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ONR Report DR 153 S Summary Re11-port on Project Tektite I A Multiagency 0 60-Day Saturated Dive Conducted by the United States Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interiom, and the General Electric Company Edited by: D. C. PAUM AND H. A. COLE Ocean Technology Branch Ocean Science and Technology Division D F L January 16, 1970 OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH Washington, D.C. FOREWORD Tektite I was this country's first multiagency program to exploit man's ability not only to live on the bottom of the sea but to perform meaningful scientific work. Previous man-in-the-sea programs have concentrated on the advancement of under- sea technology, whereas the mission of Tektite emphasized existing technology as a means for obtaining scientific results. The national interest in future use of the sea. and the significance of Tektite I of furthering this interest, is summarized in President Nixon's message to the aquanauts at the end of their historic mission: 'Your record breaking venture into inner srn ce is another mile- stone in human achievements. The aquanauts join the astronauts as space pioneers. Congratulations! The success nf Tektite I constitutes a major step in using man in the sea for the scientific exploration of the nation's continental shelf. The Navy, as the Tektite I lead agency and cosponsor with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration the Department of the Interior, and the General Electric Company, is pleased to present this Tektite I final report. Chief of Naval Research AUTHORS' COMMENT This "Summary Report on Project Tektite I" (ONR Report DR 153 S), although identical to chapters 1 through 5 of the "Report on Project Tektite I" (ONR Report DR 153), is published separately here for convenience. The subjects addressed in summary in this report are treated in detail by the individual investigators in Appendixes, which constitute the additional portion of CAR Report DR 153. CONTENTS Abstract v Chapter 1 - HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 1 INTRODUCTION I HISTORY 2 AGENCY INTERESTS 3 Navy Interests 3 NASA Interests 4 Department of the Interior Interests 4 INTERAGENCY COOPERATION 4 Chapter 2 - SYNOPSIS 8 MISSION 8 SITE 8 CREW 9 HABITAT 10 BASE CAMP 1O PROJECT ORGANIZATION 10 SAFETY 14 Chapter 3 - SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 15 INTRODUCTION 15 MARINE SCIENCE PROGRAM 15 LIFE SCIENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM 15 LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL PROGRAM 19 INTEGRATED OCEAN FLOOR PROGRAM 24 ENGINEERING PROGRAM 26 Habitat and Support Systems Assembly 27 Habitat Transportation 27 Engineering Evaluation 28 Chapter 4 - FACILITIES 30 INTRODUCTION 30 HABITAT 30 Air Supply, Pressure, and Atmospheric Control 37 Atmosphere Monitoring System 37 Thermal Control 37 Emergency Air Systems 37 Communication, Electrical, and Sanitary Systems 39 Alarm System 40 ii SUPPORT BARGE 40 3ulrf ace-Control-Center Van 40 Environmental Control and Supply System 42 Electrical Generation and Distribution by tcn 45 Water Storage and Disiribution System 45 CRANE BARGE 45 CAUSEWAY PIElT 45 BASE CAMP 45 LOGISTICS, T#ANSPORTATION, AND COMMUNICATIONS 48 REIPAIRS 50 HABITAT AND AQUANAUT SUPPORT EQUIPMI' T 50 Chapter 5 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 51 INTRODUCTION 51 CONCLUSIONS 51 RE COMME NDA TIONS 52 il ABSTRACT Project Tektite I, under the overall cognizance and management of the Chief of Naval Research, involved the Departments of the Navy and Interior, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Gen- eral Electric Company, and other government, industry, and academic organizations. An ocean floor habitat at , 49 foot depth and the supporting facilities were established and eva'uated for 60 days at a carefully selected, isolated site in the Virgin Islands frcm February 15 to April 15, 1969. Four marine scientists lived in and worked out of the habitat for the 60-day period, durihg which their research emphasized marine biology and geology. This was twice as long -.s men had previously lived under saturated diving conditions and the only such experiment to use a controlled nitrogen oxygen atmosphere with a normal 0.2-atmosphere oxygen partial pressure. Through continual t e I e vi s i on and auditory monitoring, medical doctors, psychologists, and diving engineers studied the aquanauts' biomedical responses to the 60 -day saturation dive and their behaviora1 -ind other psychological responses to each other, t, their work, anc, their isolated, hostile environment. The Tektite I e x )e r i m en t was completed with a perfect safety record within minutes of the time scheduled many months previously. The successful opei ition demonstrated that men can live together and perform safely and effectively on the ocean floor for extended periods and provided specific psychological, phvsi(lo.-ical, and marine scientitic results which can be applied to future spac- v id un de - S a missions. II Iw~ I A 'I Char~ter 1 HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES "If, insti ad of sending Oil, olbsevatior s of seaamen to able miathemnaticians on lando, the land w1ould send able n- athna 1 tie lan to lca, it %vould sigiilfy much mroo to the inmprov e- ment of navigation and to the safe ty of men's lives and estates on that c1( nnt. Sit Isaac New(,%ton, 1 6(,2 INTRODUCTION The U.S. Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, the General Electric Company. and many otIEr pai-ticipating organizations were brought together in project Tektite I with very much the same theme as that given in Sir Isaac Newton's statement of 16,92. but with a variety of professions involved. In 'lektite I the marine scientist removed himself from his shore laboratory and home and became an in-situ partner with the in-vivo marine life. The behavioral psych1ologint dirertly observed this marine scientist removed from his normal environment to deter- mine his resp~onses to the real isolation, stresses, and hazards that were part of his new environnitnt. The synergistic use of saturation* diving from a. habitat to conduct marine science and the observation of the habitat occupants as subjects for behavioral stu'dies evolved from the U.S. Navy's Sealab f1 man-in 'ue -sea project .t Two of the conclusions of that project, conducted by the Office of Naval Research i Aulgust -Sept emnbe r 1965, were: "In situ1 livingl Offers a new and important mnet hodology to scien1tific, bi0oogica:l, and ge.olooic al ocean - floor inve'tst igat ions." IS ItI ilt n lit AI1"t I r \ I I St , 'IN. t n ,. I xci p sl it". In 155~t i i t ' il h ', ox tit- ii Il, % )I I k 17l i l SI I 1A ICS I I ..... xi l ~ N Ix 'I ii r t I i I c tI 2 PROJECT TEKTITE I "Based on the analysis of the overall performance of the aquanauts, criteria can be developed to assist in the selection of future aquanauts." Analysis of the Sealab II behavioral obs. rvations yielded significant information for underst.muding the behavior of small groups of men coducting real work while isolated in a hazardous environment. To the behavioral psychologist the undersea laboratory becomes an exciting obser- vational situation. Closed-circuit television provides one of the usual modes for opera- tional and engineering monitoring of the habitat as well as a vAtal communication link between the occupants and the surface support personnel. By simple remote extensions, these closed-circuit links can be used at observational stations. The behaviorist thus is enabled to collect voluminous, valid data on a real situation. The subjects are engaged in real work in a h-nnrd-us envirnmental situation which involves stress and isolation. To the marine scientist the habitat-laboratory affords the opportunity to investigate biological and ecological 1.rocesses unencumbered by the need to return to the surface. Thus, by not being encumbered by the restrictions of repetitive surface dives, he can return to the site of his investigations as many times during the day and night that his life support systems will permit. He is no longer physiologically restricted; he is limited only by life-support equipment and human endurance. This becomes a very impor- tant factor in considering the applicability of saturated diving to the research to be under- taken. Thus, in Tektite I the study of the behavior of lobsters, for example, was integrated with many otner scientific dives which occurred at various times during both day and nighttime. In this wanner a cohesive 2-month marine science pro,,ram became a reality for four sientists to conduct. HISTORY The similarity between crew behavioral aspects of a long-duration operational '-Thr- ation dive and a space mission was suggested in November 1966, in a side discussion between Office of Naval Research and National Aeronautics and Space Administration psychologists at a NASA Symposium on Isolation and Confinement. This su..inestion led to ONR 'NASA mc.'tings, later in 196b and tarly in 1967, to develop a rationale for the validation of a hypothesis that behavioral, habitability, and crew effectiveness data obtained in observations o! undersea teams could be used to predict and understand similar problems invclving space teams. Based on these early nieetilngs, NASA in June, 1967 awarded two study contracts c(ncerning the validation of extrapolating, marine mission data to space mi-sions. Tech- nical progress under these oontracts was jointly watched and monitored by NASA and Navy technical and ndawu;,T. ment personnel. The results of these study contracts strongly supported what had been su..tgested in the original NASA,°Navy discuwesions - that behav- ioral, crew effectiveness. and habitability data could be obtained ii underso'as operations. I)uring the concluding months if the contracted studies it bi,came evident that missions invtolving real work were 'equired to obtain valid extrapolative d:t a. The Dvpartment of Interior, who over the coUrse of 1967 had come to an agTreement with the Navy for 'cooper- ative stud;' of problems of mutual interest,' was invited to participate in monitoring t ,e NASA sponsored studie-s and formally became the third member in November 19r7. In December 1967 the General Electric Company formally submitted to the Office if Naval Research, lead ag:ency for the go vernment, an unsolicited protposal to conduct the undersea space, marine mission recomnnended in the concluding studies. The mission w uld he ,,f 60 das (huration and would stud% the ability of a snill iroup of saturated HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 3 divers to successfully carry out a scientific mission unaer hazardous, isolated conditions. The project title Tektite comes from the name for small particles of space-born matter which survive the fiery plunge through the earth's atmosphere and come to rest on the ocean's floor. Tektite I would be jointly sponsored by the Navy, NASA, and Interior Department, In addition, the b,.sjc Tektite I habitat would be furnished by General Elec- tric, financed primarily by company Industrial Research and Development funds. AGENCY INTERESTS The interests in Tektite of the three agencies - Navy, NASA, and the Department of the Interior - relate to their national responsibilities. Generally the Navy's interects were the study of div-Ing physiology and small-crew psychology, for future submersible and saturated diving missions and advances that could be made in ocean technology. NASA's interests of small-crew psychology and behavior were oriented toward long dura- tion space flight, as in orbiting laboratory or post-Apollo missions. The Interior Dep-urt- ment's interest was the use of saturated diving to broaden man's capability to conduct scientific work in the sea. A closer look at the roles of each agncy shows the areas of interest and responsibility of each. Navy Interests The Navy interests in Tektite I were reflected in overall project coordination and manageinent, development of techniques for accomplishing the behavioral and biomedical scientific mission oojectives, engineering evaluation of the shatlow-water Tektite I habitat. and operational and technol gical procedures. including safety. The Navv was the 'lead a:,encv" of the three agencies supporting Tektite. Through the Office of Naval Rese.xch, the Navy had the responsibility for overall program and scientific management and for administraticii of the General Electric Tektite I contract. An additional Navy responsibility in Tektite I, and perhaps the most important. was mission safety, both in the operational and s,'ientific conduct of the program. The Office of Naval Research was responsible for the overall planning of the behav- ioral and biomedical pro.grams, and integration and coordination of the overall Tektite I scientific program. The Nav'. durin. the Seal a II prog'ram, dcvelpt' d basic field obser- vation techniques for the behavioral studies of siiall cre'ws living. in u1dersea habitats. Tektile I presented opportunity for further ',,velopnicnt of these techniques and acquisition of additional data. The key scientists from the Sealab I1 pr,,ran. dveloped tile Tektite I behavioral program in conjunction with NAS3A tiud Intcrit.,i . The Tektiti: I bioniedical prog,. ron. likewise, was developqed bv Navv ni dicai l' e.", i~v, 1' and by c, iitracl i'esivarch scientists of ONR such as the University of 11ccnsv 1 v.o vorkii' with Navy and NASA bio m(.dical pj :-sc mU . In addition t, tile .tated scientific ':,,ls in tto. lvissi t i t I j cct ive s Tcktite I also provided the Navv the oppur'unity h(,r cxpl,r-tio, in related :iras oif under'- water technolohy, such as .aturatiioln diver s tle.y, cean ltwinecinw., and cnti-ructioll. The Navy provided the opterational direction :ir iop nt atiho of th T,'ktite I program. Naval corn mad experience provided the peri nat iiia cxlp',rivnc' ',,ssar; , supi~xrt the scientific pro:ran . Tra sp .atio n. T ,'istics,. cornm1unic at k, .. 1d supp,'rt c, nstruction and facility requir'v nents yep 'l':tik'q were suppl ied bv vari,'Ls; nava. rga;ni.;at io~ns. PROJECT TEKTITE I NASA Interests NASA's primary interest in Tektite I was the study of the performance of highly qualified scientist under conditions of stress for use in understanding and predictng man's behavior on !ong-duration space flights. The four Tektite I aquanauts experienced true locked-in isolation due to their sat- urated diving condition, which prohibited vertical ascents to the water's surface. Reac- tions to their living, working, mnd recreation environments were recorded by systematic observation, by automatic eveut -'cording, and by subjective opinion. Measures were made of group cohesiveness and tht adjustment of each crew member to the others, to his environment, and to his assigned duties. The marine scientific mission plan p'ovided the scientific crew the goals necessary for maintaining a continuous high level of motiva- tion required for meaningful extrapolation of the behavioral data to space flight. The ability of the crew to conduct their own mission nnd their willingness to attempt tasks not directly related to their scientitie training were evaluated as well as the extent c their dependence on an outside technical crew. Biomedical measures were made to assure crew safety and to evali .e the -sychological effects of activities inside and out- side the habitat on the measurable physiological funcions of the crew. The NASA scientific responsiblities were reflected in the hematology portion of the biomedical research program and in the sleep and psychomoter studies in the behavior program. The Tektite I data collection -,rogram, developed under NASA contract, was the primary means of accumulating daily the crew behavior, biomedical and habitability and ergineering data required by each investigator. NASA management responsibilitie s were in the development of the behavioral program, and in overall program management in concert with the other agencies. Department of the Interior Interests The Department of the Interior's fundamental interest in Tektite I was to accomplish a divernified research program with a small group of marine scientists using saturated diving techniques. The two primary objectives were: evaluate saturated diving as a resparch technique for marine science studies, and conduct an operational research pro- ,r,vm on the ocean floor to demonstrate that scienLists can live and work effectively on the ocean floor. For years marine scientists have recognized the advantages of having direct access to the undersea environment for extended periods of time. To this end, self-contained underwater bre,thing apparatus (scuba) equipment and research submersibles have pro- vided only partial solutions to depth, time, and mobility limitations. Manned habitats, such as the Tektite I habitat, using saturated diving have offered a research tool which appears to )lave many advantages for prolonged studies of the ocean floor. INTE',AGL NCY COOPERATION Although Tektite had been preceded by several underwater living experiments, some at greater depths. several distinguishing features set it apart from these earlier experi- ments. Primar, among these is that Tektite was the first major venture undertaken whose objectives were primarily scientific rather than technological. Close liaison and communic-,ion between participating members from all organizations involved was necessary to acromplish a cohesive program. For example, the behavioral and biomed- ical studies conducted by the Navy and NASA, concurrent with Interior',; ocean floor program, were designed for the minimum interfererce with the marine research actvities }I>-iI(V AND OUJL~iI\W} 5 of the crew. The mutual Navy and NASA interests in the behavioral and biomedical por- tions of Tektite i squired a high degree of interactihn between the scientists of both agen- cies for optimization of efforts and results. General Electric integrated the program needs into a habitat system that could satisfy the divergent requirements placed on it. The success of Teklite I was due largely to the spirit of cooperation that prevailed throughout the entire project, from conception through execution. The major participating activities and their primary responsibilities and contri- butions we. NAVY Office of Naval Research Headquarters: Overall project manaqement, scientific program coordination, direction of on-site operations, funding suppoit , logistic coordination, overall safety responsibility. Naval Biolegical Laboratory: Planning and execution of the Tektite 1 micro- biological studies. Naval Research Laboratory: Laboratory analysis of habitat atmosphere, logistic support throughout operation. Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters: Design of habitat installation methods, design habitat surface support AMMI barge facility, on-site installation and retrieval of habitat and other equip- ment, operational responsibility for emplacement and retrieval of habitat ana support systems. U.S. Atlantic Fleet Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO: Implementation of habitat installation methods and equipment, assembly of support AMMI barge, design and construction of base camp, operation and maintenince of habitat support system. Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet: Transportation of habitat system, base camp equipment and materials, and project personnel to the Tektite site and return. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Chief, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery: Review and approval of medical and safety plans, assignment of medical personnel to pvject. Naval Submarine Medical Center: Development of Tektite decompressi.on schedule, participation in biomedical program, aquanaut physical and psychiatric exa m- inations, medical personnel on site. Naval Medical Research Institute: Planning and execution of behavioral program, equipment and technical assistance for behavioral program, on-site monitors and super- visors, data reduction. Naval Medical. Neuropsychiatric Research Unit: Planning and execution of Navy sleep studies. 6 PROJECT TEKTITPE I Naval Ship Systems Ccmmand Supervisor of Salvage: Decompression facilities and personnel, diving personnel assistance, small boat and equipment support. Experimental Diving Unit: Atmospheric monitoring equipment and operators, diving officers and personnel. Philadelphia Naval Shipyard: Assembly of Tektite I habitat, services for assembly of habitat support barge, dock facilifies for loading and unloading of Tektite hardware at beginning and end of project. Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Tenth Naval District: Critical repair facilities for boats and electronic equipments, logistic support. Submarine Acquisition Project Office: Mat.!rial nafety review of habitat and support systems. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIGR Planning and management of marine science program, program management, funding support, aquanaut crew anE two backup crew members, surface scientific and diving support for marine science program, scientific and diving equipment for aquanaut crew, operational site in the Virgin islands National Park. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters: Program management, funding support, data management pro- gram, behavioral program support Manned Spacecraft Center: Planning and execution of NASA sleep studies, devel- opment of hematology program, develop emergency decompression tables. Marshall Spaceflight Center: Crew habitability program. Langley Research Center: Furnish, install and maintain mass spectrometer atmosphere analyzer, implementation of psychomotor experiment. GENERAL ELECTRC COMPANY Missile and Space Division: Habitat design and fabrication, scientific program integration assistance, preparation of scientific program planning documents, personnel and technical support for on-site operations. COAST GUARD Safety diver support personnel, diving watch officer on-site, supp2rt in imple- mentation and assessment of safety program. HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 7 ASSOCIATED SUPPORT University o- Pennsylvania: Biomedical program coordination and support, biomedical pre-dive base line data, post-dive biomedical diver assessment. College of the Virgin Islands: Marine science program support, site survey support, backup aquanaut. Battelle Memorial Institute: Engineering support to the Office of Naval Research, engineering review of Tektite I program. Particula' mention is made of the Navy SEABEEs' extensive and energetic work in Tektite i. The SEABEE force was comprised of officers and men from Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO, with additional SEABEE divers from both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The SEABEES were active through the project, both in implementing the Navy's engneering program and in supplying constructi n and maintenance services for all on-site Tektite facilities. Chapter 2 SYNOPSIS MISSION The missions of Tektite I were threefold: (a) to study the behavior and effectiveness of a small group of highly trained men to real work under stressed, isolated conditions, (b) to study biomedical responses of men living under high-nitrogen-partial-pressure saturated conditions in the marine environment for an extended period, and (c) for the men under study in (a) and (b) to conduct meaningful marine science research from an undersea habitat under the advantageous and disadvantageous boundary conditions imposed by saturation diving. Since the three missions are interdependent, equal emphasis had to be placed on each. Coincident with those three scientific missions was a Navy ocean engineering program to advance the scientific utilization of underwater habitats. The selected mission duration was 2 morhs, from February 15 to April 15, 1969. During this time the aquanaut scientists were saturated to a water depth of 43 feet, At the end of the mission, a decompression schedule approximately 20 hours long was required to return the aquanauts safely to the surface. SITE The site selected for Tektite I was Lameshur Bay, St. John Island, U.S. Virgin Islands (Fig. 1). This site is in the southeast quadrant of the island -- d within the boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park, which includes two-thirds of St. John Island and most of the offshore waters. Because Lameshur Bay is within the park, a special "use permit" was required from the Nationa Pa-k Service to conduct the project. Th, site selection was based on five primary factors: 1. Shallow water. The acceptable depth range of the habitat for conducting the satur.- ation dive on a mixture of 02 and N2 over the 0-day period was set at 40 to 60 feet. 2. Biological activity. The biological activity of the area selected had to be abundant to assure the ability to develop a valid continuous, long-duration marine science program. There was a great biological diversity of marine plant and animal species in Lameshur Bay enhanced by the presence off -tensive coral reefs. Since the waters of Lameshur are characteristic of the tropical waters of the Caribbean, South Pacific, and Indian Oceans, marine research conducted there would be applicable to many parts of the world. 3. Shelter from storm. In the January-to-May period required for the total Tektite I startup, operation, and withdrawal, the Lameshur Bay area was historically expected to be extremely sheltered from the sea. With the exception of one unseasonable storm, the predicted weather conditions prevailed. 4. Low subsurface water currents. Subsurface current conditions were less than 0.25 knot except during the unseasonable southerly sea condition experienced, when surge currents were estimated to be of the order of 0.5 knot. 8 SYNOPSIS 9 S ON ANEGADA ST JOHN (BR) ( JSA)~c ATLANTIC OCEAN PUrRfO ~ TORTOLA AULA IIC (OR) (OR) VICOGES THMS (USAIST. BARTHIELEMY 8 (PR) c:; 5 (FR)I ABD .CRO IX EUSTATIUSO 1BARU U.S, A I (NFEIHI SN r KITS (BR) (BR) C MONTSERRAT N GUADELOUPE eo (FR) IT JOHN SMARTINSUE £wV~ 9iFR) LAMESHURRA2 /ST LUCIA ( 0 (BR)I MILES cST VINCENT (BR) BARBADOS (BR) CARIBBEAN SEA OGRE NASA 12'j 0 ( 00 (OR) MILE S TRINIDAD Ek TOBAGO 66. 64-VENEZUEL2A Fig. 1 - Location of Larneshur Bay, Virgin Islands, the Tcktite i site 5. Logistics supportability. Logistics is a major problem to a project conducted in a remote location. This was a contributing factor in selecting the Virgin Islands site over other islands in the vicinity. Eveni so logistics were considerably more difficult than was envisaged. While nearby St. Thomas was the source of most operating supplies that were not originally brought in the installation phase, many componeats and services unique to this type of operation had to be obtained from the mainland and Puerto Rico, which entailed detailed expediting to minimize time and in-transit loss of materials. CREW Four marine scientists from the Dej..,xtinient of the Tnterior were the Tektite I aquanauts (Fig. 2): Richard A. Waller - Oceanographer, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Conrad V. W. Mahnken -Oceanogrrapher. BUreau of Commercial Fisheries John G. Van Derwalker -Fishery Biologist. Bureau of Comnmercial Fisheries H. Edward Clifton - Geologist, U.S. Geological1 Survey 10 PROJECT TEKTITE I PAWA Fig. 2 - Tektite I crew: left to right are z uanauts Clifton, Mahnken, Wailer, and Van Derwalker HABITAT The Tektite I habitat (Fig. 3) was designed and constructed by the General Electric Company and was furnished to the Navy under a bailment agreement. The habitat was installed nn the bottom of Lameshur Bay at a depth of 49 feet. The habitat hatch, 6 feet above the bottom, established the saturation depth of 43 feet. BASE CAMP To conduct the total Tektite I scientific mission, approximately 35 scientists and 65 support personnel were required. A base camp was constructed adjacent to Lameshur Bay (Fig. 4). This camp functioned as the living quarters for all Tektite I personnel, military and civilian, except the four aquanauts. PROJECT ORGANIZATION Although the Tektite I mission was 60 days in duration, the total time required to plar., execute, and evaluate the project was in excess of a year and a half. Project activ- ities during this time were divided into five phases which describe the evolution of Tektite I. Phase I: Detailed program plans, equipment design and fabrication, and base camp construction. During phase I, begun in early 1968, "he habitat and its supporting systems were designed and built, and the project's scientific programs were planned and coordi- nated. The facilities required for support at Lameshur Bay were designed and constructed. Baseline biomedical and psychological data were obtained. This phase ran through Jan- uary 8, 1969. when the Tektite I habitat was loaded aboard the USS Hermitage for ship- ment to the Virgin Islands. SY NO PSIS 1 Fig. 3 Artist'sr rndering ofthf Tc 'tite I habitat. A-t the left a.reh bridge an dthe crew' quarters, and at the right aethe machinr roo nd the . l room, wit a cuo a or tpw ih allo- 3tv-dc~rcc ic% - ~kit- ~~'- 4 ,* X ~ 12 PROJECT TEKTITE I Phase I: On-site preparation, equipment installation, and checkout. The major work during phase H began in January 1969, when the Tektite I habitat and its supporting equipment and personnel arrived at Lameshur Bay. The habitat and supporting equip- ment were installed. The marine science equipments were readied. The major remain- ing supporting logistics problems were solved. Upon final approval of the results of the svtems checkout of the habitat/surface control complex, phase III -'as initiated. Phase Ill: Major experiment phase. Phase Ill was, essentially, tv-e 66-day mission. Phase M began when the Tektite I habitat became operational and ended when the four aquanauts completed their decompression on April 16, 1969. Phase IV: Equipment withdrawal and dispersal. Phase IV was, essentially, the inverse of phase II. Phase 4 began on April 16, 1969, and was completed on June 10, 1969, when the last of the Tektite I material was removed from Lameshur Bay. Phase V: Reduction, -,nalysis, and distribution of data and results. Efforts during phase V were primarily directed toward the preparation and distribution of this Tektite I final report. I %IA,!RD P1RCXRAM MAN G;R SIN AS I I j1"RI~ ITXRA SI?1 ,R A l I l ' N*. , - S 1 . iv ' n if iy N . ag 'n c I t U t r 1 . s:. t tO Io tiit m ' 11 1 : ,11 SYNOPSIS 13 The Tektite I Program Plan and Operation Plan documented the scientific and oper- ational organization and conduct of the projt t. The Tektite I Program Plan was prepared by General Electric as a part of their contract task, and contained four parts: Scientific Mission Requirements Plan, Safety Plan, Transportation and Assembly Plan, and Emplace- ment Plan. The Tektite I Operation Plan was promulgated by the Chief of Naval Research. The Operation Plan implemented the on-site portions of the project, designated command structures, and delineated standard and emergency bills. A primary function of the Oper- ation Plan was the establishment and implementation of project safety standards and procedures. The Operation Plan identifi.?d two distinct organizational authorities: administrative andoperational(Fig. 5). The administrative authority (Fig. 5a) was primarily concerned with the scientific management of Tektite I and remained constant throughout all of the project's five phases. The operational authority was in effect only during the three operational phases (i.e., Phases I, Il, and IV). The operational authority for Phases II and IV (Fig. 5b) reflects the requirement for engineering responsibility during these phases. The operational organization for the sixty day major experiment phase, Phase Il, is shown in Figure 5c. AMPHIBIOUS CONSTRUCTION NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING COMMAND: BATTALION TWO OFFICER IN CHARGE OF CONSTRUCTION (CDR V. Skrinak) (CDR W.I. E',er, CEC GENERAI El ECTFRIC -ABITAT ENGINEERING (,Ir. B. rh,,n ps,, AM IMI O( S (CONTRUC"rIN.. . . .. ... | 'ATTAI ION TWO F L ( ;1' FN6INFWRS \NBD E II ACNIEN 1 {'tNICIANS L. F' IG.0T1 F. Fusl " vI L .. . .. . 'T' ll .' ssi n'-t A' rr- itir-d V ig . hif - t pcia : i i', ', L t - 111i'" ( .t -1 ,l: I .%, 14 PROJECT TEKTI FE 1 "? ; ' ;',' - - - k <'- . ' 1 44'7 ti.i 1.4 +44: ' I I -' 4444 ' ' '',7 444 4 r M *'' D' T"4 , .t: Fic. DC - 0 rational Or .ganization Str ncttrc' (Phase 1I SAFETY The fort most consideration throughout TEKTITE I was the safety of the personnel involved, particularly the aquanauts. The impact of extensive safety consciousness is evident in all aspects of TEKTITE I. Because the aquanauts were saturated to a depth of 42 f 'et, the biggest potential hazard was decompression sickness ('bends" ) resulting from inadvertent surfacintj,. As part of the biomedic:! research program, emergency decompression schedules were prepared as treatment for accidential surfacing. In addition, particular emphasis was placed on preventing situations that might cause the aquanauts to surface. Th situatioas considered most likely to cause aquanaut surfacing (other than a habitat disaster) were an aquanaut's becoming lost, or his losing or expiring his air supply. Way stations, equipped with an air supply and sound-powered phones linked to the habitat, were ' ,cated near to the habitat. When the itquanauts made excursions from the habitat, they would be accompanied by a surface craft manned by divers ready to offer immediate assistace. The aquanauts carried colored floats which they would release to signal that assistance was required. On routine :'"luanaut swims ne-Ar the habi- tat, lookouts stationed on the support barge replaced the surface boat crews. The TEKTITI ,uanaut safety program was hiihly organized, The Operation Plan designated the individuals responsible for safety, and these persons organized watch schedules, s.aety procedures. and emergency bills. In addition to the diving b),a t rewS which accompamied the aquanauts on their excursions, watch crews i;uned the surf:ce decompression facility, the watch director's post and medical watch post, and support barge equipment around the clock. Training drills were frequently conducted to minimize the time required to recover and treat a surf-iced aquanaut. No on-site project accidents involving pers, nnei injury were experienced dturinc the entire ' KTITE I operation. Thus it was shown that saturation diwves of the TEKTITE type can je conducted safely, provided that a riv ,rous safety program is implemented. s further experience is gained, the safety factor added for uncertainty can be reduced to a degree. and the advantages of saturatio n diving: may be more fully oxploited. Chapter 3 SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS INTRODUCTION The major program elements of Tektite I were marine science, life sciences, and ocean engineering The goals and known accomplishments of each ii these program ele- ments are given in the following paragraphs. MARINE SCIENCE PROGRAM The goal of the marine science program as planned was twofold: (a', a number of individual marine ecological, biological, and geological studies integrated into a 60-day time period, and (b) an evaluation of zhe use of saturation diving techniques f rom an undersea habitat to accomplish the studies planned in (a). Th , wide variety of planned experiments and observations are summarized in Table 1. The marine science program was developea to explore the wide range of potential research made possible by undersea habitation. More research was planned than could be accomplished during the mission so the aquanauts could select those areas best suited to the situation. Thus several of the experiments shown in Table I were not carried out because the aquanauts decided to use their time in studies resulting from their explor- atory surveys of the ocean floor. The aquanauts' decisions to exclude certain pianned studies in favor of unplanned studies were based on their asscssr.-ents of the relative importance of the particular work. In addition, time available to carry out scientific work was limited by a variety of other reasons, such as equipment malfun,-tion and other unforeseen circumstances. For example, habitat operational problems at t., beginning of the mission consumed a great deal of the aquanauts' time. Iuring the 60-d'-v mission, the aquanauts spent 432 man-hours outside ,)f their habitat. Toward thie end of the mission individual aquanauts were spending as much as 5 hours per day in the water. The limiting factor on this time and on the range of oper- ations was the enduranve capability of the equipment and the time required for rectharging the scuba tanks. The aquanauts were assisted in their marine research tasks by a .urface diving scientific support tean. This team, composed of tt ree alternates for the aquanauts in the habitat, complemented the studies conducted fron. "hv habitat b% extetinri the marine research into areas beyond the horizontal range or vc -:cal limits of the aquanauts. This surface team was augmented dluring the mission by vi.'itiig scientists from the Depart- ment of the Interior. LIFE SCIENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM The behavioral program was planned to provide data on the characteristics of crew behavior which could be extrapolated to future manned missic:ns in space and Undersea research. The emphases of the behavior study were crew size and selection criteria. quarters size and habitability, and use of time in mission performance. The restraint of 15 c- 16 PROJECT TEKTITE I isolation (saturated diving) and the reality of the crew's mission (marine science) both contributed to the significance of the study. A qualitative summary of the behavioral program is given in Table 2. Table 1 Tektite I Marine Science Program Experiment Objecti,, Oceanography Environmental factors Record water temperature, salinity, prcssure, cur- rent vectors, surface and internal waves, and bio- liminescence at the habitat and remote locations. Plankton analysis Determine the types and relative abundance of plank- tonic organisms in the water column, their fluctua- tions in time, and the extent of their vertical migra- tions (Fig. 6). P. coustics Evaluate a side-scanning sonar for signatures of separate fish species, for animal and diver tracking, and for te effects of environmental variations on sonar perforn.ance. (This experiment was not ini- tiated due to equipment difficulties.) Ecology Spiny lobster behavior Validate tagging tecaniques for general marine pop- ulation studies (Figs. 7 and 8). Spiny lobster population Understand population size, growth, and mortality. Lobstering and fishing Compare effectiveness and selectivity of different gear for catching lobsters and reef fish. Day-night periodicity Understand foraging, mating, and predatory activ- ities during the full diurnal cycle. Effects of the habitat Calibrate the influence of the habitat on the local faun2 and flora. Light attraction Evaluate multicolored underwater lights as artificial attractants. Artificial reefs Evaluate through periodic sampling the population on prenositioned artificial reefs. Geology Geological bottom Mapping Obtain control data for geological experiments. Biogenous sand Relate biogenous sand to the source organisms and study reef growth and destruction. Reef diagenesis and Study the reef strL.cture and history. lithification Effects of organisms on Study the mechanisms and rates of the reworking of sedimentation sedJiments by organisms. Storm modifications Study the degree of modification of bottom sediments by storms. Carbonate mud De'.ermine the rate and type of changes in the com- position, of carbonate mud as the result of organic decay. Bottom rock weathering Compare submarine and subaerial weathering of rocks. Sedimentology techniques Develop habitat-based sedimentology experimental technique, and evaluate surface-operated instruments. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 17 Fig. 6 - Aquanaut adjusting a standpipe in an exper- irnent to measure plankton in the water column at various heights above the ocean floor Fig. 7 - Aquanauts engaged in spiny lobster studies. The lobster s were captured and tagged with identifying metal tags or tiny acoustic transmitters, and reieased. Th-y could then be observed and identified to sti. i their migrator habits. 18 PRCJEC"I TEKTITE ! Fig. 8 - Aquanaut tracking a tagged lobster with an acoustic directional receiver Table 2 Tektite I Behavior Program Experiment ] Objectives Crew behavior measures: general activity, Evaluate long-term work per- task performance efficiency, social relations, formance under hazardous, operational and interpersonal communica- isolated conditions. Relate tions, personal habits, emotional adjustment, observed crew behavior to psychological traits, psychomotor perfor- physiological and medical mance, and sleep (electroencephalography) indices. Crew selection study Obtain crew selection, compo- sition, and training data for use in later space and undersea missions. Human performance study Determine human performance criteria for application to long- duration, high-stress situations. Habitability study Measure individual and crew response to features of working and living facilities. Data collection study Develop and refine data collec- tion methods in an operational environment. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 19 Paramount to the success of the behavioral program was the accurate identification and collection of data which could be used as a measure of behavior functions. Data col- lection was automated to the maximum extent. For example, the times that the divers were out of the habitat were automatically recorded. Data based on the observation of the aqua- nauts were also recorded in real ime. Teams of observers monitored the crew for up to 18 hours per day and recorded the visual (television) and audio (open microphone) obser- vptions of parameters such as mood, status, and preferences directly on computer cards using predetermined formats (Figs. 9 and 10). During the 60-day mission, over 400,000 individual ouservations were made and recorded for subsequent evaluation (Fig. 11). In addition to observation by television and open microphones, oehavioral and habitability data were obtained from records, logs, and questionnaires completed before, during, and after ]ie operation by the aquanauts. Another source of behavioral data was sleep research to evaluate the quality and quantity of the aquanauts' sleep for possible correlation with observed behavior. Of par- ticular interest were the possible effect of hyperbaric conditions upon sleep and the rela- tionship of sleep patterns to waking activities. Sleep logs and electrophysiological (EEG) recordings were used for sleep evaluation. Sleep logs were maintained by all four aqua- nauts, and EEG recordings were obtained from aquanauts Clifton and VanDerwalker using somewhat standard electrodes. Electrodes were fitted to make contact with aquanaut Waller's cranium via a newly developed skull cap, developed by NASA, which incorporated contact electrodes. Brain wave data were recorded on both magnetic tape and paper. Electronic, real time, partial processing on-site by NASA neuropsychophysiologists of the sleep log and other EEG data indicated that the aquanauts did not have major sleep difficulties. They slept longer (8-plus hours) and stayed in deeper sleep (slow sleep wave) for a longer time as the mission progressed. The Tektite I sleep data indicate that man can adapt to nitrogen saturation and live on the ocean floor for productive work without suffering from sleep deprivation. LIFE SC!ENCES BIOMEDICAL PROGRAM The biomedical program had as its twofold purpose the aquanauts' medical safety _:id the evaluation of possible physiological effects of long-term saturated diving on the aqua- nauts. Throughout mission planning and execution the safety of the aquanauts was always foremost. Prior to the mission each aquanaut was given a detailed medical examination. During the mission, daily and weekly medical status assessments of each of the aquanauts were made to assure their continuing health. Upon decompression a detailed postdive examination was made of each of the divers to ascertain any changes in the aquanauts' physiological condition. Because of the exploratory nature of a saturated dive using a nitrogen/oxygen mix- ture, a major objective of the biomedical prog ....... .btain physiological data on the possible effects of this type of saturation under ci, ontrolled conditions. The aqua- nauts were saturated at a depth of 43 feet on a habitat gas mixture of 92% nitrogen, /0 oxygen. Their scuba tanks, used for excursions from the habitat, contained compressed air with a composition of 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen. Particular attention was given to the functioning of the pulmonary, blood, and nervous systems of the aquanauts. A week of detailed medical examinations was administered prior to the mission at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital Research Center by a select group of medical specialists, which provided baseline measurements for each aquanaut. A summary of the biomedical areas of investigation is given in Table 3. 20 PROJECT TEKTITE I or Fig. 9 - Behavioral observers monitoring and recording the aquanauts interactions with the ha bit a t and environment. Four of the six TVrnonitors presentviews of each of the four habitat compartments, and two were available for under- water TV cameras. A video tape recorder (left) stands ready to record significant events. Fig. 10 - Behavioral observers shown in Fig. 9 and a behavioral scientist supervisor. Automatically re- corded data is processed by the consoles behind the supervisor's post. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 21 MfAN U AL MACHINE REMOTE LAB NAVAL BIOL. PUNCHED PUNCHED REPORTS ETC. LAB.,OAKLAND MSC HEMATOLOGY LAMESHUR LAB., HOUSTON BAY, V.I. BCF, SEATTLE ETC. LISTING CODED BELLCOMM, \ fRS O BH. MARINE EDETAILED ANALYSIS COPIES TO BASE CAMP, G.E., ONR WEEKLY SUMMARY INTERIOR, ANALYSIS PROGRAM NASA, ETC. i " I STATUS TO MASTER AS DTATU REPORT I TAPESTE 'NOVERALL B EH. B I OMED (aA TN E CTC MASTER END OF MISSION.PREPARE FINAL DATA COPIES OF REPORT RY AND MASTER TAPES SUMMA-TAPESTO ONR, INTERIOR, ! NASA, G.E., ETC. FOR \PRT/ = FINAL FURTHER ANALYSIS .._1 SUMMARY AND FINAL WRITTEN DATA REPORTS. Fig. II - Tektite I digital data flov. 22 PROji CT TEKTITE I Table 3 Tektite I Biomedical Program Experiment T Objective Special Medical Examinations General medical exams, opthalmology, Determine the physical status of the dermatology, neurology, and audio- aquanauts as a health safeguard. vetibular studies Obtain physiological data to assess possible effects of the hyperbaric nitrogen/oxygen environment and prolonged immersion on vision, hearing acuity, skin, etc. Hematology Physical characterization of red-blood- Determine the effects of pressure and cell populations, studies of red cell gas mixture on blood composition and metaboi m, red-blood-cell radioiso- cell production. tope studies, immuno-hematology, and microtrauma and antigen induced inflammation Microbiology Bacteriology, virology, mycology, Determine the effect of prolonged aerobiology, and marine microbiology immersion on mans natural orga- nism balance. Respiratory/Pulmonary Respiratory control, pulmonary dif- Determine the effects of pressure and fusion, ventilatory function, and pulmo- gas on lung ventilation, respiratory nary resistance and compliance response, and carbon monoxide dif- fusion into Lhe diver's system. Diver Safety Studies Decompression Develop standard and emergency decompression tables for a high- nitrogen, hyperbaric atmosphere. Determine vertical excursion limits within which the divers can operate. Health assessment Monitor diver health and possible effects of hyperbaric environment. General Observations Data correlation 1 Correlate monitored physiological and medical data to observed crew bevir d rorance.j Certain functions were monitored during the mission by weekly examinations and samples. In addition, a roun-the-clock medical watch maintained close observation of the aquanauts via television. The primary medical difficulty of the aquanauts during their 60-day stay was ear infection, and the primary organism that caused the divers' ear infections was pseudomonas. Fungi did not appear to be involved. The extensive postdive medical examination conducted on-site was not able to deter- mine any significant variations in life functions which possibly could be attributed to the hyperbaric environment. The postdive examination revealed only one possible detrimental SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 23 facit-the discovery of a small occlusion in the right eye lens of aquanaut Clifton. This occlusion was off axis and did not interfere with Dr. Clifton's visual acuity. Dr. Clifton was the only aquanaut of the four having high-normal intraocular teilsion. Whether or r,)t this occlusion was due to the 2-month saturation dive is not known. There has been no known similar occurrence of occlusions in over 50 divers who have been saturated in the Navy's man-in-the-sea program. Examination several months after the postdive examination indicated the size of the occlusion had diminished considerably, making it difficuit for the ophthalmologists to find it. A closely related portion of the biomedical program was a microbiology study in which water, air, and swab samples were taken regularly in and around the habitat to ascertain the presence and relative occurrence of various types of microorganisms (Fig. 12). A number of questions had been raised with respect to prolonged isolated saturation diving, such as: (a) would the microbial population build up, (b) what changes would occur within the normal microflora of the aquanauts, and (c) would organisms indigenous to the aquanauts and their marine environme,, present a health problem ? 5- !o "rhl iicrw)ial ,.arri, r statc of the aquimaut did iot play a part in thu transmis, :on of disease in thu rvktitv I proi, rai. T!: is is ho rnt, o't by a Staphylococcus e, .A,_r study and the eidencc that Candid.i anllld Pr-otes re mai t'd associjated With a sil. .it i nd\'Iidu I! througlolt thc enti rc pro ran. The ni, rrobial popultti .n did not )Li ld up on the walls of tilt habitat durni : the 59 days of the study. The sanple sites ad not lbvn swabbed prior to obtaii ing the sample, thus the sample represented the in ic rof l"ora of hw wall over an incrca singly lon:e r period of tine. This microflora was in a stl' Of f4 l u with ne.w , inSn' co,1t tall °" bet'ornii1: associated with tilt- wall surf:icc w ,lc tVc old -r urg;aitsn- \,rt dv.i:. 24 PROJECT TEKTITE I The level of coliform organisms from the disposal of sewage into the environment did not attain a level sufficient to become a health hazard to the aquanauts. Conditions imposed in maintaining the habitat did not induce a latent virus infection, nor did the aquanauts acquire any demonstrable virus infection from the marine environment. The answers to the questions posed at the beginning of the program show that the pro- longed application of the environmental conditions and aquanaut interactions, as carried out in the Tektite I program, did not re.sult in any unusual microbiological hazard. The possible intrusion of a marine organism (Acinetobacter phenon 4-1) into the habitat and its establishment was of interest and may present a problem in future long-term studies of this type. Ear infections are common to this type of program and will probably remain so unless adequate prophylactics are used. The development of normal and emergency decompression schedules was another area of significant biomedical research. The tables developed are shown in Table 4. Although the normal decompression schedule developed for Tektite was prepared for an operational program, it became evident that the controlling tissue for nitrogen saturation decompression is far beyond the 240-minute level suggested by Workman.* The data col- lected during this series of dives supports the much longer controlling tissue described by Buhlmann.t Preparation of the emergency decompression tables by NASA subcon- tracts indicated that, should a nitrogen-saturated aquanaut inadvertently surface (explo- sively decompress from a saturation depth of 42 feet), a 15-minute period was available for safe recompression. The emergency decompression table used an overpressure return and early oxygen decompression for treatment of explosive decompression. INTEGRATED OCEAN FLOOR PROGRAM The Tektite I project required a detailed intermeshing of the scientific programs. A daily scenario covering the full 60 days was prepared prior to the project's start, scheauling the scientific programs in train with appropriate operational and administra- tive tasks. Sample scenarios for the first and last days of the mission as well as typi,-al days during the mission are shown in Fig. 13. The biomedical and psychological events were to the maximum possible extent concentrated on one day per week (Wednesday). This allowed the aquanauts maximum uninterrupted time for their own research on the other days of the week. A typical biomedical examination day is shown in Fig. 13 as day 5. Day 17 is typical of the week's remaining days. The biomedical and psychological programs closely followed the scenario. Although the biomed!.cal samplings on the first such days took longer than planned, the aquanauts and ,'mtrface personnel soon established smooth routines for taking samples and for promptly transferring them to the surface. The behavioral program was primarily con- ducted by monitoring from the surface, with minimum interference to the aquanaut crew. OR. D. Workman, "Calculation of Decompression Schrdoilvq for Nitrogen-Oxygen and Hblxnn--Oxvgcn D.vcs," U.S. Na ivy Experimental Di\ ng Unit Research Report )-65, 1965, TA. A, Buhl:namn. P. Frci, azid N. Keller, "Saturation and Desaturttion with N. and lie it 4 At., osphkres," J. Appl. Phvlsiol. 21:458-t62 (1%167). IP, 0. Edel, "Delineation of Emergency Surface Decon',pression mid T, eatment Proce- dures for Project Tektite ..\quanxlitq , J and J Marine Diving Co., Inc., Pasadeni, Texas, Apr. 20, 1',t 0 . SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 25 Table 4 Tektite I Decompression Schedules Dept et Sp Deconiprcssio( i Time Dth t Sp L Breathin! Media Ifti mini Total 1 Oye Normal Decompression Schedule 42' 12T 12 0 Air 30 120 132 0 Air 5 137 0 Air 25 200 337 0 Air 5 342 0 Air 20 170 512 0 Air 20 30 542 30 Oxygen # 5 547 35 Oxygen 15 20 567 35 Air 15 30 597 65 Oxygen 15 20 617 65 Air 15 30 647 95 Oxygen 15 20 667 95 Air 15 30 697 125 Oxygen 15 ?n 717 125 Air 15 30 747 155 Oxygen 5 752 160 Oxygen 10 60 812 160 \ir 10 30 842 190 Oxygen 10 20 862 190 Air 10 30 892 220 Oxygen 10 20 912 220 Air 10 40 952 260 5 957 265 Oxygen 200 1157 265 Air 5 1162 265 Air (19 hr (4 hr 22 min, 25 min 1 Emergency Recooprtssion nd Decoipression Follow ing an Explosi-e Decompievs0ion I nadve rtent Surfacing) --"60 20 J 20 0 1 Ox-ygen 1 25 Ox250 'v: 55 20 45 25 Air 5 50 25 Air 00 20 70 4 5 Ov en 75 50 45 20 95 50 Air f 5 100 50 AIr 0 20 120 70 Oxyg.n 15 135 0 Air 25 60 195 70 Air ,,200 I 0 Air 20 i0 290 70 Ar 20 30 32o 100 Oxygefn 4 f,5 103 oxvgen 13 90 415 103 Air 15 60 47 165 Ox v gn 4 5 480 1 1; A; r 10 120 600 165 Air 10 60 660 2"5 Ox; 11 5~ ~ 1 5 20 thN ,'n 5 15t:, t i 30 Ai r .,6 665 230 Ox; iro f5' 51 20 Aur 14 ! r 4 A, 'un':,1 min S v 14.4c" 26 PROJECT TEKTITE I Ilime D)ay I Day 5 ay1 Day 59 Day 60 0000 0400) Sleep IDepart habitat 0430 B__ egin 0500 Biomedicaldeo reio 0630 baralyme change Mrn roc 0"BREAKFAST, BRAILhIE CHANGE: Blomedicil PSYCHOMOTOR TEST _____ 110 A~uanut jc Marine science Emergency 130 Drills and ______ ___ _______ Habitat Lunh ach: 1200 Famalilarization J _wtch p-hootortet 1300 Lunch Bimedical I 500 Hbia 1700 Hatten gineering evaluation; check emergency air bottles: change baraiyme- 1800 Supper, crew conference 1900 Medical status evaluation N1Midal status Transfer samples to sraech gescuas tanks;-_ evaluation, prepare 1930 psychomotor test, sre c ae to leave hAbitat 2100 SECURE 0PRATIONiS SET NIGHT WATCH -A~I 2n d sdctln. cehlot !hhueloral): attach EEG leads Mood dtclve -2200 Cr v retires. lleep EComplete L~~ 240decompression Fig. 13 - Typical days from the Tektite I integrated ocean flooi program scenario Postinission analysis has shown that the aquanauts were able to spend almost a third of their 'bottomn time conducting mission -oriented work. The total bottom time was cata- gorized into six major activities and average daily times, in hours per aquanaut, were found for each activity: Scientific work (5.5 hours , habitat maintenance (1.9), s-If iniain- tenance (2.7), recreation (3.0), rest and relaxation (10.7), and transit (0.2). ENGINEERING PROGRAM The TEKTITE I engineering program had a two-foldl objective: (a) to provide ::. hab- itat system within which the TEKTITE I scientific programs cou.d be conducted, and (b) to gain experience in oce-in engineering and in the conduct of underwater programis that would be of future benefit to others. This entailed designing and fabricating the .abltat and its supporting systems, transporting the habitat to the n'roject site in the Virgin Islands and emplacing it in Lamneshur Bay, maintaining the habitat duriniz the 2-month mission, evaluating its performance duruig this period, and recoveriwlt :uid returning the habitat and its supporting systems. Gene. al Electric Company was tasked. under Office of Naval R~esearch Contract N00014-68C-0356,withi furnishingthe Tek-tite I habitat, integrating the program scientific equipment into the habitat, defining th~e support sirvir'e (jower. air, water) requirements SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 27 for the habitat, ass>, ting in the integration of the habitat with its support systems, and maintaining the habitat for the duration of the mission. The Navy had project responsibility for designing and constructing support systems to meet the habitat service requirements, integrating the habitat service requirements, integrating the habitat with its support systems, transporting the entire assemblage to the Virgin Islands site and returning it, preparing the ocean floor at the experiment site, and emplacing the habitat and its supporting systems at the experiment site. Habitat and Support Systems Assembly The TekLite I habitat was designed and constructed by the General Electric Company at the Missile and Space Division, Valiey Forge, Pennsylvania. The habitat was fabricated in three sections: the two habitat cylinders and the base (Fig. 3). The two cylinders were assembled and tested as components in Valley Forge. The base was fabricated under General Electric subcontract in Philadelphia. A more complete description of the habitat wili he given in Chapter 4. The habitat suppor t sys' ,ns were designed by the Naval Facilities Engineering Com- mand to meet hab;+at service specifications provided by General Electric. Fabrication of these systems on the support barge (to be described in Chapter 4) was by Amphibious Construction Battalion Two (PHIBCB TWO). Fabrication was initiated at the PHIBCB TWO facility in Norfolk, and completed at the Tektite I embarkation point, the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. The three major habitat components were individually transporter! to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where the habitat was totally assembled for the first time. Alter assembly of the two cylinders on the base, the base was ballasted and the assembled habitat pneumo- statically tested to 28 psig. After completion of the pressure test, each habitat suosystem was O)(rationally tested. Habitat Tr. us tx)rtat ion The Tektite I habit,. was assembled on a Navy AMMI .arge (Fig. 14), and for trans- portation to the Virgin Islands the barge and habitat were floated into tl'e well-deck of a ballasted-down landing ship dock (LSD) (Fig. 15). Upon loading, the LSD was debQllasted, leaving the habitat barge on the dry floor of the LSD well for the open-sea trip to the site. Upcn arrival in Lamshur Bay the LSD was again ballasted down, and the habitat and bar e were floated to the 1habitat launch ske. There the habiat and the support systems were fully integrated and checked. The habitat was 1launched" by contiolled sinkng of the AMMI barge fron under the habitat (using pilings driven into the Bay bottom as guides) until the habitat floated (Fig. 16). The habitat was towed to the eXperiment site, and winched to the bottom and the floodable ballast tanks flooded. Newly devcloped Navy AMMI barges were selected for the habitat launch barge and the support barge. The AMMI barge, in addition to floating like an ordinary barge, may also x jacked up out of the water on pilings which act as stilts. The AMMI barge is also compartmented, which with only minor mi,'iication allows it Lo bie progressively flooded for controlled sinking The Trektite I habitat could not be floated directly into the LSD Nk ell-deck becausz" the 24-foot draft of the ballasted and assembled habitat (310,000 lb was deeper than the maxi- nmum water depth in a fully-ballasted-down LSD Nell-deck. Therefore, a shallow-draft barge was required to carry the habitat -nd to launch it, sin-v high-capacity crane service was not availablc in L ameshur Bay. It. ::vof the AMMI barge to transport and launch 28 PROJECT rEKTITE I the Tektite I habitat demonstrated the capability of the AMMI to handle deep-draft, heavy loads, such as habitats ana submersibles. It must be recognized, however, that the AMMI launch system is limited to shallow water, since ruide pilings io assist in controlling descent must be driven into the bottom. Also, the AMMI launch system is sensitive to sea motions and requires calm water such as found in Lameshur Bay. Engineering Evaluation An engineering evaluation was made of how well the habitat and the supporting systems met the requirements of the scientific users. It is generally agreed that the habitat as a whole provided a comfortable and livable home for the Tektite I long-duration, shallow- water, saturated dive. As a laboratory it was not optimum, but it was adequate. Although small problems did occur, the majority of the habitat and support systems equipment functioned as designed, and this contributed significantly to the safe completion of the project. Fig. 14 - Tektite I habitat being assembled on a Navy AMMI barge at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. At the right ic: the support barge with habitat support systems. A serious problem was in the CO 2 scrubber system. About 36 hours after the aqua- nauts entered the habitat the C0 2 level rose to 10.2 Lorr (1.34% surface equivalent by vol- ume), higher than the generally accepted upper limit of 1% surface equival "nt in closed hyperbaric environments and higher than the design value of 2 torr. Corrective action, including removal of C02 fire extinguishers and use of a makeshift scrubber, lowered the CO 2 to ali acceptable level. For the next 2 weeks the baralyme absorbent was changed every 4 hours, to keep the CO 2 at a nominal level of 6 to 7 torr. A portable scrubber in- stalled on March 1 allowed 8 hours between baralyme changes. Under actual mission con- ditions, the scxibber efficiency was considerably lower than during prior tests. The re- moial of C02 from a closed hyperbaric environment remains a critical problem in ocean habitation. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 29 ~iI Fig. 15 - Habitat (left) on an AMMI barge being floated aboard the USS Hermitage at the Philadel ">ia Naval Shipyard for transportation to the Virgin Islands Fig. 16 - Habitat being launched by sinking the AMMI barge out from under it. T. e four pilings at the barge corners guided and controlled the descent of the flooded barge. Other lesser engineering problems were encountered. Initially it was planned to place two underwater television cameras outside the habitat. One of these malfunctioned prior to the mission and was not used. The other camera functioned only part of the timc during the mission and was of little real value. The sound powered phones in the way stations were susceptible to water seepage through their protective cases, and were seldom used by the aquanauts. In general, the initial st bilization of the habitat systems, and subsequent maintenance, required more time than planned. This resulted in a reduction of time available for scientific A ork by the aquanauts. This situation could be alleviated by including an engineer or technician as an aquanaut in future scientific missions where crew isol.ticn ;1 a criterion. Otherwise, mantewinc xvd repairs could be accomplished in diving visits by a surf,% cc-based engineer or technician. Chapter 4 FACILITIES iNTRODUCTION The Tektite I facilities, shown in Fig. 17, consisted of the TeKitite I habitat, a support barge, a crane barge (with decompression facilities), a causeway pier. and a base camp. In addition to these major facilities, transportation, communications, ,nd logistics systems were vital supporting functions provided. These facilities provided support for the four aquanauts in their undersea research mission, support for surface personnel .nvoived in the collection and analysis of marine science, life science, and eagineering data, and support for all other personnel directly associated with the project. BASE CAMP UNPAVEDj ROAD LITTLE LAMESHUR CAUSEWAY BAY BIER GRE AT LAMESHUR BAY SUPPORT BARGE < AND CRANE BARGE I UMBILICAL HABITAT - CABRITTE POINT Fig. 17 - tektite I site at St. John, Virgin Islands HABITAT A cutaway view of the habitat was shown in Fig. 3. Elevation and plan views of the habitat are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The habitat consisted of two pressure hulls attached 30 FACILITIES 31 2.5 FT DWA CUPOLA TUNNEL VIE WINC PORT RGEEQUIPMENT PRESSURE HULL 18 FT CE SUPPORT LEGS UPPORT BASE SEA FLCO)R Fig. 18 -Side view Of the Tektite I habitat RDG vCROSSOVER ROOM QUARTERSDDE Fig. T 19 BL - l n ve s i he h btt oLh abia o p r m n 32 PROJECT TEKTITE I to a rigid base, connected by a pressurized crossover tunnel. The two cylinders were divided into two compartments each: bridge, crew quarters, equipment room, and wet room. Six hemispherical viewing ports and a cupola were provided for crew observation and safety monitoring purposes. The bridge served a dual purpose: as control center for the habitat system and as a dry laboratory for the aquanauts (Figs. 20 through 22). The crew quarters (Fig. 23) contained four bu7nks, a small galley, storage space for personal gear, and entertainment facilities (radio and television). In addition, an emergency exit hatch was located in the crew quarters (Fig. 24). The equipment room (Figs. 25 and 26) contained the environ- mental control system, the primary electrical transformers and switches, die frozen food locke~r, and the crew toilet facilities. The cupola was mounted above the equipment room. The wet room (Figs. 27 and 28) served a dual role: a place for the aquanauts to don, doff, and store their scuba gear and a wet laboratory for specimen preparation. Fig. ZO - Aquanauts Van Derwalker and Wailer checking the habitat systems on the bridge of the habitat. Note the psy- chornoter test device at the lower right and the emergency escape bottles under the circular port to the left The atmospheric pressure inside the habitat was maintained at water pressure in the entry trunk, which was left open to provide an air-s interface for diver entry and exit. Because the habitat was secured and pressurized during emplacement the pressure hull of the habitat was designed In accordance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels. The base of the habitat rested directly on the ocean floor. When emplaced, the total negative buoyancy of the habitat was 10 tons to assure stability under normal sea condi- tions. Jetted and clump anchors, to which the habitat was tied, constituted a redundant bottom moor for additional holding force to meet unusual sea conditions. FACILITIES 33 A Fig. 21 -Habitat bridge (photographed during construction) Fig. -Z Cros sove r tutnrel from the bridge to the eqiiilt roomt (photographed during construction) 34 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. Z3 -Crew quarters (photographeld prior to launching) with sleeping, cooking, and entertainment facilities l'ig. ' - Crv\% quart exs (pIhotographecd pioru to I -iichxlg, wi t h t he c n i v k a pehat ch s lio' n op n 1 ote v Ie1 storage s paces b helird the twNo bunks and the TV \ ainvva at the upper riht. FACILITIES 35 Fig. 2-'n Equipment room an(1 c rossover t u n e I to the bridg- (photoL r-hd dur ini, const r action). On the left is air conditioning equti nnft, and cw the right is a I idde r to l'I Cupola. r : t a .1 36 IpROJECT TEKTrrTE i Fig. 27- Entry hatch into the %wet room (during construc- tion). Left of the ha t ch is the scubai c h ar g inIg station. Fi. Wct i-ooun kourl.~ tr.l lctwr. Letft to right Alre the %%'"-t 1.bolrItrV cuw 11er, the fr~l\ t:hot shw.ie , Au.v u e,\.' L" thue c" 1:1n FACILITIES 37 Air Supply, Pressure, and Atnv-spheric Control The habitat was initially pressurized on the surface to the emplacement depth pressure of approximately 2.3 atmospheres by compressed air. The operational habitat nominal oxygen partial pressure (p0 2) of 160 torr (mm Hg) was obtained by displacing air with nitrogen after the habitat was secured to the ocean floor. This resulted in a mixture of 92% nitrogen, 8c oxygen. During the operation, compressed air was continually supplied to the habitat via an umbilical by low-pressure air compressors on the support barge to provide metabolic oxygen to the habitants and to maintain the pO 2 between 151 and 165 torr. The required flow rate of inlet air to the habitat was 16 to 24 SCF/hr (standard cubic feet per hour). The flow rate was manually controlled but was based on measuredp0 2 levels. A con- tinual stream of the habitat atmosphere was dumped through vents in the entrance trunk to the sea. thus maintaining the habitat pressure at the sea pressure at these trunk vents. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) generated by the crew was removed by a Baralyine scrubber. The scrubber system consisted of two blowers (one redundant), a Baralyme canister, and associated valves and piping Habitat air was forced by the blower through the Baralyme, where CO 2 was absorbed, and the air then was directed in proportional parts to each of the four compartments. The habitat Baralyme system was designed to operate 12 hours on a chemical charge. However, to maintain an acceptable CO 2 level (8 torr or less) during the mission, it became necessary for the crew to change the chemical approx- imately every 4 hours. An additional CO2 scrubber was subsequently used; this reduced the frequency of Baralyme change to once every 12 hours. Baralyme resupply from the surface was necessary because of lack of storage space. Atmosphere Monitoring System The habitat atmospheric monitoring equipment, the monitored parameters, and the acceptable parameter limits are shown in Table 5. Early in the mission, the mass spec- trometer (NASA atmosp 'ere analyzer) in the habitat failed, requiring additional surface monitoring equipment. After removal by the aquanauts and transfer topside, the mass spectrometer was repaired. retransferred below, and put back into operation. After mal- function again en the 46th day of the mission, the unit was no longer used. Thermal Control The thermal control system maintained the habitat air temperature and humidity. removing Kat and excess moisture from the air, Four heat exchangers were used, one per compartnient. Connected to each heat exchanger were a blower for air circulation, a charcoal filter for odor removal, and an electrical reheater. The air was dehumidified I:y condensing water vapor on the heat exchanger coils, thus requiring reheating the air to the desired temperature. Relative humidity was maintained between 42T and 60'Y,. Emergeivy Ail, Systems Emergency air systems provided were a surface air supply svst( 'n, a purge system. a habitat emergency air supply sv!tem. a built-in breathing (Bi system, ,nd escape air bottles. Upon the first failure of the mass .pectrometer. the emerrelcx, 131B was used, since the carbon lr,,.- els rose abruptly. The surface emergcn('v air supply was aboard the support I)are ,,d co nsisted of two 8000--SCF (ai 2200 psi" compressed air cylinders. This system served as a backup 38 PROJECT TEKTITE I Table 5 Tektite I Atmosphere Monitoring Parameters and Equiprnnt Equipment pta , Equipment Backup Equipment Constituent Monitoring Operating -.. - - --- _... Range Range Habitat Sui face Habitat Surface 0, 0-450 torr 151-165 torr Mass spectrometer Servomex A0150 MSA O meter Beckman F3 0, analyzer 0, analyzer CO2 0-15 torr 0-8 torr Mass spectrometer Perkin-Elmer 810 Detector tube Beckman 1R215 gas chromatograph infrared H 20 0-10r(, RH 30-7 - RH Mass spectrometer Perkin-i"ner 810 RH gage CO, analyzer *gas chromatograph N, 0-2000 torr 1570-1500 tor"! Mass spectrometer Perkln-Elmer 810 Pressure gage I gas chromatograph CO 10-3000 ppm 0-15 ppm Detector tube Perkin-Elmer 810 Detector tube gas chromatograph Hydrocarbons 1-5 times See Spec. Detector tube Perkin-Elmer 810 Sampie to acceptable TEE 17-5001 gas chromatograph P.R. Freon 12 C 2U00 ppm 0-1500 ppm Detector tube Perkin-Elmer 810 and 22 gas chromatograph Particulates 0-100 mg m' 0-25 mg m' Air Sampler Detector tube to the support barge air compressors. In the event of compressor failure, compressed air would have been supplied automatically from these tubes. The purge system was designed to change 90'(, of the air within the habitat within 4 hours in the event of major contamination of the habitat atmosphere and return the habitat atmosphere to 8(,.O2 92 , N,. The system used a 125-SCF min, 100-psi diesel- driven air compressor and nitrogen storage cylinders located on the support barge to supply gas to the habitat via the air supply umbilical. In operatic'-. air from the com- pressor would replace habitat air until gas sampling indicated a satisfactory atmosphere had been attained. Nitrogen would then be introduced to the system to reduce the pO, to within allowable limits. If practical, - rmal operation of the habitat would then have been resumed. The habitat emergency air supply consisted f 23 240-SCF compressed air cylinders in the habitat base. This emergency air suF- 1, could be activated by the crew in the event of normal air supply failure. This system was designed such that the emergency air would he introduced into the normal habitat air distribution system in the event of topside compressor or umbilical failure. In the event of atmospheric contamination within the habitat, this emergency air could be supplied to the BIB systen. The BIB system provided 12 breathing stations within the habitat to be used in the event of atmospheric contamination. In this mode. air was available for 12 hours dura- tion. The line, pressure to each BIB station was maintained at 100 psi. and demand regulator hose assemblies and face masks were attached at each station. Of the twelve BIB stations, four were in th,. crew quarters. four were in the wet room, and two each were In the bridge and equipment rooms. Each PIB had a ho5se long enough to reach to adjacent compartments. Eight escape air hottlen with rek'.lators. hose.;, and mouthpieces w,'re available to provide capability to move about inside the habitat under conditions r.'quiring BIB breath- ing, and to esc,pp from th- habitat to the personnel transfer capsule. Each bottle had -n 18- SCF capacity, .&ficient for approximate:y 7 minutes breathing. Fou" bottles were in the crew quarters. and tNo 'at were In the bridge and equipment room. None were required In the wet r(om, since scuha g:ear stored there could serve the same purlxse. FACILITIES 39 Communication, Electrical, and Sanitary Systems Tbe communication systems (Table 6) provided aural and visual communication between the habitat and the support barge. The bridge, which was the habitat communi- cation center, was connected to the surface command facility via intercom, . Md-powered phones, and voice sonar. Each compartment was equipped with an intercom station connecting it with the other compartments and the surface, an open mike and clcsed- circuit television camera for the behavi rat program, and audible and visible alarms. The bridge could monitor the open mil-- and the closed circuit television cameras. In the wet room was a timer for recor 'ing the times that each diver left and entered the habitat, for the behavioral program. Table 6 Tektite I Communication Systems Purp Q.iantity HABITAT EQUIPMENT rBehavio-raldat a .4 TV cameras in habitat acquisition 2 TV monitors in habitat 4 Open microphones in hibitat 1 Diver-in'out panel in wet root, Crew activity monitoring switch set i crew quarters Normal or 1 Sound-powered phone link in bridge emergency I Intercom system in habitat communication 1 Emergency alarm panel in bridge to shore 2 Warning bells and horn in bridge Diver-to-diver j H,. tvire communication to communications way stations Entertainment 1 Commercial TV monitor 1 Commercial radio Biomedical data 4 EEG electrodes and amplifiers in acquisition crew quarters I EKu recorder amplifier in bridge Electrical power was furnished to the habitat via an umbilical from tw(, 100-kilowatt generators oone redundant) mounted on the suppo rt barge. The habitat electrical system was - three-wire groundied system. The habitat and all equipment cases :ind chassis were thus grounded. Floczing sensors were provided to shut off surface 1' wer in the event A major habitat flooding. Each compartment was lighted by tw(. separate circuits, aInd enirgency battery -powered lights were a% ailable in each compartment. Pot able w a;ter was pumped from the support biarge to the habitat via a hose. The toilet facities were )f marine tye, and waste was chemically treated prior to dischargze to the sea through a 1000-foot drain hiose laid out along the ocean floor away from the habitat. 40 PROJECT TEKTITE I Alarm System The alarm sensors usea to monitor the habitat life support systems and the displays triggered by these alarms tre summarized in Table 7. Difficulty was experienced with the entry-trunk-water-level alarm, which was replaced. Table 7 Tektite I Alarm System Habitat-Bridge Alarm Srlface-Control-Center Alarm Sensor Visual Audible Visual , Audible CO. partial oressure Meter/light Buzzer* Meter - 02 partial pressure I Meter/light Buzzer* Meter - N2 partial pressure Meter Meter - H20 partial pressure Meter - Meter - 120-V power loss Light Buzzer* TV Speaker Fntry trunk water le-c Light Buzzer* TV Speaker LWet room flooding* Light HornT TV Horn§ *The buzzer may be manually activated in the bridge, IThe wet-room-flooding alarm automnitically turns off power to the habitat at the shore end. tThe habitat horn may be manually activated fron the bridge only. §The control-center horn may br manually activated from-I the van only. SUPPORT BARGE The support barge (Fig. 29) was located at the nearest shore point adjacent to the habitat location. This barge was a Navy AMMI pontoon jacked up above the water sur- face on d-iven piles to minimize reactions with waves and to minimize machinery noise being transmitted into the water. The barge was the shore terminus for all habitat umbilicals and provided the platform upon which were mounted the surface-control-center van and all habitat life support equipment. Access to this barge was by boat from the causeway pier adjacent to the base camp. The facilities locat.d aboard this barge were the surface-control-center van, the environmental control and supply system, the elec- trical generation ad distribution system, and the water storage and distribution system. Surface-Control-Center Van The surface-control-center van (Fig. 30) was nn air-conditioned instrumentation van divided into two compartments, the behavioral monitoring station and the watch director's station. The behavioral monitoring station, effectively isolated from the watch director's station by a folding partition, accommodated three behavioral observers and the behavioral scientist supervisor. Displayed before the observers were six television mon* o, s, four of which continuously covered televised input from each of the four habitat compartments and two of which were available for external habitat cameras. A video tape recorder was available for recording signifi, mt events. Audio mopitoring of the open microphones in the haoitat's compartments could be recorded on two audio tape recorders. Automatic data recording equipment monitored important behavioral parameters such as time out of habitat, sleep time, stove and oven usage, and entertainment facility usage (Fig. 31). IFACILITIES 41 Fig. 29 Tektite I support bar.ge, which provided all uti'- tie- and s e r vi c e s for the habitat, The watch director's I station and the behavioral mronitoring station were in the trailer at the le t. The electric g en er a to rs in the right foregrond provided all power for the barge and the habitat. The barg is supported on four pilings for noise control. V44 Fig. 30 -Surface control renter van on the support barge The partition between the behavioral mnitaring station at the left and the watch director's station at th righ t provided privacy and quiet for the behavioral pogram 42 PROJECT TEKTITE I L.]' L Fig. 31 - Recording equiipment used in collecting EEG date from the aquanauts. This eqnipnent is in the behavioral monitoring station, with the foiding partition (Fig. 30) at the left. The watch director's station was the command center for the Tektite I operation. A control panel, at which the watch director and the medical watch officer were stationed, provided audio, video, and environmental monitoring capability for these two officers (Fig. 32). The habitat alarm system displqys were located at the watch director's station, which also served as the control pAnt ior all communications to the habitat, base camp, mainland, and the immediate surface area. Environmental Control and Supply System The environmental control and supply system, aboard the support barge, provided the habitat all normal and emergency surface gas supplies (Figs. 33 and 34). This system included: an on-line and a backup habitat supply air comp:,essor (3.1 SCF/min at 50 psi), a purge compressor (125 SCF/min at 100 psi) with air aftercooler and moisture trap, a surface emergency air supply (two tubes, each 8000 SCF at 2200 psi), a nitrogen habitat charging and purge gas supply (four tubes, each 8000 SCF at 2200 psi), a pneumatic con- trol console (Fig. 35) at which one man could monitor and control the total gas supply to the habitat, and all necessary valves, regulators, and piping. In addition, the compressors for charging the aquanauts' scuba tanks were located on the support barge, and the high-pressure charging air was sent to the habitat via the umbilical for storage in volume tanks ii the habitat base. FACILITIES 43 Fig. 32 w.atch director's station in the surface control center van. The two TV monitors could be switched to any of the six signals from the nabitat. The intercom provided for audio monitoring of each of the habitat' r 00 n'r z and measurements of the habitat atm~iosphere we;7. also presented on the con- sole. In tle for eground dare gas analysis equipments. '4 O r , F~ig. 33 - Sturface contr ol center \van and gas supplies for the hadbitat 44 1 hO.J I. 1lF I. *Kl I i I Fig. 34 - Utility: ource s on the sulpport bar e- S cuba char ;- ing cornpressors are bcncath the table in the 17IleL tOr egreiinlI, and air supply compriso de ast the tabi e. Water is stored in a Iig lo\takb (-nea t h anupy . Diesel-driven generator ar ntrra, %t c.\ tcari5- formers hanginc, fromthraka h lfcl-,r VA ("ILITIFS 45 Electrical Generation and Distribution System The electrical generation and distribution system provided electrical power for the support barge and the habitat. Two 100-kilowatt diesel-powered generators (one redundant) furnished all required power for the habitat, environmental compressors, water pumps, and lighting. Water Storage and Distribution Systen, Potable water for the habitat was stored on the support barge in a 3000-gallon pillow tank and was pumped to the habitat via the water umbilical. The pillow tank was refilled from a tank truck, aboard a Navy LCM boat, when required. CRANE BARGE The crane barge (Fig. 36), mov 4. , - jacent to the support barge, was the platform on which was located the Tektite 1 1, .inpression system and a 35- ton-capacity crane for handling this system. The decompression system (Fig. 37) was an Ocean Systems, Inc., ADS IV system consisting of a double-lock deck decompression chamber with its environmental support unit and personnel transfer capsule. This ADS IV system was man-ratod to a depth of 600 feet. The decompression mode was that of ventilation, with occasional periods when the aquanauts were on pure oxygen supplied through a mask/regulator breathing system (the decompression schedule used was given in Table 4). Personnel for the operation of the decompression facility, handling crane, and small boat support were maintained on a 24-hour alert watch, with frequent drills so that if necessary an aquanaut could have been moved from the water into decompression in less than 5 minutes. CAUSEWAY PIER The causeway pier (Fig. 8) was the sea 'shore interface between the support barge and the base camp. The draft at the end of this pier was such that most craft transporting personnel and supplies Irum St. Thomams could tie up. This pier was the terminus of the shuttle boat service between the suLport barge and the shore. BASE CAMP The Tektite I base camp (Fig. 5) was a semipermanent facility to house and mess the scientific and support personnel who were on-site throughout the mission. Because of the remoteness of the Tektite I site. the base camp was required to be self-supporting. Additionally, because thte camp v:is located in a Nit ional Park, great care .,as required to preserve the beauty' and nature )t' the park. The camp was set back from the Larneshur Bay beach and beach ro,. a to nmaintain the unspoiled beauty of the beach area. The camp consistod of 13 wooden tropical huts. i6 by 32 feet (Fig. 39), and one por- table, prefabricate a'.lltninuni uiding. 20 by 48 feet, with supporting utility services. FEleven tropical huts wr,, used as barracks. ,n as the command (OOD) hut. and one as the galley. The wood fr:a iinr was treated tivilb'r. and the siding was redwood. All were screened for ventiizati n exc'pt for the 001) hut. WhiCh was enlclosed and air conditioned. 46 PROJECT TEKTITE I qk Fig. 36 - Crane barge, noored alongside the support barge with a hand-powered ferry barge between '4*" Fig. 37 - ADS IV deck decoinpression cham~ber (center), personnel transfer cap- S ., ,- sule (left), anu lifting crane for the per- 4, sonnel transfer capsule The aluminum building (F g. 40) was partitioned into three compartments: dispensary, marine science laboratory, and recreation area. During the postdive medical debrief- ings, this building housed 'Le medical examination facilities. The tropical huts of the base camp will be used in the future by the College of the Virgin Islands, for use as a loboratory and dormitory lacility in conjunction with their Marine Ecological Statiot, also on Lameshur Bay and partly visible at the far right center in Fig. 5. Potable watcr for the camp was stored in two 10,000-gallon widerg.round tanks. Water for these tanks was pumped from a water barge alongside the causeway pier to the camp via "invasion piping" over a distance of approximately 1./4 mile. Water was pumped from the storage tanks into a camp distribution system. A well adjacent to the base camp had been outfitted with a pump and plumbing for shower water supply, but this well proved too unreliable for use. V*AG I [idL 47 Fig. 36 - liher, ot si:aticCat i a i ctiois tied! erd to ('n , s. S' ,, i 'i the f "I c a d i 1 pointa far per soniiel and suy -sg a r i ic': at Lzi mshir IL v . Thc cicalj ci aft left of the pier sh lttlc'U p,-rs( ci ol bveicn the, bae camPl anid 01(' suppoit 1' 16e aJLct n t e i tc -A i 48 PROJECT TEKITE I 1 ig . 40 -Alu~nnurn buil din.., ini the bas camap '% hich 0 as Partitioned into the infi'niar y, n, a r no cSLIOICne laboratory, and recreation room Human waste was burnt on a daily bas's in half -drums (55 gllons) oy covering tole waste with fuel-oil and igniting. This system was quite efficient. Was' water from the showers, galley, and dispensary was drained into the gruu1 1d -via a jr tra-' ar1 drq4in field. Electric power was generated in the camip by two 100-kilowatt .,,eneratori; (one redundant) and distributed, where possible, by underground cables. LOGISTICS, TRANSPORTATION. AND COMMUNICATIONS The remoteness of the Tfektite I site required somie degree of resourcefulness and a wide variety of military and civilian resources in the coordiinationl of logistics, tranis- portation. and communication. Logistics requirements were lprimarfl% ' ini the areas (-f food, water, and petroleu i For the rmost oart, sufficient dry food was landed %with the Tektite I party i January 1969. Resupply of dry foods, and contiimg resupply of f-- )zui foods, was obtainod fromn visiting Navy ships. Fresh provisions, such as bread aad m~ilk, were procured fronm local vendors on St. Thomas. Water was delivered to the Lam-eshur 13.1- site on a weekly basis bv the government of the Viriin Islands via water bar,,,e. Petroleuml was purchased under Defense Contract in St. 'Itiona. . Diesel fuel and t1,asoiine w-re loaded into 55-gallon drums at Red Hook (St. Thomias) and tranisported b\ a -Tktite I11CM boat to the sit, on a weekly basis. Transportation to the Tedxtite I site was by two rout s: via water over a.n ow4) n 8 -mile unimarked and unlighted course from Red Ho '(k Harbor. St. Thomas, and a torturous over- land route from Cruz Bay JF ig,. 41). The Nater routie was the. mioe desirable of th" two. FACILITIES 49 UNPAVEO\ \ 1 5O.MIHUI E RO AD S. "CS ........ ST. JOHN THOMAS " oOK .". E -, .CRUZ SAY BAE. Fig.~C 41- rasprttin o heTetie st 45-MINUTE DRIVE TO W4 -2/o+ * TIEL PORT CITY OTE- LAMESHUR / (CHARLOT" E AMA LIE) BAY 'HABITAT AND AIRPORT CUEA PIER MILES Fig. 41 -Transportation to the TIektite I site and all supplies and most personnel were transported via this mode. The Tektite I fleet consisted of two LCM-class cargo boats, three LCPL-class personnel boats, and two 18-foot outboard runabouts (primarily for safety diver use) . Land transportation on the base camp consisted of one 6 by 6 truck and two 4 hy 4 ordnance c-rriers. One 4 by 4 ordnance 2arrier was stationed on St. Thomas. These vehicles were furnished and oper- ated by Amphibious Construction Battalion Two. External communications were by radio, telephone, and commercial marine-operator service. Internal communications (within the base camp area) were b3 radio, field phones. and sound-powered phones. Mail service was handled through the U.S. Post Office, St. Thomas. External radio communication using AN/'PRC-47 single-sideband radios was on local NORATS frequency 2114 kHz, on which contact was maintained with the St. Thomas Coast Guard ,t ,on and with Ft. Allen, Puerto Rico. Telephone service (two lines) into the barc , w. ,ias furnishcd by VITELCO. Commercial marine-operator service, which was patched into the VITELCO system ir, St. Tiomas, was leased by General Electric. Telephone se, vice was approximately 60" reliable. Internal communication was used to exercise command control over the base camp and adjacent areas. Additional AN 'PRC-47 radios, located in vehicles, boats, the base camp. and the surface cottrol center operated on the upper sideband on 4073 kHz. Con- tact between the watch director and the diving and safety watches was maintained on the 39-Milz band using Motorol:. PT-200 FM transceivers. Field phones linked the cause- way lier to thc base camp and were a backup to the PT-200 transceivers between the crane barge and the support harge. Sound-powered phones provided an emergency coni- mun-cation link between the watch director and the habitat. 50 PPOJECT TEKTITE I REPAIRS Repairs to boats, electronic equipment, and vehicles which required facilities or personnel not available in the base camp were accommr'dated by the Supervisor of Ship- building, Conversion and Repair, Tenth Naval District in San Juan, Puerto Rico (Fig. 1). HABITAT AND AQUANAUT SUPPORT EQUIPMENT Additional equipments available for aquarlmt use included a series of undelwater way stations and a navigational grid system. Five way stations were located around the habitat to provide the aquanauts a series of landmarks and places of refuge. Each way st tion consisted of a clear-plastic hemispherical shell mounted on a cylindrical steel cage. A charged set of scuba bottles and sound-powered phones linked to the habitat were located in each way station. The main use of the way stations was in the transfer of air bottles between the aquanauts and the surface, although they did serve as reassuring landmarks to the aquanauts. The navigational grid system was installed on the Lameshur Bay floor prior to the beginning of the project. H,,wever, because of the clarity of the water and the rapidity with which the aquanauts could visually familiarize themselves with their surroundings, the navigation system was not used to any great extent. The aquanauts used standard 'win-tank scuba rigs. Each 72 cubic foot capacity tank had its own reserve valve and single hose regulator. This double-tank combination had a little over an hour's air capacity at a 50 foot depth. For longer excursions, extra tanks were pre-positioned by surface divers along the excursion route. Before the mission it was anticipated that newly developed. Navy-procured closed-circuit rigs, with approximately a -,Lx hour capacity, would be available for aquanaut use. These, however, were not delivered to the Navy in time -'or complet )n of evaluation and certi-- fication, and thus were not used in Tektite I. The Tektite i aquanauts had available, in addition to standard scuba equipment, hooka-h masks with built-in communications equipment. A hookah system is one in which breathing gas is supplied to the diver via an Umbilical. In the case of Tektite 1. the gas was supplied from a low-pressure source in the habitat through a 200-'oot hookah hose. Thus the aqua- nauts could swim up to 200 feet from the habitat without having to suit-up in full scuba gear. The hookaLh masK contained communications equipment, linked to the habitat via iiardwire cables along the hooklth .se. The hookah was used for 41 man -ihouurs of diving, about 1 10 of the total man-hours in the water. In addition to tne tethered hookabl comnmunications, the Tektite I aquan-aur- :d two sets of untethe red aquasonics equipnl,.t. These included two tender and thr.c diver units. These units were seldom used due to range and reliability limitations. A dunibwaiter system was provided for the dry transfer between the habitat and the surface of items such -as food. CO , absorbent, mail, and gairl 1 :e . 'The sy. stm onsistcd of a floating platfornm with an A-frame and wiinch which coui raise and lower a se:'ies of pressure ant waterproof canisters. The canisters werc vented for pressurv equalization after each tiansf. Two sizes of transfer txpts were used during the Tektite I project. The larger slz, was caixible of moving 300 pounds. but the sizte and veihit of the po, made it awkuarf ti, handle. The smaller sized pots, of which thre wer,, two, were of 30-pound capac ity. ;:r.d these canisters saw considerable service lwfore and during the project. Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS INTRODUCTION Tektite I pi oject personnel were able to achieve their primary missions of (a) keep- ing an under-ea habitat in operation for a continuous 2-month period, (b) safely conducting a sustained 2-month series of marine science studies from tile habitat,. and (c) collecting- a voluminous quantity of consistent data onl the behavior of a small team of men isolated and working in a continuously hazardous environment.I Tekti-te I was the third major program in this country (preceded by Sealabs I and 11) to study the responses of men to the isolated, hazardous, quasi-ope rational environmentI of extended und rsea habitation. For this reason, certain of the Tektite I conclusions and recommendations may be recognized as having been identi-tied in these earlier programs. To t.., maximum possible extenit. recommendations from these previous programs wereI incorporated into Tektite 1, but schedule -L.d budget limitations precluded inclusion of specifically recognized desirable consideral ions. Consequently, certain of the conclusions a-nd recommenidations to follow indicate areas in the Tektite I program where desirable features w-re sacrificed. It is emiphasized that in no respect was the safety of the aquanaut crew or c~her project personlnel compromised where schedule 'budget tradeoffs occurred. CONCLUSIONS 1. Satur,-Jion dives of the Tektite type cal, be conducted safely. prox'idd that a rigorous safety programn is limplemented. As further experience is ,gained, the safety factor added for uncertainty canu be reducedi to a degree-, while freedom from restraints may be more fully exploited. 2Saturated diving, offers great advanutages to investigatios ofmaine science. ThleI n- 'st impressive fe iture wa s the wide range of studies duringthprec.Teailia tion of undersea habi!at ion to stukiies of mar intl -.eological proct ses, to exploration and ex\ploitation of mineral and other marine resources, and to studies of the sea floor are 1totc-nt;illNv un! mited. 3. Long excursions hy aquanauts from undersea habitats apixar meaii'ad would be appl icable to cixili:'n and mu itairy ne~t kLs. The Telboite I aiquanauts. swimmning ni W:'m .ropic al water, were phNvs! It tgic ally bol~undl only b% vertical limits impcosed 13N- d-co ni- lires- ion. Their horizonital r anging.b from thle habtit at inc reased thbr oghout the ni iss1it n The horizontal cx c'urs ion limit tin fime in the wale- limit bweani. a functitn tof equipment, not iquanaut . endurance. It sin uld 1)e realized, however. that a similar mni.sionl in ci Id wat7 r wo~uld have thle addit ional requirenit-tts oif ad0equate diver heat hug. 4. Studies to plepakre the Tekt ite I ncrinual de ct mresvsion chrdulo indi c Med that he controll ing tissue for nit1roien sa't ur atm. n is Iteyt nd thle 24O - riuute limit . T me p rup.mca - ionl and exi-illnut.111 val idat i't of ! he ('ewrceI'lcv dect mpress .ion Itreat ment sched dles indicated that a surface timev of 1-5 minutes was safely av-ailable tt, a diver rultrcT vri sat -I urated at the Tkt it ept 43 fcet ihe f: re m rec impress ion mid~: dec tnpression treatment was rvquirtci. 52 PROJECT TEKTITE I 5. Divers can safely live and work in a hyperbaric nitrogen atmosphere saturated at 43 feet with excursions to 22 and 85 feet. Thus, for these depths, which are of con- siderable interest to the scientific community, expensive three-gas helium-oxygen- nitrogen life support systems are not renuired to support saturated scientific diving. v. Man can adapt to the stresses that accompany undersea habitation at 43 feet and the various behavioral interactions involved therein. The aquanauts experienced no severe sleep loss or disruption of sleep cycles. Instead of obtaining less sleep as the mission progressed, the aquanauts appear to have slept longer and deeper. 7. The prolonged application of the envircnmental conditions and aquanaut inter- actions, as carried in the Tektite I program, did not result in ary unusual microbiological hazard to the aquanauts. 8. The use of mass spectrometer instrumentation in a hyperbaric environment is a technological advance in undersea exploration, where monitoring and control of the life support atmosphere is essential. 9. The aquanauts spent 432.15 man-hours in the water during the mission. This represented an average of 7.2 man-hours per day. Maximum rangc (,ccizsntal) from the habitat exceeded 1800 feet in the latter stages of the mission. This range was limited by the available gas in the aquanauts' scuba bottles. 10. The Tektite I hookah hose and masks allow the aquanauts ready access to an ,uea within 200 feet of the habitat without requiring them to suit-up in full scuba gear. The masks and communcation system allowed the aquanauts to communicate with the habitat bridge while they were out on the hook-ah. The aquanauts ,sed the hookah system for more than 41 diving hours, about 1/10 of the total diving time. REC OMM ENDATIONS 1. Crew compositior for future extended underwater missions should include a diver-engineer to assume responsibility for equipment maintenance and habitat upkeep and resupply, This would allow the marine investigators more diving time and would minimize training and familiarization problems. 2. A longer aquanaut training program in habitat operation than that of Tektite I is recommended if a trained diver/engineer is not part of the crew. The training period should provide the aquanauts a more detailed familiarization with the habitat systems and hardware as well as with aquanaut support equipment. Training should be conducted under conditions simulating as nearly as possible actual mission conditions, and an in- water training exercise is highly recommended. 3. Long-duratin (closed-circuit (,- semiclosed-circuit) breathing equipments, operational swimmer delivery vehicles, and free -swimmer communication units should be developed for use of scientific divers operating from undersea habitats. This would enable them to take fuller advantage of their saturated condition by allowing them longer excursions from their habitat. 4. Medical preparations for future miss-lons should emphasize thorough usage of preventive measures to curb aquanaut ear infections common to this type of program. 5. Design of habitats for future missions should reflect the need for work areas compatible with the needs of the aquanaut users. Where possible, storage space should not encroach upon scientific work space, and maximum effort should be made to make storage spaces in otherwise wasted spaces. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 53 6. Provisions should be incorporated in the tesign of future habitats to allow level- ing of the habitat after it has been secured to the ocean floor. 7. Habitats for future unaersea p- jects should be designed with consideration for transportation and launch in less -than-favorable seas. The use of the AMMI barge/LSD transportation and launch system, while suc,'essful in the calm water of Lameshur Bay, would not be as successful in deep or heavy seas. 8. Although Tektite I proved that sat,-ated diving can be a useful tool for marine research, other inodes of saturated diving should be considered for scientific work. These include mobile habitats, PTC (personnel transfer capsule) diving from deck chambers to the sea bottom for work, and a hanitat in which the aquanauts are compressed -and decom- pressed enroute to and from the working site. 9. Based on the demonstrated capability of MCB /ACB divers in Tektite I. these personnel should be included in future Navy experimental /research activities where applicable. 10. Further development of mass spectrometer instrumentation for undersea appli- cation is recommended. Instrument design should provide for simplified calibration techniques. Special emphasis is required in designing a sturdy instrumeat package that will withstand the operational rigors of an undersea mission. Modular component design would enable aquanauts to make module replacements without specialized training. i1. Special emphasis in future missions should be placed on establishing fully ade- quate surface and free-swimmer communication systems. 12. Hookah masks, with comifunication capability between divers and back to the habitat, should be provided in subsequent programs. Adequate, convenient space should be provided outside the habitat for stowage of the long hookah hoses while not in use.