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THE FREE NATIVE AFRICANS OF CHARLOTTE AMALIA IN 1803 By Aimery Caron Research Paper for the Caribbean Genealogy Library, October 2014 In the 1790s and the early 1800s, during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, a large number of free-coloreds and some Europeans from the British, Dutch and French islands, as well as some Europeans from Western Europe, came to Charlotte Amalia, a neutral free trading port, as political and economic refugees. In so doing, they more than doubled the port’s population from an estimated 2737 persons in 1790 to about 6361 persons in 1800. Thus, Charlotte Amalia became a truly international port. In this process, the newcomers must have made a strong multi-ethnic mark on the culture of Charlotte Amalia. The native and Creole African slaves, being oppressed, confined and engaged mostly in menial occupations, were held in the class with the lowest social status with limited opportunity to exercise much cultural influence. Additionally, since the Europeans, natives and Creoles, were generally more inclined to maintain the culture of their fatherland, it was primarily the free-coloreds who developed the Creole cultures—folk cultures born in the New World—as opposed to elite European cultures. At Charlotte Amalia, in the 1790s and early 1800s, all the different free-colored ethnic groups, each with their own Creole culture, quickly blended together and reshaped the somewhat insular culture of Charlotte Amalia into an all Caribbean Creole culture. It is, therefore, of interest to establish that, at that time of cultural rebirth, there was a sufficiently large number of free native Africans able to contribute significantly to the development of this unique poly-ethnic Creole culture of Charlotte Amalia, with a first hand knowledge of several African cultures. It is estimated that, in 1790, the free-colored population of Charlotte Amalia was 350 persons and, according to the 1803 Free-Colored Census, it exploded to 1521 persons: 318 men, 668 women and 535 children1. Among these free-coloreds, 796 were born in the Danish islands, 310 were born in the French islands, 254 in the Dutch islands, 100 in the British islands and 60 in Africa. There is no precision given in the 1803 Census concerning the exact place of birth of these 60 free Africans beyond the information that 37 were born in Guinea. This is a rather extensive area of Africa, extending from Sénégal to Cameroun. The Moravian missionary C.G.A. Oldendorp, who resided in the Danish islands (primarily St. Thomas) from 1767 until 1769, concluded through interviews that the Africans originated from a great variety of nations within Guinea. Additionally, at the end of the 18th century it appears that many Africans were brought to St. Thomas from Equatorial Africa—the Congo, Gabon and Angola. Nevertheless, it is generally believed that the majority of Africans brought to the Danish islands came from the Danish African Company forts of Christiansborg and Frederiksborg on the Gold Coast2. According to the 1803 Census, 50% of the free-coloreds of Charlotte Amalia were born free, 40% were given their freedom, and 10% purchased their own freedom. On the other hand, the free native Africans of Charlotte Amalia had all served earlier as slaves and they were freed, either by purchasing their own freedom (11 or 18%), or through manumission by their owners (49 or 82%), mostly in wills. Most of these free Africans (53 or 88%) were freed in the Danish West Indies, three in Guadeloupe, three on St. Eustatius, and one on St. Martin. They were freed starting in 1753, but most were freed in the 1790s with peaks in 1795, 1796 and 1799, as though St. Thomas was influenced by the French revolutionary ideas and the first abolition of slavery in February 1794. Additionally, 54 out of 60 of these Africans were brought directly from Africa to St. Thomas and had been residing on island for an average time of 29 years, at least 20 years of which were served in bondage. Of the 60 free native Africans, 14 (23%) were men and 46 (77%) were women. In all, the 1803 Census lists only 27 children for the 46 African women. In 1803, the average age of the free African women and men was 42 years and 44 years, respectively; this is about 10 years older than the other free-coloreds. This might explain why free African women had fewer children living with them than the other free-colored women. In fact, 19 Africans were 50 years old or older. Of the 60 free Africans residing at Charlotte Amalia in 1803, 33 had only a first name, as was customary for slaves, and only 26 had European surnames, while possibly one, Magdalena OBA, may have had an African surname (Table I). TABLE I The Free Native Africans of Charlotte Amalia in the 1803 Census3 Name Age Occupation Manumitter Arrival Alleta 40 Vendor Friderik HANSTEN 1773 ANDREAS, Peter 26 Servant On Guadeloupe 1798 Anthonette 50 Seamstress Joseph de WINT 1763 BAPTISTE, Jean 50 Fisherman Cadet SERAC 1763 Benjamin 35 Carpenter Bought Himself 1783 Betsy 50 Laundress J. B. CORNELIUS 1763 BÖDKER, Mathias 50 Fisherman Cornelius BÖDKER 1763 CATHRINA, Anna 35 Laundress Joseph BIZA 1773 CATHRINA , Maria 35 Vendor Bought Herself 1783 Charlotte 30 Seamstress On St. Martin 1799 CHRISTOPHER, Maria 40 Cigar Maker Capt.CHRISTOPHER 1789 Clarisa 45 Seamstress Mrs. HAXHAUSEN 1773 Debora 45 Servant SHOLTERBRAND 1773 DORTHEA, Hanna 30 Vendor Cathrine MADSEN 1783 DUBOIS, Lucia 40 Vendor Vincent ROMANO 1788 Eliana 30 Laundress Cashier GARTNER 1788 ELISA, Maria 25 Seamstress James HALLMAN 1783 Elisabeth 40 Baker Bought Himself 1773 Eulalia 50 Seamstress In Guadeloupe 1803 Flora 50 Seamstress Carl C. BAUR 1753 François 53 Fisherman CHOSOME 1763 Friderica 60 Laundress Commis. REEMKE 1766 Friderica 55 Laborer Bought Herself 1763 GAY, Polly 30 Vendor On St. Eustatius 1795 GRAAF, Anna van 60 Laundress Capt. GROOF 1763 Helena 40 Seamstress TUCKER 1778 Jack 40 Servant Mme LEVY 1797 *JENNINGS, Pender 25 Seamstress Capt. JENNINGS 1794 Kettey 40 Laundress On St. Eustatius 1800 KIRSTINA, Anna 30 Laundress Adam SMITH 1783 *KRAGH, Ester 55 Seamstress Mrs. SMITH 1763 Leonard 50 Tailor N. GRØNBERG 1765 LISBETH, Cathrina 50 Seamstress Bought Herself 1768 LISBET, Maria 40 Vendor Gen. VINCENT 1773 LOSIA, Rosa 40 Seamstress Anthony MIRENDO 1799 Louisa 50 Baker Peter HASSEL 1796 MACAK, Anthon 29 Cigar Maker VALENTIN 1787 MAGDALENA, Maria 30 Seamstress RENTZ 1793 Maria 45 Baker Bought Herself 1773 MARIA, Anna 40 Cook LOPEZ 1773 Mary 40 Vendor On St. Eustatius 1803 Mercurius 65 Fisherman Jean RENAU 1753 Nancy 30 Laundress ACTON 1788 Nancy 45 Cook Bought Herself 1773 NANCY, Anna 40 Vendor An Italian 1778 NICOLAY, Jens 45 Musician Mrs. REMKE 1770 OBA, Magdelena 40 Seamstress J. CRINCOCHET 1803 Olive 45 Seamstress Bought herself 1773 Persilla 40 Laundress Tulli BEVER 1773 Petrus 60 Planter Bought Himself 1763 PETRUS, Juliana 55 Baker Capt. KAAS 1763 PHILLIPE, Jean 25 Servant On Guadeloupe 1798 Rosa 30 Vendor Anthony MOSUE 1783 Rosina 45 Cook Pastor LUND 1773 Sélimène 57 Laundress Bought Himself 1763 Sophia 40 Laundress Johannes HUMMER 1773 SUSANNA, Eliana 40 Baker Niels GRÖNBERG 1773 THERISA, Maria 40 Baker J. POUL 1789 Vigilant 54 Fisherman Jean RENAU 1759 William 30 Doctor Bought Himself 1793 FULL NAME = Included in the 1803 free-colored Tax List *SURNAME = Included in the 1803 European Tax List The occupations of the free native Africans were similar to those of the other free-coloreds, except that among the women there was proportionately a higher number of bakers and cooks. Among the men, there was a higher proportion of fishermen and, exceptionally, there was one musician, one doctor and one planter (Table II). TABLE II Occupations of the Free Africans Women: Men: 6 Bakers 1 Carpenter 1 Cigar maker 1 Cigar maker 3 Cooks 1 Doctor 1 Laborer 5 Fishermen 11 Laundresses 1 Musician 14 Seamstresses 1 Planter 1 Servant 3 Servants 9 Vendors 1 Tailor Totals = 46 14 More may be learned about the free native Africans by looking at the annual tax list for the free-coloreds, where taxes had to be paid by the owners of slaves and of town real property for the first time in 18034. Only six full names can be found in the 1803 Tax List out of 60 adult free native Africans (Table III). Because the 1803 Census and the Tax List have only mostly a first name in common, confusion between first and last name, and misspelling of names many individuals common to both lists were missed. It is, therefore, believed that there were many more than six individuals common to both lists of names. It may be noted that three out six households consist of only one woman, two households have one child each and one household included a man, three women and one child. Finally, three households and businesses owned together six slave and all but one household or business owned a small town property with Lucia DUBOIS owning the largest property, 862 ft2, but no slave. TABLE III Free Native Africans from the 1803 Tax List5 Households & Family Members Slaves Prop. Feet2 Businesses CHRISTOPHER, Maria M,3W,C -- 140 DUBOIS, Lucia W -- 862 Helena W,C 2M -- NANCY, Anna W W 208 PETRUS, Juliana W,C 3M 229 SUSANNA, Eliana W -- 165 Abreviations: C = Child; M = Man; W = Woman; Prop. Feet2 = Property Square Feet. In conclusion, more than two hundred years ago, and about fifty years before the end of slavery, there was a large influx of free-colored Caribbean immigrants at Charlotte Amalia, which brought about a rebirth of its Creole culture. At the same time, there were at least sixty free native Africans also able to make significant African cultural contributions. This process was helped by the fact that these free Africans were well integrated within the free-colored society of Charlotte Amalia and exercised occupations, such as baker, carpenter, cook, doctor, fisherman, planter, which facilitated the infusion of true African cultural features. References 1 David W. Knight & Laurette de T. Prime, Editors, St. Thomas 1803: Crossroads of the Diaspora, (St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands: Little Nordside Press, 1999), pp. 186. 2 Neville A.T. Hall, Slave Society in the Danish West Indies, (Mona, Jamaica:University of the West Indies Press, 1994), p. 70-71. 3 David W. Knight & Laurette de T. Prime, Editors, St. Thomas 1803 … 4 National Archives, Washington D.C., Selected Records of the Danish West Indies, 1672–1917, M1884, Roll 101, Section 11, St. Thomas Property & Head Tax, 1803. 5 Ibid.