaching its pupils the practical use and advantages of machinery in agricIdturaf operations. .11111111111111i1111=1100...amma- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 821 The Government of Uruguay has granted 10 scholarships in its agricultural school to young Paraguayans who (A. dre to continue their studies in Uruguay. An executive decree in Uruguay places its agrom, .dc stations under the immediate supervision and control of the De; irtment of Fomento. At the suggestion of the park commission of Montevideo, n ,chool for gardeners has been established in the national capital ler the purpose of supplying special skilled labor of thiS kind. School and Society announces that a Pan-American university has been established in the Republic of Panama. The trustees are to consist of the Secretary of Public Instruction of Panama and the diplomatic representatives of the American Republics or their dele- gates, together with similar representatives of other nations which may maintain chairs in the university. It is hoped that the institu- tion may be of international value, especially along the lines of medicine, law, and agriculture. In Venezuela, a presidential decree of March 12, 1917, creates an experimental station of agriculture and forestry, with an acclimati- zation garden, to be located near Caracas. and intended to serve as a model for other such stations to he established in other parts of the Republic. The objects of the station are the improvement of the methods of cultivation of the principal agricultural products of the country; the introduction, selection, and distribution of seeds; ex- periments in reforestation; the suitability of soils to crops and of crops to the various regions; and-practical work for the training of agricultural foremen and forest rangers. The Council of Public Instruction of Ecuador has arranged to establish an agricultural class connected with the faculty of science of Central University at Quito. The professor in charge' of this course is also to edit an official bulletin to encourage the study of agriculture. PHILIPPINE ISLAND'S. Beginning with the school year 1917-18, all schools where a course in farming is given are to be in session throughout the year. This is not entirely a new venture, as for several years all settlement farm schools and most agricultural schools have been in continuous session,. and notwithstanding the younger pupils enrolled in them, these schools have-maintained the best farms. The- calendar year has been divided into 42 weeks of classroom -Work, 4 weeks of special field practite, 4 weeks of vacation, and 1 ssetsk each for examinations and an annual cleaning up. Each pupil enrolled will be given a vacation of 4 weeks at the time in the year that the farm activities can best spare his services. All teachers as- signed to farm schools are required, to render service throughout the 171029°-21Bull. 88-21 322 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. school year, except that short vacations may be given when their services can be spared. It is believed that students should be detailed to definite projects and thereby become factors in a productive enterprise. Each pupil is expected to do field work for not less than 4 consecutive periods 060 minutes) each day for 5 days a week, and daily field work up to 3.5 hours may be required at. the option of the principal. Each pupil is required to perform at least 3 hours of field work on every other Saturday forenoon. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. During the past two years extension education through specialists: has become prominent, both at the State agricultural colleg& and in the :Department of Agriculture. Both at th State agricultural college and in the Department of Agriculture are specialists in vari- ous branches of agriculture who aid county agents in their work, and also give direct instruction to farmers in counties where there are no county agents. A specialist is.generally an extension agent who has a very thorough knov/ledge of some particular line of work and who is efficient in presenting his subject to the- county agents and the farmers. He may be differentiated from the county agent in that the county agent has to cover in a more or less thorough way the entire field of agriculture, whereas the specialist's field of work is generally limited to a narrow field, such as dairying, horticulture. poultry, etc. The principal lines of extensions work of this character being con- ducted in the Department of Agriculture are hog-cholera work, pig and poultry clubs, dairying, and animal husbandry, through the Bu- reau of Animal Industry. All of this work is conducted in coopera- tion with the agricultural colleges hi the several States under project agreements mutually entered into as a part of the general system of cooperation under the general memorandum of understanding be- tween the Secretary of Agriculture and the colleges of agriculture. In hog-cholera work veterinary field agents have been appointed to cooper.ate with county agents and demonstrate to them and to local veterinarians and farmers the prevention of- loss from hog cholera and of the spread of the disease from herd to herd by the use of the serum treatment and proper 'quarantine and sanitation of premises. In the dairy-extension work specialists are appointed to conduct work in the various .States through county agents and otherwise by organizi.pg cow-testing associations, bull associations, teaching the keeping of herd records, planning the construction of silo's, the re- modeling of dairy barns, milk houses, and other dairy buildings, establjshing feeding demonstrations, management of herds, and other special dairy - farm problems. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 19113-1918, 323 In soils, forestry, plant pathology, marketing and rural organiza- tion, etc., specialists are also employed to carry on extension work. In addition tb the fund provided for the regular cooperative agri- cultural extension work, Congress passed in 1917 the food-production act., which includes an item of $4,348,400 for increasing food,produc- tion, eliminating waste, and promoting conservation -if food, by edu- cational and demonstrational methods through counties, districts, and urban agents, and others. Under the provision of this net over 1.60 emergency demonstration agents have been employed, and for the first time agents have been designated to take up work in the larger Urban centers. The enrollment in the South in boys' and girls' agricultural clubs increased in 1917 find now approximates 100,000 in the regular clubs. In addition to the regular enrollment, approximately 20,000 were en- rolled to assist in meeting the emergency incidental to the war. A large number were enrolled in wheat clubs for 1918, wheat, rye, . and oat clubs being organized wherever the growing of these crops was thOught to be practicable. Farm mikers' clubs for negro children were organized during 1917 in several States. Much work has been done every ye;Ir in these clubs among the negroes, but it was systematized as a separate pro- ject in 1916. Pig and poultry clubs promoted in cooperation with the animal husbandry division of the Bureau of Animal Industry are very popu- lar. Poultry clubs which consist largely of school pupils are usually organized in the schools through the direction of the county agents, the teachers serving as local leaders or supervisors of the work. Officers, including .a president, vice president, and secretary are elected, meetings geld as regularly as possible, and the work carried on in an educational Id businesslike 'manner:" The Stare poultry club agents or poultry specialists working under the supervision of the Animal Husbandry Division, Department of Agriculture, and the director of extension at the State agricultural college, visit these schools and deliVer lectures on various subjects as well as give actual demonstrations on selecting, culling, killing, and dressing for mar- ket, and other phases of poultry work. For the fiscal year eliding November 1. 1917, 8 States, comprising 281 counties, were carrying on the work, representing 1,010 clubs and 13,664 members. Club members furnishing reports hatched, during 1917, 98,272. chicks and raised 80,310 mature fowls. They . sold $17,908.25 'worth of poultry and eggs for mauket and breeding purposes and the total value of their receipts, stock on hand, and prizes won amounted to $41,312.42. In addition to other school work, these poultry club members are becoming proficient in the selection and judging of standard-bred;voultry, and also demonstrating their ability to carry on various phases of poultry work, such as Operating 324 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. incubators, preserving eggs, caponizing cockerels, killing and dress- ing fowls for market, etc. Boys' and girls' pig clubs are also quite closely interwoven with the rural-school system. The pig clubs are usually Organized around a school or community as a unit. The rural teachers are recognizing the value of pig clubs as a vitalizing factor in school work and are heartily supporting it. Many rural teachers are acting as local leaders, and swine extension workers visit the schools and give lec- tures, demonstrations, etc., on swine work. The school pig Is one phase of the pig club work in which the rural school is especially prominent. A great many rural schools have raised a pig on the school grounds, the pig usually being fed on the scraps from the children's dinner pails. The progress made in boys' and .girls' pig club work has been quite satisfactory' During the past year 35,980 members completed their pig club work, and there are now more than 100,000 boys and girls enrolled for this season's work. The average profit of the members fattening a pig was $11.38, and that of the members raising a sow an litter was $72.84. Seventy-one per cent of the menders raising breeding stock had pure-bred animals. Pig club work is now carried on in 28 States. During the year ending June 30, 1917, there were in the '33 North- ern and Western States 1,124 paid leaders working in connection with the boys' and girls' club work. In addition to the paid leaders there were 9,748 volunteer club leaders. Two hundred and forty club leaders were paid cooperatively by the State and the United States Department of Agriculture, 133 by the State agricultural col- lege and the local people, 18 by the college only, and 733 by the local people. During the year ending June 30, 1917, there were in the 33 North- ern and Western States a total enrollment of 406.633 members of regularly organized clubs. In addition to this about 400,000 boys and girls were enrolled in the war-emergency projectsgrowing gar- dens, canning food products, raising poultry, making war bread, and doing other things of a special character. During the period from December liti946, to April 1, 1917, 3,589 club members in the Nottlern and Western States attendedtt he one or two weeks' short courses at the State agricultural colleges; 1,528 df these were champions'of their respective counties in the boys' and girls' club work and were sent by the local people free of expense to attend the courses.. The division for agricultural instruction of the States Relations Service continued its project which had to do with the study or the methods of organization and administration of instruction in agri- culture in public schools, the training of teachers for this work AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 326 and the relationship of different agencieS in promoting such instruc- tion. Under this second project four additional conferences dealing with the problem of teacher training in land-grant colleges (making seven in all) have been held. The aim of these conferences held both in the Nokh and the South was to work out a tentative course which may be taken as a guide for training teachers in agriculture and to cooperate the various forces and agencies which would promote Agri-. cultural education. This divison has continued its work .in the Preparation of courses of study for teachers of elementary agriculture in cooperation with State agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and State depart- ments of education. Bulletins have been prepared and published for the schools of Virginia and Ohio. Similar courses have been pre- pared for Vermont. In addition to these bulletins others have/ been issued dealing with the elementary school courses in agriculture; among the recent ones are Lessons on Tomatoes for Rural Schools, Lessons in Poultry for Rural Schools, Lessons on Pork Production for Rural Schools, Lessons in Dairying for Rural Schools. The publication of lie Agricultural Education Monthly has be discontinued and in it place have been issued a series of docu nts dealing with various phases of secondary instruction in agr dture. A series of leaflets on how teachers may use Farmer.' ulletins have been prepared. Twenty-one in all have beeen prep ed, of which. 18 have been published. The beginning of the administration of, the S -Hughes act has brought demands' for a large amount of servic which has not been in printed or multigraphed form. A memorandum of cooperation between the Federal Board for' ocational Education, the Bureau of Education of the Department of the Interior; and this bureau con- templates a series of investigations under the Smith-Hughes Act, a part of which shall be conducted by the division of agricultural in- struction. The committee representing this cooperative work has already begun the plans for such studies. A. bulletin on the home project as a phase of vocational agriculture has been prepared by this division at the request of the Federal Board for Vocational Education and submitted to the board for-publication. This division has made an extensive study of -the problems of visual instruction in agricultural education and hasocompleted a series of lantern-slide lecture sets dealing with various phases of agricultural education. Among those more recently added to the list are HOW to Teach Poultry Lessons in Elementary Schools,. Lessons on Tomatoes for Rural Schools, and Teaching Garden Practice. Plans have been developed by means of which illustrative inaterial of various hypes may be made more available to schools in the sev- eral States, especially to help State officers prepare duplicates of our .material. 326 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. / The literature on.agricultural .education has been reviewed and ab- stracted by this office. Card indexe. of the world's literature of agricultural educatidn, as well as American and foreign institutions for agricultural education and home economics, were maintained by the division. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. The declaration of a state of war in April, 1917, profound! af- fected our system of higher education in agriculture almost imme- diately. Attendance, which in most lurid -grant colleges had been steadily rising from year to year was suddenly depleted as the call came for one form or another of national service. Some institutions closed their doors early in May and in others the work went, on tinder greatly changed conditions. In response to an inquiry from the Secretary of the Interior as to the duty of the land-grant colleges and technical schools. during the war, the situation was admirably stated by President Wilson in a letter of July 20, 1917,as- follows: The question which you have brought to my attention Is doe of the very greatest moment. It would! as you suggest, seriously impair Amerin's pros- pects of (access in this war if the supply of highly trained men were pnneees- sartly diminished. There will be need fora larger number of persons expert In the various fields. of applied science than ever before. Such persons will be needed both during the war and after its close. I therefore have no hesitation In urging colleges and technical 'schools to endeavor to maintain their courses as far as possible on the usual basis. There will he many young men from these institutions who will serve in the armed forces of the country. Those who fall below the age of selective-conscription and who do not enlist may feel that by pursuing their courses, with earnestness and diligence they also are preparing themselves for valuable service to the Nation. r would particularly urge upon the young people who are leaving our high schools that as many of them as can do so avail themselves this yeig of the opportunities offered by the colleges and technical schools, to the end that the country may not lack an adeqrate supply of trained men and women. It will be noted that in this statement particular stress is laid upon the need for men trained in *pplied science. In this group Will be included, of course, the graduates of the agricultural colleges. In view of the important and unique functions which these institu- tions have to fulfill, and the realization that in some ways the condi- tions regarding their prospective attendance differed from those in other institutions, it was deemed of general interest to ascertain, after their reopening in the fall of 1917, how they had fared as re- gards enrollment. A general survey of the existing situation showed that the average decrease for the institutions reporting was slightly over 30 per cent and in numerous cases exceede .50 per rent. Some sectional variation was noticeable,. several theastern colleges maintaining their :previous registration and of ers falling only , . . AGIIICULTURALEDUCATION, 1910-1918. 327 slightly below it, whije losses were excelitionally heavY in the South- west and in the Middle West. On the other hand, the average decrease in mechanic arts was approximately only 3.3 per cent and did not exceed 36 per cent for any institution.- Analysis of the registration by classes in the agricultural colleges revealed heavy losses- at every stage. As would be expected, the senior class was largely effected, decreases from 40 to 60 per cent being not uncommon. . The depletion of the junior and sophomore ranks_was found to be somewhat smaller inmost institutions. The entering classes, however, present a special problem for con- sideration. Before the war steadily increasing numbers of freshmen, in many cases taxing the capacity of the college, had been the Jule, but in the fall of 1917, 36 institutions reported losses ranging from 8 to 60 per cent. The Texas College reported an increase of over 12 per cent, resulting in the largest class in its history, and four others showed smaller gains. but the average for the entire group was a loss'of about 25 per cent. Expressed not in percentages, but in actual numbers, the data are even more striking. For the institutions available the fresnmen.ag- gipgated in 1916, 4,630, and in 1917 only 3,463: This means a de- crease of 1,167 freshmen students in agriculture in the 41 States reporting this item. Another problem before the land-grant colleges tdday is the provision of special courses to meet the emergency needs. Thus, as regards the training of teachers, at the outbreak of the war there were upwards of 1,000 college trained young men teacjling agri- culture in schools below college grade, the number has now been seriously depleted, while the development of work under-the Smith- Hughes Act alone has created a demand for several lit,ndred addi- tional instructors with such training. It is suggested that the col- leges can do much to " prevent the serious lowering of standards by increasing their facilities for training undergraduates for the teach- ing profession, by conducting emergency courses for teachers now ,t in service. and by the intensive training along agricultural lines of. college graduates-in arts and science courses." Emergerey short courses in agriculture have already been offered by a number of institutions and their Jurther development seems logical. . The committee on instruction in agrieult6e of the Association of American Agricultural College-stand Expdriment Stations was of the opinion that not within a decade " has there been a time so favor: able for giving serious attention to measures for improving the 328 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. quality of teaching in the colleges themselves as the present war emer- gency affords. ", If the reduction in enrollment of agricultural students by nearly one-third seems discouraging, it is'well to reflect that in England wholesale losses of facultieSmind students have occurred, that several institutions have closed their doors, and that others h ve been very seriously restricted in their operations. In our own cou v no such developments are expected and often the enrollment is far excess of.that of a few vehrs'ago, When the importance of trainee gri- cultural leadership becomes thoroughly realized, particularly in its relations to the existing emergency. there need be little doubt that the agricultural colleges, as the training ground for such leadership, will receive and retain the full support in every direction which they will need for this vital service. Bun..oi NOS, The new Hilgard Hall at the University of California is an elab- orate four-story structure. of reinforced concrete, GO by 300 feet, cost- ing with equipment about $370,000, and constituting the second of the three buildings which will complete the agricultural quadrangle. It will serve-as the headquarters of the college of agriculture,.bous- ing the departments of agronomy, citriculture, forestry, genetics, pomology, soil technology, and viticulture. The new animal-husbandry laboratory at the Iowa State Agricul- tural College has been completed. It is a one-story building 74 by 112 feet, costing about $50,000. It has been de7vised especially for work in connection with the slaughtering, dressing, cutting, and curing of meats. The basement contains a 10-ton refrigerating plant, coolers, a smokehouse, refining, sausage, lard, and other. by-product rooms, offices, etc. The main floor can be divided into three distinct rooms, or used as a whole for demonstration work. The new beef-cattle barn at the University of Minnesota, to re- place the structure burned, is practically completed. It is.60 by 120 feet with a wing 36 by 120 feet. The portion to be.used as a stable is-built of, hollow tiles with reinforced concrete. Two hollow-tile silos adjoin the stable, and the wing contains a laboratory for class work and demonstration. The total cost is about $25,000. A two-story institute hall has been completed at the Duluth tub- station. The first floor contains an auditorium and office space, and the second dormitory accommodations, a kitchen, and a dining room. The new equipment will make possible the holding of community gatherings at the substation, as well as affoerd a meeting place for various farin organizations of northeastern Minnesota. Wolf Hall, the new $280,000 building at Delaware College, will .,house all the 'activities of the agricultural department and tem- , porwrily the college departments of chemistry and biology. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 39\. Plans have been approved by the building committee for the new agricultural building at the Maryland Stale Agricultural College. The legislature has appropriated $175,000 for the construction of this building, which will be a three-story and basement structure with a w front wing 200 by 68 feet connected with an inclosed bridge with an auditorium seating about 1,000 people and this in turn connected with a rear wing with the same tlimensiobs as the front A plant for the curing and drying of meat is to be erected on the New Jersey State Agricultural College farm. The structure will consist of two fireproof and two waterproof compfirlinentsi one to be used for the slaughtering of animals and the other for the curing and storing of meat. 'There will also be a small compartment for smoking meats. This plant will provide facilities for instructing students in the long and short courses in agriculture in borne butcher- ing, which will be given due attention as a part of the campaign for the conservation of foodstuffs. Substantial progress is being made .in the construction of a new $100,000 administration building, auditorium, and museum at the New York State College of Agriculture. The Oklahoma Agricultural Coffege and station has recently com- pleted a modern two-story grain 'storage house. The upper story will be used for laboratory work in plant breeding, seed selection, etc. The lower floor has six rooms, three of them designed for storage rooms for small grain! and equipped with special appliances for fumigation, and the remainder are designed for a general receiving and work room, a machine room for the graders) ginners, etc., and a general storage room, respectively. APPROPRIATIT$N8. A State appropriation in Alabama of $100 per annum for the years 1915-1918, inclu. sive, is now available for- each county that raises a similar'surn to be used for 'Prizes, premiums,4fid other phases of boys' and girls' club work. These funds are spent under the joint supervision of the State board of agriculture and the county author- ities under plans and rules submittbd by the professor of school agri- culture of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute. The Arkansas Legislature for 1917 appropriated $481,000 for the ensuing biennimh. for the divisions of liberal arts, agriculture, en- gineering, and education., This is an increase of approximately 50 per cent over any previous appropriation. The Connecticut Generid Assembly of 1917 'appropriated $28,000 for the construction of a central heating plant at the State agri- cultural college, and added $2,500 per year to the maintenance ap- propriation of the station. Other. appropriations' for the biennium included $12,000 for the State entomologist, *$#,0,000 for the suppree 330 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. -*P sion of gipsy and brown-tail moths and nursery inspection, and $15,000 for the control of white pine blister rust. A' law passed by the Montana Legislature in 1917 appropriated $10,000 for the reimbursement of the cost of transportation to and from their homes of students at the State agricultural college, the State university, the State school of mines, and the State normal.col- lege. The purpose of the act is to equalize the cost of attendance at these institutions to students coming from distant parts of the State. The Delaware Legislature appropriated in 1917 a total of $285,- 890.27 to the State agricultural college for the ensuing biennium. Among the items authorized were 5125,000 for the new dormitory at the women's college, $32,000 per annum for the maintenance of that college, $32,000 for a new heating plant, $10,000 per,annum for the maintenance of the agricultural department, $7,890.27 for agricul- tural extension. Gifts made to the college from an unannounced donor during 1916 amounted to $1,000,000 and are being utilized largely for buildings. The Kansas Legislature for 1917 appropriated to the State agri- cultural college $80,000 for the purchase of land to,.be used for animal husbandary, dairy, and poultry farms, and $50,000 for an'addition to the agricultural building. The Massachusetts Legislature for 1917 appropriated to the State agricultural college $40,000 to enlarge the policy plant, $33,000 addi- tional for new equipment, and $10,000 for maintenance and improve- ment of the market garden substation at Lexington. In 1917 the 'New York State Legislature appropriated $770,401 for tjie State agricultural college for the ensuing year, in addition to an earlier emergency grant of $55,910 for the present year and $42,000 for printing. A bill appropriating 125,000 pesos ($62,500) for the establishment of an experiment station in connection with the college of agriculture, was passed 'by the Philippine House of Representatives at its 1917 legislature. The Porto Rico Legislature at its last session appropriated.$1,000,- 000 for aid in the growing of food crops. In 1917 about 40 rural teachers were engaged in all sections of the island. A bond issue of $1,000,000 was authorized by the Tennessee State Legislature in 1917 for buildings and other improvements by the 'State university, supplemented by the proceeds cf the half-mill tax, estimated to produce about $886,000 per annum at present and to be used for maintenance. About $100,000 may be used for the construc- tion oflmildings at a substation in middle Tenn e. The Texas Legislature for 1917 established t e W t Texas Agri- cult ral and Mechanical College on a grade coo to with the ex- istin institution at CollegeAtation, as well as a junior college located AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 331 elsewhere to give two years of high-school agriculture and two years corresponding to the freshman'and sophomore years of college work. Provision has also been made by the legislature for establishing a third junior agricultural 'college to be known as the Northeast Texas Agricultural College. An appropriation of $250.000 has been made for its establishment and maintenance. Special appropriations were made for the station and substations, aggregating $225,095.34 for the year beginning September 1, 1917, and $181,270.40 for the following year. The 1917 legislature of West Virginia granted an additional $75,000 for the agricultural building. The legislature also appro- priated $20,000 for buildings on the new farms. EXTENSION AND SHORT COURSES. Special instruction courses for extension workers held in December at the University of Arkansas, and a sour cially de- signed to meet the needs of home demonstration agents, including English, gardening, dairying, rural sociology, poultry work, rural social engineering, household conveniences, rural recreation, sanita- tion. home nursing, care of infants, etc., from January 7 to February 2. 1918. Four-year professional courses in forestry and forest engineering have recently been established at the University of California. A. 12-weeks short course was also given, begining January 15, 1917, to help practical woodsmen. 4 The work included theoretical training in surveying..log scaling, timber estimating, logging, fire protection, silverculture, forest administration, trail and telephone construction, English composition, grazing, and the work of the United States Forest Service. A feature of the annual short course in January at the Georgia State Agricultural College was the food - conservation school for farm women. County demonstration and bona: economics agents who have recently taken up work in the extension departments were also present at these courses. A four-weeks course in dairying has been offered at Purdue Uni- versity to women preparing themselves to fill positions in factories manufncturing dairy products. This course included the testing of milk and dairy product's, the making of soft cheese and ice cream, dairy bacteriology, general dairying, and lectures on food production. A special short course was arranged at the Iowa State Agricul tural College in November, 1917. This course included instruction in , agriculture, home economics, engineering, and industrial science, and was open to young people Oho have not yet completed school. work as well as to those .prepared for full collegiate struction. . 332 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Evening coul-ses in various branches of agriculture were offered in 1917 at the Maryland State Agricultural College. These courses in- cluded special work in beekeeping, poultry raising, and fruit grolving for suburban residents of Washington, D. C. College credit was given for these courses so far as practicable, with a system of.certifi- cotes showing all work completed. The Annual Farmers' Convention, held at the Nofth Carolina Ag- ricultural College and Station, in August, 1916, under the auspices of the college, station, and extension workers, was one of the most successful meetings of its kind yet held in the State. About 3.000 men and 2,000 women were in attendance. The special subject of the meeting- was rural education, which was graphically presented by means of an exhibition in which several booths were grouped around a larger booth in one of the college buildings. The smaller booths represented the activities of the station and extension service, while the largerbooth represented a consolidated or farm-lite school. A school of education Was been organized at the North Dakota St;ite Agricultural College with four courses covering four years and two courses covering two years-for completion. The four-year curricula are designed for teachers of agriculture, the mechanic arts, science, and vocational and rural school administration, while the two-yea curricula are for teachers in consolidated schools and special teachers. THE GRADUITE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE. The seventh session of the Graduate School of Agriculture, under the auspices of the Association-of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, was held July 3--28, 1910, at the Massa- chusetts Agricultural College. The attempt was made to. develop a more systematically organized plan of work at this session than had hitherto been undertaken. This plan involved work in two main lines. One of these included progressive consideration of the funda- mental factors involved in the growth of plants and animals.. The other dealt with the economic and social factors which enter into the development of profitable systems of agriculture and well-organized rural communities. 1, At its public opening exercises the school was welcomed to the Massachusetts-Agricultural College by President K. L. Butterfield, and the granges of New England were represented by lielt J. 1-1. Hoyt.. Dian A. C. True, of the graduate school, outlined briefly the objects for which the school was established, the reasons for the pnr- ,ticular courses of instruction offered at the seventh session and the intellectualOand social advantages to be derived from the contact of instructors mid students in such a school: Dr. True pointed out that in our time education and research more and more involve the harmonious working to- gether of Pond of Individuals who are willing to put away selfish ends for AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 333 the common good. In a vast country like our own with a population drawn from all quarters of the globe, and with an almost infinite variety of environ- mental conditions. associations of scholars and investigators from many differ- ent regions, whether their work deals with subjects remote from practical affairs or, as in the case of most of us, with matters of vital concern to great industries, is of great importance as an aid to that mutual understanding on which the life of our Nation and the perfecting of our civilization depend. For after all, as recent events in the world's history have shown, public opinion and governmental action depend more largely than is generally recognized on the modes of thought which are developed in the institutions of higher learning. Such an organization as this graduate school, having behind it the associated universities and colleges represented In the Association of American Agricul- tural Colleges and Experiment Stations, may also be influential in shaping the ideals and standards of agricultural scholarship and research. If through our discussions here we are able to carry back to our respective institutions sug- gestions for the improvement of courses of instruction and methods of research and to stimulate faculties and students to more thorough work, we shall have made a valuable contribution to those intluenes which are to determine the success of the great movement to raise American agriculture and country life to the highest possible level. . Since the last session of-our school this movement has made unusually rapid progress. The permanent national system of agricultural extension.edueation, provided for in the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, has already become well organ- ized and attained great dimensions. In over 1.200 counties, spread over the entire country, extension agents are regularly working. Supporting these local forces are about 1,500 extension specialists and administrative officers main- tained by the State colleges and the Department of Agriculture. At least 1,000 teachers are giving instruction In agricultural subjects in our colleges, and the number of students in four-year courses of agriculture has risen, from 14,000 In 1913 to 19,500 in 1915. The past year 4,900 secondary schools gave agricultural courses attended by 95.000 students, as compared with 1,400 schools and 30,000 students two years before. The force employed in our agricutural experiment stations has risen to 1.860 and the Income of the stations in 1915 was $5,286,000. The force employed In the Department of Agriculture is over 10.000 and its Mere about $25,000,000. The demand for thoroughly trained and efficient workers in agricultural lines, whether in research, education, or farm practice, has never before run so fur beyond the supply. The responsibilities of the leaders in the agricultural movement have never been so heavy. Their encouragements have never been so great. This body of young men, who have, already been trained in our higher institutions of learning and many of whom are already engaged In teaching or research, have before them exceptional opportunities for lead-rship and high success. The incentives to thorough preparation and the most strenu- ous endeavor are of the highest and broadest character. To discover nature's secrets and thereby advance science and human welfare, to inspire and instruct a vast multitude of men, women, and children in colleges, schools, and millions of homes, to lay a firm and sate foundation for the permanent existence and prosperity of the United States and in large measure of all the worldthese are the appropriate tasks of agricultural scholars and scientists. A week was devoted to discussions of the problems of education with special reference to the training of students along agricultural lines. Dr. W. C. Bagley, director of the school of education of...the University of Illinois, gave five lectures on the foundations of peda.. 334 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. gogy. He argued that not only knowledge but " skill " is a legiti- mate and important end of education, whether the subject taught is what is ordinarily called cultural, such as language anokmathematics, or technical, as engineering and agriculture. The interrelations of technical and cultural aims in education were also dwelt upon. A clear and impartial i.suine of the experimental researches on the disciplinary value of various studies was given, with the conclusion that the evidence thus far accumulated indicates that there is a cer- tain disciplinary result which may be transferred from one study to another, but that this is not so large as has been commonly held by the friends of the old classical education. Dean W. W. Charters, of the school of education of the University of-Miss. ouri, presented some of the principles on which methods of teaching should rest. He laid special stress on the principle that the normal mental process in learning is to work from problems toward solution. A problem arising in the experience of the student' eing presented to him by his teacher, the learner may .become in arge degree his own instructor, especially if the solution is of vital interest to him. The application of this principle would in many subjects result in economy of mental effort, increase of interest, and more permanent results. Good method shoutdalways culminate in elaborated and well-organized knowledge. At the seminars the practices of teaching various agricultural sub- jects were presented by Dean R. L. Watts, of Pennsylvania State . College, on vegetable gardening; Prof. C. G. Woodbury, of Purdue University, on pomology; Prof. C. A. Zavitz, of Ontario Agricul- tural College, on agronomy; and Prof. J. E. Rice, of Cornell Univer- sity, on poultry husbandry, as well as by members of the Massachu- setts College faculty and others. On Saturday a conference on the training of men for agricultural -service was led by President II. J.- Waters, of the Kansas Agricultural College, who dwelt on the nature and function of the college course in its adaptation to this end, and by Prof. G. A. Works, of Cornell University, who discussed the .relation of the agricultural college to the preparation of teachers 'of agriculture in secondary schools. The conference was followed by a round-table discussion by teach- ers of secondary agriculture on the value of the college coursys in agricultural education as a means of preparation for teaching agri- culture, this meeting being one of the series of conferences held dur- ing the past year through the cooperation of the United States Bureau of Education and the States Relations Service. During this educational week emphasis was often laid on the importance of train- ing in the principles and methods of education for students intending oto.bee me teachers of agricultural subjects in colleges or schools.. CHAPTER XII. THE UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY. By J. H. FRANCIS, Director. This name was adopted in March, 1918. The work of the organi- zation is an expansion of work undertaken by the Bureau of Edn- cation, in 1914. The scale upon which it was done waslimited bl the finances that could be secured-for it. The acute demand for food production growing out of the war conditions mode expansion possible. Mr. P. P. Claxton; Commissioner of Education, addressed the' fol- lowing letter to Hon. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior, on February 14, 1918: My DEAR MR. SECRETARY : For several years the Bureau of Education has been developing slowly, with a small appropriation, a plan of school-directed home gardening in cities, towns, villages, and suburban communities which has proved so effective, both for education and for food production, that 'steel It to be almost imperative that it he put into operation at once In all parts of the country as one means of meeting the food emergency which now exists and will probably continue to exist' for two or three years at least. The plan consists in enlisting boys and girls between the ages of 9 o 10 and 14 or 15 In systematic garden work for food production on such plats of ground as can be had for this purpose near their homes, on hack yards, side yards. and vacant lots, and then providing tiling teacher-directors for them at the rate of one teacher-director for tach group of from 100 to 150 garden workers. Parents and older brothers and sisters are induced to cooperate with the children when- ever thissis possible. The work of the children is done after school hours and on Saturdays and vacation days, so that no time is taken from school. In the schools of cities, towns, villages, and suburban eommunities of the United States-there are approximately 7,000,000 children of the ages given above; of these probably 5,000,000 would be able to find some space for gardening and can be Induced to do systematic garden work under this plan. For their instruction and direction 40,000 teacher-directors will be needed, and. In all the larger places there should be general superintendefits and Instructors of these ' teacher-dinectors. Under proper supervision this army of boys and girls may easily produce $250,000,000 worth of food, which will reach the consumer in perfedt condition without cost for transportation or handling and without lose il through eterloratIon on the markets. An equal amount of other forms of food ma thereby be released for exportation for the use of our arm es and our alli overseas. Many millions of dollars may be produced and saved for investin nt In bonds or war savings stamps, and the children engaged In work . will be benefited physically, mentally, and morally. Since the work will he done by children who would otherwise be idle, and on land which would not Otherwise be used, there will be no coat except for supervision and direction and fok tools, seeds, and fertilizers. Experiente shows that the cost of these 1 . :' 386 , 336 BIENNIAL- SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016.-1918. does not exceed 10 per cent of the value of the food produced, and is often much less. The Department of Agriculture has.agr?ed to furnish to the Bureau of Edu- cation, for the promotion of this work, Its bulletins and leaflets ou gardening in such numbers as may be needed, and will ask Its county agricultural agents and home-demonstration agents to use a part of their time in supervising and Instructing teacher-directors when they have the ability and when this work dues not take too much time from their other antikcmore legitimate duties. The gtates division of the Council of National Defense has promised to co- operate In raising money In State and local communities to pay the salaries of supervisors in places where this may be necessary. The National War Garden Commission will cooperate by donating lu unlimited numbers its practical garden bulletins, and by printing for distribution at t ,st a daily record book which has been prepared by the Bureau of Education for keeping garden accounts. But all this can be made effective only through the'Bureau of Education, which, to enable it to stimulate anti direct this work effectively, most have in the beginning approximately $35.800. In addition to all funds which it now has, as Is shown in the following table of estimates: Estimate of cost for promotiog school-directed home garden work. One director $4, 000 One assistant director 3, 000 Fifteen stenographers, typewriters,.and 'uniting and filIng clerks 1S, 000 One messenger SOO Typewriting, multigraphing, and addressographing ma- chinery and other equipment, and supplies and stationery_ 10, 000 Total _ 35,800 Because of the very great importance of this matter, and because of the fact that whatever is done tittst he done very quickly, I have the honor to request that you give it your very careful consideration, and if it commends Itself to you, that you ask the President to make iivallate to the Bureau of Education for this use so much of his War Emergency Fund as may be necessary for carrying on the work until other funds are available through congressional appropriation or otherwise. Respectfully submitted. P. P. CLAXTON, Commissioner. The honorable the .SECRETgRY OF THE INTERIOR. Following this letter, and upon the request of Se&etary Lane, President Wilson appropriated $50,000 from the National Security and Defense leund to promote school and school-supervised home gardening among the school children of America residing in cities, towns, and villages. Up to this time the field had been practically untouched by tny governmental agency. In a few cities throughout the country, garden work had been undertaken by the schools and by civic organizations, but these instances were few in number. Early in April, 1918, the following suggestions on plans of organi- zation were sent to school superintendents and garden teachers and supervisors: UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY. 837 ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY. Number of members in a company : Ten to one hundred and fifty, Age Dina: Any school child, but preferably the more important companies should be enlisted from the pupils above the third grade. Requirements for enlistment: The signing of an obligation card in which the pupil agrees to raise one or more food crops and to keep records of his work awl the results, reporting them to the teacher or garden supervisor. These cards will be furnished by this bureau. talicers: Each company to have a captain and one or two lieutenants, the latter depending upon the number of soldiers enlisted. ii sigma For the privates, a service tar whit U.16. S. G. In red letters on a white a'1 )ackground with a border of blue. For the second lieutenant, the same bar with one walite star in the border. For the first lieutenant, the knme bar with two white stars in the border. For the captain, the same bar with three white stars in the border. For the garden teocheimor supervisor, similar insignia without stars, with blue letters and a red border. Enlistment of existing organizations: Any organization of school childrin now doing garden work will be eligible to enlistment. Such organizations may keep their existing form, if they so desire and have the additional im- petus of belonging to a national army fostered by President Wilson, the Secretary of Interior, and the Commissioner of Education. The aim of this army is to nationalize and unify the great work now being carried on among schoo. children of America. Five regional and one general director were chosen to organize and carry forward the work. The regional directors were selected because of their expert rind practical knowledge of gardening and their ex- tendiRe experience as garden and agriculture teachers. Their duties were to include the writing of garden leaflets in language and form suited to the boys and girls of school age, and adaptable to class or- ganization. Each region was to be furnished separate leaflets. They were to meet climatic and soil conditions of the district to which they were to be sent. As an illustration, the southeastern region has five zonal districts, and separate leaflets were written for each. These garden lesson leaflets were highly appreciated by teachers who were able through their help to conduct companies successfully through the garden season. A partial report made July 10, 1918, showed the following results: 1. One million five hundred thousand boys and girls responded to the call of the President and enlisted in the United States School Garden Army. 2. Twenty thousand acres of unproductive home and vacant lots were converted into productive land. This released an equal acreage used in truck gardening for the production of other,foodstuffs more important for war purposes. It relieved transportation congestion through home consumption of home-produced foodstuff's. 171029 21B41L 88-22 388 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. 3. Fifty.thousand teachers received valuqle instruction in garden- ing through the garden leaflets written by experts in this office and distributed from here. One million five hundred thousand leaflets were sent out. 4. Boards of education and other civic organizations were influ- enced to give financial and moral support to the sch6ol and home garden movement and to pay extra salaries for supervision and tea ng. 5. Hundreds of thousands of parents became interested in the garden movement and worked with their children in home gardens. In Salt Lake City alone 5,200 mothers, representing 62 parental asso- ciations, actively supported food production in the schools. 6. Thousands of civic, commercial, and patriotic organizations be- came interested in the movement and gave it hearty support. 7. One and one-half million children were given something to do last summer ; something that helped to carry the burden of their coun- try in the struggle for freedom, something that helped them to build character, and something that appealed to and developed their patriotism. 8. home and vacant lot gardening in cities, towns, and villages was dignified and made popular to a degree that practically insured it a prominent place in the school systeinof our country. It would be difficult to estimate the educational and material value of such results. No other movement in kistory promises so much in aiding the " back to- the - soil" movement as this. President Wilson made a second appropriation of $200,000 to con- tinue the work until July, 1919, and some changes were made i1 the organization. A slight readjustment of territory assigned to the regional directors was necessary. The southeastern- region was enlarged by adding West Virginia, -Alabama, and Mississippi-from the southern region. The southern region in turn was given Missouri and Kansas from the central section and Colorado and New Mexico from the western sec- tion. The five regional directors remain the same as before the new adjustment. Twenty-five assistant regional directors were appointed. The dutiei of the assistant regional directors are similar to those of the regional directors, but are on a more intensive scale and in a more limited territory. They work under the direction of the regional director in a part of his territory assigned to them and make weekly reports to him. Under this organikation the Unit&,,.S% School Garden Army is working for the season 1918-19. CHAPTER X I II. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. By Min IRA M. WINCHESTER, Spc,ialiiit in Kindergarten Edualinn, litircauof Education. CONTENTS.-1. tb. kindergarten and the war. -II. Kindergarten practice. ill. Survey of the kindergarten of Richmond. Ind.-- I V. Recent publications pertaining- to the education of young chlittren.--V_Kindergartetialegislation. I. THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE WAR. With war in the world turning everything topsy-turvy, institu- tions and existing social conventions, formerly taken for granted, are now subjected to rigid inspection and their meanings sifted, in ovler that nothing useless may be permitted to cumber the earth wlien every hit of time, space, labor, money, and thought is impera- tively demanded for carrying on the world business. Side by side with the process of excluding the useless is going for- ward the process of uncovering the essentials in'human institutions and making them yield up their weal ;Ii of possibilities. Education has thus been discovered. The school, as. one of the chief instru- mentalities of education, ha'S begun to come into its own. More- over, since babies are assuming a new value in the whole scheme of democracy, the kindergarten in its relation to the school and to the home is regarded afresh with respect and expectation. The kindergarlen'Atuit for the refugee children of France. One very direct fonii of war service is that being provided by the kinder- gartens of America for the task of restoring to normality the little children living in the refugee colonies of France. The service undertaken by the American branch. of the Interns:. timid Kindergarten Vaion'is that of equipping and supporting a kindergarten unit in conjunction with the children's bureau of tin American Ilet CroOr in France, to work under the auspic'es of the citizens' committee for -the conservation of the children of Aiverica during the war. Miss Fanniebelle .Curtis is director and Miss Mary Moore Orr associate director of the unit. Miss Curtis and Miss Orr; after visiting the devastated of France, returned with the strong ,conviction that it is trained .839 840 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. kindergartners who are needed to relieve the misery of the chi ren and to give back to them some of the joys of normal chili] ood through plays, games, stories, handwork, and other edu ative activities. The pitiful condition of the little ones is described by Miss Curtis in an appeal' addressed to the members of the International Kinder- garten Union, Subjected to the horrors- of bombardments and gas, bewildered andibenumbed by'the necessity for silence in the presence of the frightful bodies, undernourished, apathetic through suffering so ninny terrors, these unfortunate children are in (longer of losing their sanity unless something immediate is done fcr their restoration. In Miss Curtis's oi.n words: They have been in the gassed regions, they have been lost on the fields of Flanders, they have fled from their burning villages, they have been actual .prisoners with the civilian population back of the enemies lines. The Germans are sending back from the prison camps thousands of civilians, keeping them in Switzerland for a certain tune and then allowing them to return to France. At Eviansles-Bains, the dis- tributing point, child .refugees are coining in at the rate of 500 a (lay. Miss Curtis declares: It is a tragedy that has no parallel in the world's history. The children sr . being placed in colonies, in chateaus, In convents, in convalescent hospitals mitiPvictory with honor.is won. They need songs and stories and the joys of childhood restored, and more than all, they need mothering. Every foreign mall brings more pitiful stories. It is childhood's darkest hour. The kindergartners of America have raised over $35,000 to defray the expenses of equipping and sending kindergarten teachers to France.. A number of teachers have already sailed, and others will follow as soon as funds for the purpose can be raised. well- ing of American children is pro erly regarded as a form of war -,,,, Conservation 0 the childr ( n inerica.To conserve. the well- e ......./x... se ice. The campaign, organized by the Children's Bureau of the Department of Labor, for saving the lives and bettering the'health of 100,000 babies during the current year; has been earnestlA sup- ported by parents and teachers. Kindergarten teachers have Made it their.,businets to assist in the work of weighing and measuring young children, and recording the facts brought it by the physical examinations. In some instances follow-up measures are being insti- tuted in order that immediate results may be scented fq the kindep- gaitens. This is the case in Worcester, Mass., whet* the supervisor cif ' kindergartens issued to the teachers. the following instructions: ,While the baby measuring and weighing records are Available in your school building, wilt you please make a list of the names of all children in yolm school district whO will be of kindergirten age this coming school year? Send KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 3.41 to me the number figures onlyyou discover. I will then take some steps to help you bring the children in promptly in September, 1918. This will he an effort to avoid the dropping- in -at- any -time that so pulls down our kindergarten organization and work. Afiother form of service in which kintgartens have engaged during the past 15 months is that of cooperating with those social agencies, in their respective communities, whose concern is With child welfare. To provide wholesome kinds of interest and activity in connection witli the social side of child life, and thus to protect childhood from sonic of the blighting -influences of war conditions, kindergarten teachers are spending their nonteacltitig hours in tell- ling stories to groups of children, supervising some of the play in the small parks and public playgrounds, directing children in th'e culti- Vation of Lack -yard gardens, organizing excursions to woodss, or parks convenient to the neighborhood, and other similar activities. Nor are the teachers unmindful of their responsjbility for seeitig to It that children are gathered in and kept in school nor of their further responsibilities towafd the mothers especially in regard to instruc- tion in hygiene, care and wise purchasing of food, and more efficient ways of living. . Kindergarten practice itself is influenced through the new insight, for teachers realize as never before the significance of the laws which govern all right association of individuals. Self-activity must al- ways be tilt guiding principle of the kindergarten, but the individual is to be developed as a member of a group; as such he must conform to, must .obey the lawS which rule the whole, and subordinate self- gratificalion to the good of the whole. Since the children who fail to learn this lesson .early hi life become weaklings, self-seeking -irr- dividuals, and moral failures, kindergarten teachers arc more con- sciously than before directing the children in exercises which call for instant response in concerted action and for conformity to the desire of the group; also in organized plays which demand self- subordination and teamwork, and which make. for helpful, self: controlled children. The leriterrgarten as a factor in AmerieanizatitikIt is no. 1eNw thing for the kindergarten to provide sonic of the moans for trans- forming aliens into Americans. A permanent argument for kinder-. garten. extension is that the children of the .foreign born by means of kindergarten mining are familiarized. with English befok2, for- mal school o c sets in, and time .is thus saved for the grade work. Furthermor , home visiting and holding mothers' meetings have been par of the kindergarten teachers' business and have been -a factor bringing the foreign family into an understanding and ap i elation of the customs and standards of the new country. 342 BIENNIAL .SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-1918. The unique element in the relation of the kindergartner to the foreign family is that she reaches the members in a normal way before their home life has been disturbed. When the district nurse or the social worker comes to the family, it is at a time when economic pressure or sickness has forced them to the position of want, in which they are discovered. In recent years the developMent of parent-teacher associations has tended to absorb the kindergarten mothers' meeting into the larger body, and the practice in public-school kindergartens of requiring kindergarten teachers to teach in the classroom both morning and afternoon has rendered it difficult for the teachers to visit in the homei as they used to do. The timid, non-English-speaking woman, conscious of being different from her neighbors, has been reluctant to attend the larger, more iormal school meeting, and has thus missed the participation in community affairs and the opportunity for learii ing the language which her children are using in their daily school life and which her husband has acquired through the night school, the shop schools or the lodge school. One result of this situation is that the mother, the center of the household, is neglected and often looked Clown upon by husband and children, who have outstripped her in the acquisition of the tools of citizenship. As the distance between them increases she grows apa- thetic, antagonistic, and reluctant to rouse herself to learn the lan- guage and customs which would help to bridge the distance. This is the opportunity for the kindergartner. Efforts are now being di- rected toward the establishment of more kindergartens, especially in regions where large numbers of aliens are employed in necessary industries1 since the barrier of noncommunication can thus be it- moved while the children are young and unconscious of any differ- ence between themselves and their American neighbor; and toward . the restoration to its former place and function of the kindergarten mothirs' meeting, and the development of the " door-step " meetings, since in them can be found the machinery for a fine give-and-take relationship between old Americans and more recent AmeriCans. Kindergartens in Ordnance schools on Government reservations. Government reservations for industrial plants are necessary accom- paniments of the present emergency and are being developed under the. direction of the industrial-service section of the Ordnance De. partment. Wherever the needs of the workers and their families reqUire it a new town is being created, with suitable houses, school buildings, church buildings, Y. M. C. A. buildings, and other facili. ties for wholesome, clean, social living. As an integral part of the school- system kindergarte-is are .sing provided, and teachers are sought, who possess qualities essential to successful community co. A 4111111111111111111111.1.11 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 848 operation. Cottages or teacherages are being built for the housing of the teachers. Each school has one room planned purposely for a kindergarten, and the equipment and supplies are to be excellent in quality. These reservation kindergartens offer to the teachers chosen to direct them rich opportunity for the best kind of patriotic service. Comparatively few kindergartners can go abroad at present for service in France. but here in America is an opportunity to do a vital and far-reaching piece of work. Not only the school population is to be educated. but the entire community as well. There will be play- grounds and other forms of recreational activity which the kinder- garten teachers will he peculiarly fitted to direct. Schools for the colored childri,n, as well as for the white, will be established on the reservations near Charleston, W. Va.; Nashville, Tenn.; and Sheffield. Ala. Retaining the name "kindergarten."It was to be expected that some discussion on the rejection or retention of the name kindergar- ten would follow the entrance of the United States into war with Gernian;z. That the institution itself has become thoroughly natur- alized there can be no doubt. No other phase of educatiowitis more completely democratic and American than the kindergarten. In this respect the prophecy of the founder has been fulfilled that in America,-the new world where new life was and is unfolding. the new education of the human race would take firm root. In Ger- many, tile geographical birthplace of the ,kindergarten, little more than the outer form and the name is discoverable ; the essence is missing. The kindergarten is not at home in Germany. The edict of the Prussian. Government in 1851 forbidding the establishment of kindergartens is tacit evidence that a system of edu- cation for the people based upon the principle of self:activity, free- dom, and respect for individuality was considered a dangerous foe to the success of military autocracy. It was charged at the time t4t the 'tendency of the kindergartens was toward atheism and revolu- tion, an indictment that inspired the Berlin comic paper to point out as objects of suspicion "those three-year-old demagogues with their inflammatory speeches. those red-handed revolutionists in swaddling clothes." The contention of those who desire, to change the name kinder- garten is that, since the institution is truly Americanized, the name should undergo the same process; also that the tiew name should bear in it the suggestion of organic relation with the school system. But the clumsiness and ineptitude of the substitutes which 'have been suggested make it difficult to believe that any of them will be 844 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918, "Children garden" or "child garden," the literal equivalent in English for kindergarten, is acceptable in so far as it retains the description of the institution; but the sound of it is awkward and disagreetble to the ear. " Subprimary " is a term which has been offered, and-in a few systems adopted, because it is said to carry out the idea of a real connection between the kindergarten and the rest of the school organization. The objection to it lies in its failure to define the essence of the kindergarten; " sub " 'Makes the institution a mere annex to the primary grades and expresses only an external relation. " Primary circle " has been suggested on the ground that the present name emphasizes the aloofness of the kindergarten depart- ment from the school as- a whole, whereas primary circle is expres- sive of thd truth that the aims, principles, and ideals of the kinder- garten are basic of what is to follow in child training. The reason is good, but the name offered is not a success. In school vernacular " primary " is limited in its meaning, and has become synonymous with first grades; primary circle, therefore, being narrowly inter- preted, would cause the institutionto be regarded as a side issue externally related to the first grade. " Baby nest" is the designation chosen in place of kindergarten in Italy. The description of the baby nests given by Signorina Amy Bernardy at the Pittsburgh meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation lends to the conviction that, according to the American understanding o'f things, these institutions would be classed as day nurseries. , A passing observation should be given to the terms " school of childhood" and "house of childhood." The former name was selected to designate the department for the youngest children in the school\ of education of the University of Pittsburgh. The pro- , jectors of the school wished to be'free from the limitations which would naturally be imposed upon the experiment if it bohthe name kindergarten, and from having judgments passed upon the work according to kindergarten standards. The " house of childhood " is the name selected by Dr. Montessori to describe the type of edu- cational institution devised by her. The classes were originally established within the tenement houses erected by an association for good building in .Rome, and ware intended,to provide for the early training of the children of the workmen housed in the tenements. Among the members of the International Kindergarten Union it is generally felt that " kindergarten " should remain. No other word so aptly and euphoniously describes the thing signified, an organiza- tion in which each individual child is regarded as a living prganism .Or .plant whose inner nature is capable of unfolding its richness in response to a favorable environment and under the gardener's care. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 845 II. KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE. Turning from the name to the institution itself, it is evident that modification in practice is steadily proceeding. Aside from the oft- cited illumination coming from " the light of modern psychology and child-study," several factors are contributing to bring about change of methods as well as of materials. Among these are: (1) The need for giving to primary teachers and supervisors a clear exposition of kindergarten principles and methods. (2) The new faith in democracy, expressing itself educationally in new faith in children's ability to direct their own activities and to organize their own groups. (3) The friendly attitude toward experimentation with methods and materials, coupled with the " newly acquired devotion to the checking of results." (4) The increasing number' of kindergarten teachers who each year study education in colleges and universities. Testing and measuring progress of kindergarten children.Until recently it has been urged that the difficulties in the way of securing a satisfactory measure of the results of kindergarten training are insurmountable, and that the best things that happen to children because of a year or so in kindergarten can not possibly be reduced to terms of objective measurement. In answer to this, Dr. W. C. Bagley, in his introduction to The Kindergarten in Japan,' points out that, while the ultimate effects of certain educational doctrides may be difficult to predict and the immediate effects difficult to de- termine and evaluate, " these are assumptions neither to be made lightly nor to be used as a cloak for mental inertia. The very difficulty should rather be a spur to the devising of means toward accurate prediction, exact measurement, and just evaluation." In response to the spur prick, a beginning has been made during the past yea]; of a valuable type of work. Under the leadership of Miss Alma L.4inzel, of Minneapolis, who devised a tentative set of tests of children's abilities, a group of experienced kindergartners undertook to give the tests and record the results after a uniform manner. Certain typical kindergarten. activities were selected, ap- propriate tests for their measurement were determined, and groups of children were tested at the beginning and again toward the end of the school year. The progress in ability was recorded on a card devised for the purpose, and a summing up of the findings was made by Miss Binzel. The activities selected for the project were those expressive of the following forms of ability: Physical control; language, as to range The Kindergarten In Japan, by TenneitIchl Minim 346 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-1918. of vocabulary and ability in oral composition ; musical expression and recognition; constructive ability as shown in both temporary and permanent constructions; skill in graphic presentation; scientific aptitude as indicated by identifying objects, ansWering questions as to use and source of materials and as to processes; and mathematical aptitude as shown by using number. counting, and recognizing num- ber groups. It was the opinion of Miss Binzel that, in spite of handicaps. the results of the preliminary testing justify the continuance and expansion of the work; that in due course of time it will be possible to arranAe scales of kindergarten work just as spelling, handwriting, arithmetic, and composition scales have been devised for grade work ; that ultimately, norms 1011 come into existence that will be valid in the measurement of progress due to kindergarten education; and that while growth in certain qualities of character does not readily lend itself to quantitative expression, it is legitimate to draw infer- ences as to developing personality from the scientific data furnished by the tests. 117 aste between the kindergarten and the primary school .Pregress has been made in the study undertaken by the committee on minimum essentials in kindergarten and primary grades of the subject of what and how much of the kindergarten's contributions to the child's development are utilized in hisisubsequent school years. The report ' m de by the committee chairman, Miss Annie Moore, treats of inves- ti rations made in the field of arithmetical concepts, of literature, an of the use of free oral expression in first grade. series of tests in fundamental arithmetical concepts was used to asure the abilities of kindergarten and nonkindergarten children in order to ascertain whether children entering first grade after a year of kindegarten training are stronger in arithmetical concepts than children with no kindergarten training; also, if there is a difference in ability to learn, whether it is due to difference in age. The tests were applied once at the beginning of the term for initial ability, and again at the close for amount of improvement. The score showed that the kindergarten children made a higher record of points in both tests. The rate of improvement was about the same in both kindergarten and., nonkindergarten children. The time required by the nonkindergarten gropp was legs in then first test ; in the second test the time required was the same for both groups. In regard to age, the results indicated that the kindergarten pupils, even though slightly younger than the nonkindergarten .pupils, made higher scores in points. A comparative study of the literature used in kindergartens and first grades was made in order to determine the amount of duplica- 1ProceedIngo of the International Kindergarten Unfoo, 1917u 1 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 347 lion occurring and the degree of progression secured in the subject. The Osu Its of the study show, amon; other features, that kindergar- ten and first-grade teachers are quife'at one in regard to the use of nursery rhymesLthat in the selection of literature, first-grade teach- ers in general.cioose whatever gives the best material for teaching. reading, thus subordinating literary values to the technique of teach- ing beginning reading; and that in some instances kindergarten teachers send forward to the first-grade teachers a list of stories that have been used in the kindergarten. The study of the use of free oral expression in the first'grade was based upon the principle involved in the fact that " normal children make remarkable progress in the mastery of their mother tongue dur- ing the preschool period, and that this mastery is attained through the abundant and free use of speech .in purposeful and significapt. %vays." Increased language ability among kindergarten trained chil- dren is a recognized result, clue-to the freedom permitted in the kin- dergarten and the encouragement of conversation about objects and experiences of immediate and personal interest. Similar -opportuni- ties for free, natural, oral expression are advocated for primary grades by numbers of schoohnen; belt tjiat theory is ahead of practice in this.respect is made apparent by the results of the study; for the tendency is clearly toward silence on the part of the children in primary grades, a condition which prohibits their learning how to use English fluently, intelligently, and correctly, as far as school experience is concerned. The course of study in the kindergarten.For the purpose of fur- thering the better understanding of kindergarten aims and methods by primary teachers and supervisors and providing constructive suggestions for the many kindergarten teachers who have to work without a supervisor's assistance, a group of kindergartners has un- dertaken to formulate the kindergarten curriculum and the standards involved therein. The need for a sane presentation of a sane cur: riculum in published form is emphasized by the fact that strange, extravagant practices are being introduced here and there under the name of " experimentation." Clear ideas as to essentials are evi- dently necessary to enable the " experimentors" to discriminate be- tween freakish novelty and that which is validly original. In preparing their formulation the committee of kindergartners have treated the curriculum in its twofold-aspect of content or Sub- ject matter and forms of expression or activities. The terms "oral expression," "manual activities," "drawing," "physical training," "nature study," and "music" have been adopted so as to be in ac- cordance with the usage in formulations of primary-grade.curricula. The various divisions of the subject are discussed *tt to: Aims, general and specific; subject matter; methods; attainments. In the 348 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916IA18. section devoted to language, wrong as well as right methods are illustrated in order to throw into relief some faults commonly committed.' Results of experiments with self-organized groups.As evidence of the new faith in children's ability to initiate and direct their own play and work activities, various forms of experimentation are in progress. Those in charge of these experiments undertook the work firmly believing that self - activity means what it says; that the spon- taneous play of children is educative; that children are rich in pur- poses at present and are not merely potentialities; that they should live in the present up to the best of their ability; that they should be measured by their intelligent cooperation, their ability to initiate and control situations, and their power of self-control; that in groups organized by the teacher the leadership is one-sided, the adjustments are made by the teacher, the plans and problems are set by her, and opportunities for experimentation or invention are meager. While no scientific report on the experiments is as yet forthcoming. some conclusions appear in A report presented at the International Kindergarten Union convention (11117); by Miss Faye Henley. Miss Henley points out that a "spontaneous group" is a free organization in regard to numbers. Sometimes one child will work alone; some- times groups of two or three will work together; and sometimes the entire group is included. An " organized group " is one organized by the teacher and held togetherby her. The conclusions reached so far are: (1) That the spontaneous or s..1f-organized group provides for the practice of democratic principles; that flip children make their own social adjustments and find opportunity for leadership, initia- tive, and experiment. (2) That the limitation's in self-organized group work are that some children merely repeat what pleases them, without progressing; some children do what is easiest for them; some .become yapricious and even lawless. (3) :The place of the teacher in the organization thus becomes clear. She must keep the balance, help to improve standards, be ready to give expert advice, stimulate lagging-interest by bringing in new aims or, new use of materials. III. SURVEY OF THE. KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, IND. Of recent year's a number of surveys have been made of the school systems of varimis cities, and the kindergartens, being included, have come in for their share of comment; but to the kindergartens The report will be published shortly as a bulletin of the 3ureau of Education. 1 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 349 of Richmond, Ind., belongs the distinction of being surveyed as a system of kindergartens, and by a kindergartner, Miss Alice Temple, of the school of education of the University of Chicago. The survey was undertaken with a vitw to achieving a closer co- ordination between the kindergartens and the grades. The report is a most valuable document containing excellent suggestions for groups of kindergartners who may wish to conduct a survey of their own kindergartens. In carrying on the investigation Miss Temple visited each of the eight kindergartens twice, and visited the first-grade classes; held conferences with the teachers both as groups and as individuals; examined the course of study for kindergartens printed in the super- intendent's report for 1912; studied information supplied by the superintendent; and examined the written answers to questions con- tributed by kindergarten teachers and first-grade teachers. The report is organized under the following sections: The kinder- gartens; the romp equipment; the teachers; the relation between the kindergarten and the first grade; and the curriculum and methods of the kindergarten. In regard to the kindergartens, Miss Temple found' the prevailing social atmosphere wholesome and the relations between children and teachers all that could be desired ; but in some of the classes the children have been trained to respond automatically to a series of piano signals and to certain artificial devices for securing attention. This method tends to produce dependence upon particular forms of guidance rather than intelligent self-control. Commenting upon the room equipment, the report recommends more growing plants and some form of animal life. Of the materials for play and handwork, the criticism is that they are inadequate. The kindergartens are supplied with the "traditional" materials. It is recommended that-larger blocks, together with boards of vary- ing lengths, be aged to the equipment, in order that the children may make buildings and furniture for their own play use. A "Iiinderhaus" or five-fold screen to inclose a space for a playhouse is also recommended. According to present-day theory,--materials are primarily valued as means through which children may give expression to their ideas and carry out their play purposes. This means that any'of the tradi- tional Materials may be discarded and more adequate ones used. Among these more adequate supplies are large-sized and heavypapers for construction work; soft wood cut in blocks and boards, together with hammers and nails for construction; easily handled textile ma- terials for weaving; and materials for simple and crude dolls' clothes. Supplementary .educational monograph of the School Review and Elementary School Journal, Vol. I. No. S. 350 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-1918. Small toy animals, small dolls, toy utensils, and dishes to use in con- nectithi with building plays are recommended. In respect to the teachers and their needs, it is recommended that a well-trained and thoroughly efficient supervisor of kindergarten and primr.ry grades be secured; that the kindergartners be encour- aged to attend summer sessions and pursue further study in kinder- garten education ; and that a more profitable use be made of the afternoon hours of the kindergartners. It is pointed out that the constructive movement within the kindergarten during the past 10 or 15 years has made rapid progress, and that kindergartners should put themselves in -the way of further study at: one of the progressive normal schools or universities in order to keep pace with the best developments in kindergarten practice. The need for the continuity between the work of the kindergartau and that of the first grade is apparent. It is suggested that the teachers and supervisors- work out a kindergarten-priMary curricu- lum which shall provide for continuity in each of the subjects com- mon to both: Community life, industrial and fine arts, language. music, physical education, nature study, number work. A number of first-grade teachers, while recognizing the inde- pendence of the kindergarten-trained children in itoiny direct ions. find them too dependent on the teacher's help in handwork. If kindergarten teachers would plan simpler forms of handwork and he satisfied With cruder *ducts, they would be able to develop in the children a desirable degreeof independence. The criticism by the grade _teachers that kindergarten children want to talk and play instead of work is a criticism of the first grade rather than of the kindergarten. Two reasons for this so-called rest- lessness are that the seat work in the first grade does not cull forth the thought or the effort of which six-year olds are capable, and that not enough time is a9ow.ed for active play. Commenting upon the curriculum and methods of the kinder- garten, Miss Temple points out that too great quantity and variety of intellectual material was introduced within a given period of time, and the subject matter was unwisely utilized to present ideas and ideals which belong not to the kindergarten but to a later stage of development. She criticizes as devoid of real -thought on the part of the children lessons which begin with a 'ries of exercises dictated by the teacher the purpose of.which is to help children take some simple blocks from a box, and are continued by directions as to certain moves with the blocks, ana- are finished by returning the blocks to the boxes in an exact manner. Thetfinition of a right or wrong result in such a leSson is not determined "by the fitness of the object made for the use of it, but whether or \not it duplicates the form made by the KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 861 teacher. It is pointed out that a chance should be given for testing the efficiency of the objects constructed and that a motive beyond a desire to please the'teacher-should be given to children's work. The report goes on to deal with each form of activity in the kin- dergarten, drawing. language and literature, plays and games, and music, in every case offering constructive and stimulating suggestions for the improvement of subject matter and methods. The spirit in which the Richmond survey was undertaken, the friendly cooperation with which 'it wits carried on, the carefully pre- pared report, with its thoroughly practical and constructive recom- mendations, all unite to commend not only this particilar piece of work, but also this type of work as worthy of being widely applied to kindergarten systems. IV. RECENT PUBLICATIONS PERTAINING TO THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG CHILDREN. "PLAY LIFE IN THE FIRST EIGHT TEARS.'" Miss Palmer has carefully listed games and plays that are types -of those best suited to the gradually developing powers of typical children of the ages from 1 to 8 years. Even a casual reader can not fail to get from these lists and explanatory descriptions a logical idea of the mental unfolding of the small child and the re,action he requires from his environment to further his growth into a well- balanced, useful citizen of high ideals. The book is neither technical' in phraseology nor difficult in style and is so definite in its portrayal of the type of games needed by the clrild'at various stages in his development that it should be of great value, not only to the trained teacher, but to the parent or nurse or social worker who has the supervision of small children. "PRIMARY HANDWORK" AND "ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK." The worth of the first-named book lies in the value-standard it sets. It does not view the primary currisulum as a/certain amount. of knowledge 4o be acquired by the child more-or less painfully in preparation for the next higher grade; it sees each period of the child's devel9pnient as a time seething with c ish interests and enthusiasms which, rightly used, make of each seh year a triumph of achievement, development, and happiness. The p ublems of eon- struction are approikehed from the child's point of view aqd interest. The standard of the work is measured by the child's ability to do and think. The child's growth is shown by his increased ability to judge his efforts and intelligently measure his successes. This produces. what Dr. Dewey calls a "child who has something to say rather than . IR: Luella A. Palmer. I By Ella Victoria Dobbs. 352 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1916-1918. having to say something." Miss Dobbs shows clearly the way in which the artificial gulf between the kindergarten and the pri- mary grades can be made to disappear. In the second-named book are offered practical working outlines upon which the teacher may build. The object of the book is to prove by means of work already tried in actual schools: 1.. That illustrative handwork' can be used profitably as n method of study by giving the children something to do which they will wish to do, but which can not be done. successfully without a practical knowledge of the subject matter to be studied. 2. That Illustrative handworkcnn be used profitably as n method recitation by requiring the children to make something which they can not make success- fully unle.ss they have gained clear anti definite ideas of the subject which has been studied. 3. That work of this kind not only has a place as a regular form of study and recitation, but that it cab be done without exceeding the limit of time allotted to the subject. 4. That the equipment and materials are easily obtainable In any school, 5. That work of this kind may be carried on in the regular classroom. G. That such methods may he used by teachers who have not been trained in the manual arts. a "A COURSE FOR BEGINNERS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. "1 Miss Rankin, a trained kindergartner, has brought her kn of child psychology and the knowledge gained from actuat contact with many children to the problem of making a year's course of Sun- day-school lessons that will make for a better feeling, thinking, and doing in the life of the little child, and that Will also be quite sim- ply and definitely stated, so that the average untrained Sunday- schoal teacher may use them literally as the supporting framework for her work. THE USE OF THE KINDERGARTEN GIFTS." The use of the kindergarten gifts carries from cover to cover a plea for a wider knowledge on the parj of the t achen of every ma- terial to be used, and a greater insight into the process of the growth of little ehilaren. The book is of particular value to the recently graduatedkindergarten student who has had a limited op- portunity for actual teaching experience, and to the teacher who emphasizes organized group Work in herschool. BULLETINS NOS. 1, 2, 3, 4, AND 5 : BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS, To quote from the preface in one of the bulletins: The Bureau of Educational Experiments Is made up of a group of persons who are engaged In firet7hand efforts.for Improving the education bf children, and who have all shared In the general movement that has .brought about a :By Mary perk* Rankin. *By Grace Palmer. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION. 868 more scientific study of them. They feel that the development of some more comprehensive plans of utilizing the results of the recent interest In " free education" is the next step, and that it depends essentially upon securing a closer cooperation among experimenters. The bureau aims to accomplish these ends by giving support to present experiments, by initiating new experiments, by collecting and making available for public use information about the whole field of experiments in education, and by hastening the introduction of newly acquired methods through actual teaching experiments. The first bulletin is entitled "Playthings "; the second is a study of Animal Families in Schools; the third, fourth, and fifth bulletins describe the kind of work Wing done at The Play School, by Caro- line Pratt; at The Gregory School, by Margaret Naumburg; at Teachers College Playground, by Mary Rankin; at The Home School, by Mattie Bates; and at "Stony Ford School," by Mr. and Mrs. Hutchinson. "SELECTED LIST OF STORIES." The literature committee of the International Kindergarten Union has published an excellent list of stories to tell to children'in kinder- garten, first, and second grades. In presenting the list thq conunittee point out that extended lists prepared by libraries and other Com- pilers are easily obtained ; and for that reason it was thought best to confine the committee's endeavors to the preparation of a limited list of stories of distinctly literary quality, each story having a proved value and interest for children. With the title of each story are listed several- books in which different versions may be found. V. KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION. The excellent mandatory-on-petition law has yielded sued good results during the past five years in California that friends of the kindergarten have been stimulated to secure the pa4sage of a law in other States. Their efforts have been successful in Maine, Oregon, Tennessee, Washington, and Texas. In Maine the superintending school cot11 n4ttees are required upon the filing of a petition corning from the piti.ents or guardians of 30 or more children between 4 and 6 years of age, living within a mile of a public elementary. school, to maintrein a kindergarten as a part of the common school course, unless otherwis9, instructed by the city or town. The kindergarten may be discontinued if the daily average attendance falls below 15 children. In respect to kindergarten teachers the law provides that no perton shall be allowed to teach in any kindergarten who has not completed, at least a two-years' course in training and received a certificate or diploma from a recognized 171029" -217Bull. 88-28 354 , BIENNI SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. kindergarten trai i ng school, approved by tie State superintendent of- schools. In Oregon 'e peculiar provision of the" kindergarten bill is that the establish ent of kindergartens is confined to the city of Portland, thf) law st ulating that not more than five and not less than three kinderga ens must be installed during the year. The w of Tennessee is a permissive onethat is, cities and towns may ...tablish kindergartens, but must support them by means of loca taxation. n the State of Washington the enactment .provides that the ndergarten shall be a part of the school system and be supported ust as the primary and upper grades are supported. The Texas law is similar to that of Maine. A noteworthy feature of the campaign was the hearty support given to the measure by' the officers of the State department of education. Emphasis also was placed upon adequate pfovisions for well-trained kindergarten teachers. In a nninber of other States the Federation of Women's Clubs, the National Congress of Mothers, and other women's organizations are taking an active interest in State campaigni for more public-school kindergartens. New kindergarten training schools. Closely connected with the legislative successes in Texas and in California is the announcement of the opening of three new kindergarten training schools. The College of Industrial Arts, Denton, Tex,, has organized a depart- ment of kindergarten education, with Miss Mabel Osgood, formerly of the Milwaukee State Normal School, in charge; and in the Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Tex., a kindergarten depart- ment is being incorporated. Miss Grace Fulmer hasopened a school in Los Angeles, Cal. Children's classes in kindergarten -end primary work and a department of kindergarten _and primary education for young women are included. Emphasis is placed upon open -air work. A two-year kindergarten training course was organized in 1916 in the State normal school, at Tempe, Ariz.; a training class, under the direction of Miss Lania Fisher, was opened in Boston, the same year; and Miss Laura Cushman' organized a training..school in Mimi, Fla. Kindergarten departments are also being instituted in cotiveition with the schools of education in the University of Nebraaia, at Lincoln, and in the University of Missouri,st Columbia. . . Appropriation for kindergaken education.By no means the least significant event of the past year is the appropriation ,granted. by Congress whereby Federal support has become available for the iin- portsnt field of kindergarten promotion and practice. Two special- ists in kindergarten education constitute the staff for the present. CHAPTER XIV. HOME ECONOMICS. By BIER. HENRIETTA M. CALVIN and CARRIE ALBERTA trroan. Specie hats in Home Economics, Bureau of Bducution. CONENTR.Introductoryrlome economics in the public schoolsState supervision of borne economics -- County supervision of home economicsState normal schools Colored schools Home economics in colleges and universities Effect of war on college courses Practice homesPractical application of food courses in the management of lunchrooms, cafeterias, etc.Smith-Lever extension workNew phases of home economicsChild welfare coursed -Newly established and reorgan- ized departmentsSurveysOrganization of women interested in home economics education dome .economies and national serviceLegislation relating to home economics. Progress in home economics education has been marked in recent years. To the noinial rapid increase in the number of high schools offering CQUI'SCS, the extension of systematic training in home making into the lower grades, the establishment of new courses in liberal arts colleges, and the more adequate support of departments previously organized has come increased impetus'due to Federal and State legis- lation and to the recognition by war committees of their need 'of specially trained home economics women. Knowledge of the importance of training in household arts has not been confined to the United States. Queen Mary, Of Great.Britai , issued an appeal to FInglish teachers to take up the sttyly of home ecol omits since the demands fotteachers of " domestic subjects" was so much greater than the supply. She emphasized the increased-need of these teachers for the period of readjustment after the war. A leading English educator states: In view of the deetopithent of domestic training which.may be anticipated both in elementary and teChnical schools after the war, in the Interests of national health and national economy, there Is reason to think that, so far from there being a surplus of teachers, there is more likely to he a difficulty in ob- taining sufficient trained teachers, to meet the demand for them which muid arise. The secretary of the Bombay provincial advisory committee, in re- questing information from America, states that " there is' a growin desire here to establish good school's for the teaching of domestic science and household arts." From New Zealand come requests for the names of home economics women who can be secured to organize and administer the home eco, a . . -N. / 335 856. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, M6-4918. nomics instruction of that country, thus exhibiting an increased pub- lic interest in this type of school work. Santiago, Cuba, questions as to the organization of instruction in "maternal schools" for young girls, stating that it has been pro- posed to enact a law establishing these in that Republic. One of the leading normal. school men of Japan visited the home economics department of the leading colleges and universities in this country becausesof interest in home making as a subject to be taught in the schools of that country. . The Ontario Agricultural College can .not accommodate all who wish to come to Macdonald Institute for home economics training, and many desire home economics training who can not be spared from home. The college, therefore, is extending the usefulness of Macdonald Institute by opening branches here and there iii)such coin- . muniiies as are willing and able to cooperate. Several of the missionary boards are asking for don ic science teachers in various countries, among them China. O e call has just come from the Woman's Union Missionary .Society, .67 Bible House, Ne* York City, for a domestic science teacher in the school of the so- ciety in Shanghai, China. An opportunity is presented not only to teach domestic smence to Chinese girls, but to train Chinese voting women as teachers of domestic science, so, that they will go out into , the public schools. HOME ECONOMICS IN THE PVBLIC SCHOOLS. Courses of study and methods'of teaching have been greatly modi- fied by war conditions'. The .substitutiOn of Red Cross and relief sewing for the usual projects of prewar times has so greatly improved teaching in textiles and clothing that there i§ little reason to believe. there will be-a reversion to the older type of projects after the close of the war period. It has been possible to teach the effective'-use of. the sewing machine in de fourth and fifth grades, to increase speed greatly, and at the same tine tecure a high standard of workmanship in sewing classes; to place responsibility upon children not heretofore considered ma- ture enough to take any initiative; and to maintain interest in class work independent of personal. possession of articles worked upon. The sewing classes in the public schools of Chicago made '250,000 garments for Red Cross and relief work in the winter of 191T-18, and in all cities of the United States 'the production was in almost like proportion to the number of children in attendance. -.The exhibition of children's ability in these lines is resulting in an entire changg of course of study. More work of commercial value willtereafter boNne; more speed will be attained; and more fuhda- . . ROME ECONOMICS. 357 mental principles of good taste, good hygiene, and good economics will be taught. The modifications in food courses have not been so readily adopted. 'This has been due to many complicating factors. Equipment now in use has been of a kind not easily adapted to new laboratory practices; cooperation of principals and superintendents of schootlunches has not always been secured; there has been difficylty in articulating ,tool work with the home life of the child, so that when it was desirable to secure food supplies from the home and return the cooked product to the home, parental approval has been withheld. The changes in food courses have usually been along the lines of teaching the use of food conservation recipes, and explaining to the children the meaning of food conservation rules. Many home eco- nomics teachers have gathered the mothers into regular classes and instructed them in food preservation and food conservation. The following material has been gathered by a supervisor of home eco- nomics: 1. 41n one of the large private schools in St. Louis all advanced work for the older girls consitts of Red cross work in dietetics and the girls take the Gov- ernment examinallons at the end of the course. 2. At the North Bennett Street Industrial School the following report Is given of the work in the school : SubstitutiOn of entire ,whent, bran, graham, cornmeal, and rye wherever it is possible in quick and yenst breads, gingerbread, and Inexpensive cakes. Substitution of oleomargarine, mewls, salt pork for butter. and effort made to use as little as possible. Substitution of leguminous vegetables, nuts, cheese, and fish for meats. No meat up to the present time has been served in our lunch room. For the / past.two weeks all desserts requiring sugar have been replaced by fruit salads. plain fruit, dried fruit dishes, cakes and puddings sweetened with molasses and sirups. S sstitu of molasses and straps for white sugtir in all desserts possible. uch more s rill End Intruction in use of substitutes and balanced menus an before. 3. The School o elation in Boston re mestic Science at the Young Women's Christian Asso- ts the following changes In the work: The regular textboo " Menus and' Recipes for Fifty," Is not used except for meats and vegetably New recipes are being worked out to meet the Government requirements: i places, they are emphasizing the reduction of the amount of ments,,sugar, wheat, animal fats, etc. At their breakfast, which is prepared by the students in the domestic science class for their family of 50, their main course has been omitted In order to meet the situation. 4 4. At the Practical Arts School in Boston, which is an entirely different type of school, the following summary of work is given: We plan first to adhere as closely as possible to our former course of study, believing that in an educational Institution the pupils oust still be taught the underlying principles of cookery. Second, we do this, however, by using for the illustrations of those principles, lfar as possible, the foods recommended as substitutes by our food adminis- "[tor ; for examplve-vesetable oils' in place of animal oils; rye anti other dark dotal; In place of wheat. Third. to keep closely in touch withthe food situation as to supply prices and to use these topics in our feed study and dietetics classes. To emphasise the - Ale 858 BIENNIAL flURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918. need of conservation along the lines of time, energy, health, fuel, and clothing, as well as In foodstuffs. To keep the prices in our lunch room at the lowest possible level for obvious reasons. So far there has been practically no increase over former prices except in the case of rolls or muffins, and butter. To observe carefully the meatless and wheatless days advocated by the Government. To serve little cake, no frostings, few sweet puddings. etc., and to omit extra sweetening wherever possible. To encourage our pupils to give their time freely outside of school to 'pa- triode enterprise. To this end they assist every day In the Liberty Bread Shop, Food Facts Bureau, and our own relief work: In the Cambridge Trade School they are preparing nearly 100 quarts of corn chowder, which they are selling to the pupils at 11 cents a quart. This is taken into the home with the card stating the food value of the dish, to make the parents realize that the 'school is trying to give the gills practical work which should be of real value in their own homes. The Vocational School for Girls in Brookline submits the follow- ing report on the work being done in regard to changes in food cOUrSeS: The work has been subject to change without notice almost, as various needs have seemed to rise. We have worked with corn meal and other corn products, with rye and rice and oatmeal, with'substitutes for sugar even before the acute need was thrust upon us from the impossibility of obtaining sugar. We have Worked upon the. substitute sweets earlier than we should otherwise have done, both because of the needs for supplying to our own pupils legitimate and desired sweets, to lessen, if possible, the use of those not allowable; and also because the girls have wished to pack boxes for their brothill and friends In France and to aid school sales for war causes. We are teaching the use of sub- stitute fats, and the elimination of the use of fat in cookery, of course! We are laying stress upon the various winter vegetables as savers of other foods and upon the use of fruits and ways in which the canned foods May be well prepared and served. Some teachers of food classes have been able to establish coopera- tion enterprises. In Yonkers, N. Y., there were 20,000 quarts of cur- rants offered the schools. This was made into jelly to be given to the Red Cross. Containers were needed and the milk men left slips at all hotises on their routes that they would collect and take to the school all containers contributed. A local refinery gave 600 pounds of sugar. Local ladies did the work, both learning and doing. These are but illustrations of the changes in method and spirit that have developed among- home economics teachers, pupils, and mothers as a result of necessary modifications of cooking practices. The important developments in home economics in elementary and secondary schoolsin Ohio have been through the school lunch work, especially in rural and village schools, and with girls' home making clubs. North Carolina reports "many schools are adding departments of home economici.",.\ Home economics is rapidly introduced into the high schools in Washington, A State law provides that either home economics or agriculture shall be taught in all eighth grade classes. HOME ECONOMICS. . 359 The State of Florida especially evidenced interest and apprecia- tion in home economics education by the following legislative -act: Be it enacted by the Legislature of the Stole of Florida: SECTION 1. Any county board of public instruction, or thn board of-trustees of any special tax school district, is hereby authorized and empowered to es- tablish and maintain a department of home economics, or a department of home demonstration work in any of the high schools of this State, and to pay the expenses of such department out of any pull& school funds at their disposaL Sec 2. Section 1-of this net shall extend to and include canning clubs, corn clubs, and departments of agriculture, to acquire land, stock. fertilizer, seed, and implements necessary to maintain the seine. And no person shall be em- ployed to demonstrate, teach, or instruct in any of the departments mentioned herein wlio does not bold a certificate of graduation from a recognized college, university, or normal school, indicating special training in home economics, home tiemonstration work, or agricultural work, or any one who has not bad satisfactory' experience In home economics or canning club work. Sac. 3. County boards of public instruction are further empowered under th, act to employ county agents who shall, under the Joint supervision of the county superintendent of public Instruction and the Florida State College for Womeu or the University of Florida, conduct practical demonstration work in home economies, girls' and women's contest work, canning club, corn club, or agricul- tural work, and other movements for the advancement of country home life, and shall aid the county superintendent and teachers In giving practical educa- tion in home, farm, or garden econotuics. …