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' t '.- X ' W 8 i i; *< g REMARKSw &g N ;, 2=i n a :.W&o n Zi D. Hour. Inch. Inch. lnch. I)e,,. R.T. Dg. R.T. Deg. R.T. In. _ _ , . 8 6 8 8 8 . * * * 8 o 3 TAtBLE showirlg the Pr ogress of CongetaZion svf th? Neva at St. Petersbu} frh zn the Rtnter of 1833-34. January. 9 2.2 p.ln. 10 12lp.m. 1 1 noon 12 noon 1 4 noon 15 - p.m. 1 6 noon 17 2p.m. 1 8 noon 19 lp,m. 20 noon '21 noon 22 *t2 P.ln. 23 llOOIl ) . 26 i-p.m 27 noOn '28 noon 29 rloon 30 noon 3 1 1loon February 1 noon 2 noon 5 2p.m 6 p.m 7 noon 8 noon 9 noon 10 tp.m 11 lp.m 12 gp,m 13 52 p.m 14 p.m 16 lloon 1 7 noor 1 8 sloon 27 Wp. - 28 noon March. 1 noon 2 noon 3 lloon 2 3 4 5 fi 7 9 10 11 a2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 4 2p.m o * . - 14, 5 -14,5 -14,5 -1647 -17n3 - 8,6 -13 , 8 -1 2 , 1 - 8,6 - 0o6 + 0,*2 - 4,8 - 6,2 * * 1 2 8 8 8 8 - 9n2 o * @ t1 ,0 olo olo -2,2 -0,6 +8,7 -5,2 +1 7 +3,5 +8,0 +0,8 -5,0 -1,4 -3,0 3 3 2 J I 3 3 o * X - 14,5 - 2g,0 - 43,5 - 60,2 - 77,5 - 86,1 - 99,9 - 1120 -120}6 -l 21 , 'S -121,0 -12S,8 V - 132,0 -141 2 68 177 1 8 8 19 2028 212 2185 22 228 22S _d i;,} 23 24 Starting point, Result of 48 bours. rSnow having fallen, the hole re- tmained covered xvithin, and vas ttherefore prevented from freezillg. S Snow lying everyzvhere six inches ?. thick. No ice in the holeJ it being a thaw. Idem. S More snow had fallell, but not till ) after the surface iee 11ad been formed. Orifice filled tvith snow; no surf. ice. Idem. Result of 48 hollrs. Tbe three inches of sur- face ice here indiated was rstther compressed snow th;m real iee; it was opaque and dingy. z The cake of ice of the orificecovered with & beautii'ul foliated concretions of sno^, the I thick transpPtrent iee round tlle hole exhibie- inrw fine air-tubes, finer than a ilair, and con- verging trom the periphery tonvards the cen- tre, cracks, oecasioned by perclzssioll, re- fractin^ the most bealitiful sapphire-blue and innumerable iri6es, like those of quartz. i;ur&ce in general covered svith 6evee inche6 of finow. Result of 72 hours. [ One-half of the thickness of the ice < in the hole transparellt, the other t opaque. I Much snov bad fallen during the t last 24 hours. Snow lyillg a foot deep everywhere. Restalt of 48 hours. Orifice filled with snow, and no ice formed. ( No ice nor snow in the orifice, it being a i tllalv, Of the nine preceding days, eight were a great thaw, which rendered it ilnpossible to pass on the ice for the melted snow, but vith inconvenience. The two-tenths of ice in the | hole, as also theone-eighth increase of tlle ff main ice, entirely due to the cold of the last t24 hours. # The indications of this column are in inches and tenths of a11 inch. 8 23i 232 248 252E 26 264 26F 278 2, 48 28s 4287 293 42948 i29 58 30 t)0 8 3?8 30 31 31S 315 5 8 * t 6 3 2 8S 1 lS 2 88 3 4; 58 58 6 6s * * * * 628 6s 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 3 34 35 36 37 38 39 0 ] 2,5 5 *',8 * 4 3 1,1 1,2 * * * * 1,3 * * * * 3 3 3,'2 -15 , 3 - 6 , 1 -156 , . 5 8 5 6 4 8 8 8 t 1 3 S 3 8 2 8 8 3 8 l 8 1 8 3 8 - 7- 7, 8 - lg,5-3,2-175*4 -19,3-0,8-194,* - 12,3 - 9,6 -1264 -15,6 -1 1 , 9 - 8,8 -1 5 ,7 - 6,8 -1 0,8 -10, 2 - 6,3 - 6,4 - 9a4 -l 1 , 1 -13,6 -12,4 - 3,0 - 0,6 +7,0 W ;) 7 Ti w ' -2,8 3 , +3,7 +3,1 -6 + 9 +8,9 -4 , 0 +0,fi +3,9 -O , 1 -3,0 -1 , 7 -2,5 +1 ,2 +9 ?4 +2,4 -206 , 6 -216,2 -228,6 -244,2 -256, 1 -264 n 9 -280,6 -287,4 - 298,2 -308,4 -314,7 -321 , 1 -330,5 -341,6 -355 ,2 -369,6 -370,0 -370,6 2,9 2 1,7 2,S 1,6 3,2 2,7 0,5 1,1 1 o o 2,7 324 328 325 325 3'S5 32s 15, * - l 8 * - l 8 * - * * * @ - 1 ,4-0,8-372,0 2 + 0,8 +2, 2 - 371 n 2 3 l tZ 4 -O,7 +1 ,8 -373n 8 -377 , 1 -378,6 -384, 2 -4,1 1,4 1,7 1,'S 2)3* - 2,6 - 3,3 - 1,S - 5,6 TABLE showing the Temperature o,J the Neva at di*fferent Depths, the R I''nermometer, Therm. rThcso. * * cJ; ZX 5j Dats of >*0rvztion, ] No. ?ls. No. 202. No. 2M. g p,2 1 g 8 a o C Lotdn | T^konup 5t _85 ,cattt 5 i:52 i'geiXi5 0 3 gOk*OfMarxb,1834. f g c,l ve ? ,,,,O tQ.Qx a i!; . r Peet. DC. }Iour. Day. Hour Hour* I)o8. R. 1|. Deg- R. T- Deg- R. T. - Deg. R. T. Deg. R. T. Seconds, , , . 1 3 8 7 a.m. - 5 p.m. 10 -0s12 -0*12 Zero + 1+19 + 143 45 2 idem 9 6 a.m. - 5 p.m. 11 -0 12 -0t12 id. + 1 31 + 0 2 30 3 idem 10 6+a.m. - 5 p.m. 10+ -10*58 -0 07: id. - 4*37 - 2 9 30 de 0 5p. . 5 p. . 0 0 0 0 d. 5 65 5 9 6 5 8 a. . 5 p. . 0 8 0?0 d. bw 6 S 8 6 28 13 7 a.m. - 5* p.m, 10* _ 4*99 -o oa id. -3 20 -6 5 20 7 14 13 5ip.m. 14 5p.m. 23* -0*02 Zero id. - 0 35 - 3-7 10 8 7 15 i p.m. 16 4+ p.m. 16 -4-28 Zero id. - 0?22 - 1*7 3 9 34 17 4+ a,n. 18 4 }).m. 23+ -9 28 -0 02 id. -4*30 _ 5*1 30 10 28 18 4p.m. 19 4ip.m. 24+ -0 02 -0 07 id + 0 33 - 3*4 1s2 11 21 19 4+ p.m 20 :4ip.m. 24 -h*07 -0*04 id. + 0051 - 1 2 10 12 14 20 4t-p.m. 21 ^4i p.m. 24 -0 04 -0 04 id. - 1 33 - 2 2 6 13 7 21 4Op,m. 22 5p m. a++ 0*04 Zero id. - 2 70 -3-6 3 14 28 22 5 p.m. 23 * p.m. 230 iVero -? ?7 id. - 3 40 - 4 4 14 5 3 ; p. . 5 p. . 0 0 0 0 d. _ 33 3 5 16 28 24 5 p.m. 25 5 p.m, SU -0402 -0 07 id. _ 1 53 - 3 5 15 17 14 25 5 p.m. 26 5+p.m. 240 -0*07 -O.Q2 id. - 1 00 - 4?1 8 18 34 27 4* p.m. 28 4ip.m. 24 -10 27 -0 98 id. - 2-31 - 3 8 25 9 8 8 t p, . 9 5 p. . t 0 08 0 08 d. 5 e pe atu e Q $ 9 5 p. . 30 p. . 0 08 0 0 0?0 3 6 24? 98 39 4ip.m. 31 bp.m. 20i + 0^04 + 0.06 Zero t 3 42 + 1+7 20 , . . . . f Depth. No. of Obserwatio". Me | Surface, . . 21 I At 7 feet . . . 2 Recapt1;?4latton . . . * 4 At 14 id . . . 4 At 18 id . . . 2 At 21 id ...... . . t 8 d . . . 5 , At 34id bottom 6 ( is ) 1I.- Remarks on the Heavy Swell along some of the West-India I.slands, commonly called " Ground " or ' North bzea;" and on the Set clnd Velocity of the Tides, and the Effiects produced by their transporting power, among the Virgin Islands. Com- municated bv Robert H. Schomburgck, C. M. R G. S. of Lolldoll. Read 26th January, ] 835. THE illflux of the tide from the sea, near the mouths of large riversy counteracts their current, and by forcillg back their waters occasions a ssvell which has been called the bore or mascaret. Where the river near the mouth is almost level with the sea, the collision of the contendillg waters is sometimes tretnendous, atlel causes a wave of twelve or {ifteen feet in height. The Ganges, according to Major Rennell, but more so the rivers oll the north-eastern coast of South America, have this bore; and Rolllme observes, " that during three days at the equinoxes, there is a considerable swell at the mouth of the Amazon, which causes such a noise, that it may be lleard at the distance of two leagues ;" * and in the Tumry channel, riverAourary, the sea rises forty feet in less than five minutes, this collstituting the whole rise of the tide, as the ebb immediately takes place and runs with great velocity. Of quite a diXerent nature, but equally dangerous in its effects, is the heavy swell that may be observed occasionally along the llorthern coasts of some of the West lnclia Islands; and which has been called by the inhabitants the " Ground," or, in Jamaica, the ' North Sea." This rises, rages, and subsides, when the air is calm, when there has been no indication whatever of a previous gale, or even when light airs have for a considerable period pre- ceding conle from the southward of east. The waves approach in gentle undulations, but suddenly swell against the shore and break with the greatest impetuosity. The rise takes place sogletimes gradually, but more frequently quite unexpectedly, the waves reaching an uncommon height. A heavy ground sea is distinguished by something grand and sublime. The sea approaches in undulating masses, which sud- denly rise to large ridges, crested with foam, and form billows that burst upon the beach with the greatest impetuosity; the spray Hying, where the waves dash against cliffs, often more thatl a hun- dred feet high, attended with loud roarings resembling thunder, which subside into a rumbling noise, caused by the nodules and fragmellts of rock with which the breaker was charged ^1vhen ad- vancing, which on its retreat roll backwards and are again driven forxvard by the next surge. Wave then follows upon wave in quick succession, there being only apparently a short interval after v It has been poetically sai(l, that the Genius of the river and the God of the ocean cogntend for the empire of the watera 24 01z the Heavy Swell along some the third. The sea for many miles from shore assumes a peculiar aspect, diSerellt tillts of-blue, from the lightest to the darkest, brmilog a strong contrast with tbe Sllowy foam of the breaking waves, when they strike agaillst a hidden rock, or ^vith the white line visible alon,, the whole coast. The eastern Bahamas, tlle north-easterll coast of Jamaica and St. Domingo, but chiefly Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and in a less degree the northern Caribbee Islands, are subjected to this ground-sea. 'rhe operatin :, cause of this sudden rise of the ses alollg shore at these places not being visible, alld the air beint generally calm whell it takes place, the inhabitants have ascribed it to sul)- marille earthquakes, the influence of the moon, and many other phenomena. It may be, however, considered as a rule, that whenever the wind gets to the northvvard of east for a day or tx^To, there will be a ground-sea at the northern side of the islands; and I have formed, therefore, the opinion, that it is caused by gales in the Atlantic, or on tlle northern coasts of America. Tlle fiiction of the willd upon the surface of the water causes little elevations or ridt,es, which by continuance of the force gradually increases, chieHy whell the wind sveeps ovcbr a great extellt of water. Finding no resistallce and havint sufficient (lepth to sink directly down, they proceed with the direction of the willd and renlain natural waves, until they llleet repercussioll from dash- ing against the shore, when they rise to an elevatiorl nluch above tlleir natural state. 'rhe period when the ground-sea sets in is generally October, and it continlles, thou^,h with some interlllis- sion, till April and ]!viay. Any individual acquainted 5>ith the coasts of North America, sill be avvare that durint, that time fre- quent storms prevail, and the circumstance that a northern mind either precedes, sets in vzilh, or follows a groulld-sea, and that only the northern sides of the islallds are exposed to it, confirms me in my opinion. A glallce oll a chart of the Atlantic Ocean, prozfes that Puerto Rico allcl the Virgin Islands oppose the first resistallce to the waves caused by a northern storm on the North American coast, or in the Atlantic, from the fortieth to the sixtieth uleridian. The wind accompanying or preceding a ground-sea is generally from the east of north; the maves are, therefore, pro- pelled more or less in a western as well as southern direction, and tlle Bahamas and even Berrlluda may escape, hilst the islands from Barbados to Puerto Elico, but more particularly the latter and the Virgin Islands, receive its first impulse. One miaht conclude, it is trlle, on first consideration, that Ja- maica, in consequence of its sheltered situation, zould be exempt iXom a ground-sea thtls ori*,inating; but its north-eastern coast is exposed to the maill ocean, though at a distallce of 150 leat,lles from it; and a body of water, driven by means of the )revailillg wi1ld - of the WestIndia lslands. 25 through the passage, vttould be so aCected by the gradually alitni- nishing channel and the projectillg head-land of Cape Maize and Cape St. Nicholas,, as to increase in velocity, and thus finally break Ql1 the north-eastern coast of Jamaica, with more violellce than its sheltered situation would lead us to stlppose. I malst certainly confess, that my opinion has beell objected to by many of the inhabitants of the Virgin Islands, who rather attribute the phellomenon to causes arising in the bottom of the sea; in which they consider thertlselves justified l)y the extent to which a heavy ground-sea breaks up the bottom - the sea, to a considerable dis- tallce from the shore, becomint, discoloured- and even anchors being renoved fiom their holding-place, and vessels being driven amongst the breakers and dashed to pieces. But the discoloura- tion of sea, to a greater or less distance from the shore, according to depth, is effected likewise during heavy gales, and is due to the action of the waves The depth to which the moving action of waves extends has not been properlt estimated, ill colisequence of the difficulty connected with such an estimate, the power of the svaves colltinually varying. Some have considered ninety feet, or fifteell fathoms, the limit to which this disturbina power ex- tends; but this requires confirmation. Ill the }resellt case, how- ever, the depth near shore is seldom more tban fiom four to fifteen f;atllonls-in many places shoalint, to a few feet- and thus the action of the zZaves caused by a groulld-sea must become appa- rent; and the movint, power of the waves on the bottom will tend to turn up anchors chiefly when the wind unites its powers above with the tllrbulent character of the sea below. .My oppo- nents ill opinion have further adduced, that there are likewise northern gales durin^, tlle summer Inonths inthe Atlantic: but these islands are also occasiollally wisited by ground sea during June, July, and August. We may call a ground sea a temporary current caused by a severe gales of longer or sllorter duration; and every navigator knows froul experience hos commoll these currellts are, and that they are nlore particularly fblt along coasts and throllgh channels. lNlajor Rennell, in his c Remarks -on the Channel,' observes, cv It is well known hols easily a current may be indueed by the action of the wind, and how a strong soalth-west or north-west and even a north-east wind, on our osvn coasts, aises the tide to all extraoldinary height in the English Channel, tlJe river Thames, the east coast of Great Britain, Sc., as these ssZinds respectively prevail." Mr. Boyle proved, by numerous ex- perinlents, that the most violellt wind nevel penetrates deeper tha six feet irlto the sater; and, consequently, it can only be elevated six feet fiom the level of the surface where there ls no impedi- ment, and where senJeral waves are 1lot heaped tot,ether by a vio- lellt tenlpest: the utmost eleYation of a natural wtave is therefore On {he Heavy Swelt along some 26 twelve feet It has been objected, that if the ground-sea originated with gales in the Atlantic, the whole surface between these islands and the scene where the gale took place would be agitated; and I agree with them, but surely it callnot be supposed that there should be accidental or compound waves the whole distance. We have seen that a natural wave, according to :EJoyle, can only be elevated twelve feet in deep seas; according to others, twellty feet: and as the originatillg cause ceased with the gale, and the unclulations are afterwards only propelled by previous waves, they sullst lose in height, and become, at a great distance from the spot of the gale, alld where the wind does not sweep over a great ex- tent of water, less perceptible than on coasts where impediments are thrown in their way. The northern wind acts, however, still upon them, alld prevents their altogether subsiding; and in conse- quence of the earth's rotation, they receive a more or less western direction: arriving, therefore, at this archipelago, they find their svay obstructed by reefs and shores, are acted upon by repercus- SiOll} and by the dashing of several waves totether that loud noise is caused whicll accompanies the heavy swell or ground-sea; and Yvhich T have known to continue for a week or two when a northerly uZind was at the same time prevailing. A southern gale will like- wise produce a heavy swell on the southern side of these islands; alld during the gale of the 30th and 31st of August, 1833, this was felt with great violence on the southern shore. But, gene- rally speaking, neither in force nor duration are these surges to be compared with those of the northern side; the group of the Virgin Islands being protected in this direction by the Caribbean lslands or by the Columbian coasts, and not exposed to the srell of the main ocean. I observed previously, that the Virgin Islands and the northern sllore of Porto-Rico are most exposed to a ground-sea; and, in- deed, the diversity in the line of the northern coasts along these islands, and their present aspect, prove evidently the strength and battering power of the waves. The seaward front of the snzall islands Camanoes, Guana Island, Jost Van Dyke's, Tobago, Loangc> Green lsland, and Thatch Kay, as well as the shore at Tortola from Josiah's Bay to Cane-Garden Bav, and the whole northern shore of St. Thomas, COllSiStS of perpendicular cliSs of mostly unstratified rocks, presentint, a front in which the fbrce of the waves has formed cavities, chiefly where the broken wave was driven by local circumstances more in one direction than in ano- ther. 1 have observed several instances where the water, after having finished the vault, has worked its way upwards through the rock until the conlpressed air fbund an egress. The noise which is caused by the blast of the compressed air, held between each wave as it rolls into the case, is considerable, and when heard at of the West-India Islands 27 a great distance may be compared to the dischart,e of heavy artillery. 'rhe situations mentioned previously ofFer scarcely any beach, or, where this is the case, they have been defended by coral reefs, which break the greatest force of the approaching wave, and pre- vent it from making inroads upon the land; nevertheless, a heavy ground-sea will tear up large pieces of coral and throw them on the beach. It wotlld appear that nature has provided defences wherever the land becomes less precipitous, and protecting cliffs are not opposed to the battering power of the taves, which other- vvise would become a continued and powerful agent of destruction. All the bays along the northern shores of Tortola, St. John's, and St.'l'homas's, which, througll their situation, are exposed to a groulld-sea, are thus more or less protected by coral reefs. Partial shingle beaches are to be met with at the extreme ends of the bays, where they bound on cliSs, and prove the eiect which the breakers have had on the solid gneiss-rock. Ballast Bay offers almost the only example of an entire shingle beach on the northern side; and its position fits it to receive the nodllles brought down by the mountain torrents or torn up from the oppoe site clitEs at Richmond Hill, which consequently appear among the specimens of rock composing this beach*. In consequence of the ground-sea, weeks sometimes elapse be- fore a boat is able to land in some bays on the northern side of Tortola; and planters frequently find it most difficult to ship their produce. The cultivation of the smaller Kays has been to a great extent, for the ;ame reason, ,iven up; and amongst other instances, I rexuark Great Tobago, the former owner of which narrowly escaped starvation; a heavy ground-sea settin-, in and making all communication with the larger islands impossible, while the Kay itself having been only recently cultivated, had no resources of its own to satisfy the wants of the inhabitants for any length of time. Guana Island labours under the same disadvantages, and all - communication is sometimes for weeks interrupted. The nolthern shore of Anegada is almost constantly exposed to a heavy swell, bllt itl a severe ground-sea, the waves approach cc mountain high," and when drawing Ilear the island, appear * A baz, on the southern side of Great Tobago is remarkable for the regularity with which the breakers grind down the allgles of such pebb}es as are too heavy tv be transported, and become now the sport of the surge. Pieces of granite, ill which hornblerlde prevails, receive a perfect elliptical shape, as if they had been formed by the chisel and compasses. I have several specimens in my collection of geoloKical series of these islauds which are really beautiful. Jasper in consequence of its more slaty nature, does not form a spheroid, but its upper surface becomes fiat, and it is dustillguished by its ripes of diSevent coloursX and its perfect smoothness, as if it had been polished, On the Heavy Swell along some as thout,h about to precipitate themselves over the land, which very likely *sould be the case, were it not for the protection of a contillued barricade of coral reefs. Iwhe breakers however, have forced up sand which forms small hillocks on the nortll-western paxt of the island, the largest being even forty-feet high; and the parts bebind these hillocks have been also thus inundated, a second and even thir(3 range of hills being there formed of inferior size, the sand of which is now consolidated and covered by a species of arundo and the stlriana maritima. After these little hillocks have stretched for some nliles in an easterly direction, the shore takes a rocky appearance, and instead of sand, detached pieces of limestone and coral are heaped upX reaching often a height of thilty feet and more, forming a protection to the lalld behind; which otherwise wollld be scarcely sufficielltly detellded, as the reef approaches here alnlost to the shore, and consequelltly does not break the folce of lhe svaves, the selocity of which is the more ilcreased by tlle coast-line here formillt, a sharp angle. I'hele extends frolll the u?estern end of Anegada ill a south- u esterly clirection, Cllmost to tlle easterl-l end of J ost Vall D-ke's, a shallow groulld, consistillg of transported salld heaped up, per- baps for ages, and svhich nlay be considered as the pareut of nlost of tlle sllallows in Drake's Channel.* The tidal streanl, uzl-ich floss over this bank, alld which, dtlring the food-tide, runs to the SOtltb, fillding itS way obstructed by the Island of Tortola, sets along its rlortheln sl10re almost irl a westerll direction till it flows between the mest eud of Tortola and 'l hatcll Islalld, illtO Drabe's Cllanllel; here it sets east, ancl escapes between St. John's alld Nornlan's Island. The trans- porting power of the vtZaves, the average velocitv of which cannot be collsidered to be more than tuo miles in an hour, would be scarcely strong enough to remove quantities of sand and deposit it in other situations: but the maves durillg a grotlnd-sea, having otlce torn up particles of sand and set them afloat, the) are easily transported by the tidal stream; and the discolouration ofthesea and the diXerellt tints of the water, already described, are nowhere mole observable than itl the direction of this extensive bank. The sand eZhich thtls escapes is transported to a rreater or less distance unlil it is deposited: the check being produced by soll]e project- itl poirlt or contracted channel, throtlgh which the tidal stream forces its way, or by the counteraction of the respective tides; and thtls the foulldation for a sand-bank is laid. I have found sever31 shallow7s to the northutald of Thatch Islalld * I have calefully soun(led this bank, but as T d(j not find it noted on any of the previous charts, I do not kr]ow whether it has increased or decreased. It is known l)y the name of thp ;; Midelle Gtound ;" alld its least depth w^$, ill 1831, seven fa- thoms and a half. of the West-lndia Islands. and Tortola, which are not in the old charts: whether these banks escaped the surveyors, or whether tlley have been formed since the late Spanish surveys, call ollly be left to conjecture. It has been stated, that the ground-sea has its origill between the islands which are subjected to it; but the fact, that a severe ground-sea often rages orl the 1lorthern shore of Tortola, whilst on the northern side of St. John's there prevails a perfect calm, contradicts this remark, and is another proof that we must look far out at sea for its origi- natint, cause. The Island of Tortola protects almost completely the northern side of St. John's, and prevents the waves from havint, eSect. Where St. John's is exposed to the open oceall, as be- tzYeen the two islets, Wilistlillg Bay and lMiUgo, we iind the ground-sea raginz, again, and the bays protected by coral reefs. 'l'o one who crosses, during a severe ground-sea, from the southern side of Tortola to the northern, where the breadth of the island is but inconsiderable, tlle stral^,e spectacle is aiorded of the sea, whicll on the southern side is perhaps 's as smooth as glass," on the northern shore tossing, foatnin^,, and roaring, as if ac,itated by a severe gale. The effect is most curious, and if it were not for the warning that is heard long before the catlse becomes visible, olle might fancy the wand of a magician in play. The northern coast of Porto Rico is subjected to a ground-sea, of scarcely less force, which has had the same effect on its coast as at the Virgin Isles. The ' Old Etlt,lish }:ilot ' observes, that the sea along the 1lorth coust of Porto Rico*' eats sometimes very rat,ingly." The force of the vaves tllat batter at,ainst the clifEs on which the Moro stands is amazitlg; and any observer ill agree with me, that the spray is sometimes carlied more thall a hundred feet higil. I was told that, several years at,o, a brig, in conse- quence of carelessness, became here unmanaDeable, and was soon dashed to pieces against the cliffs, but few of tlle cresv escaping. In order to arrive at accurate conclusions whether the opinion which I have formed of the originating cause of the ground-sea is correct or not, it would be curious to compare the log-lvooks of vessels crossing the Atlantic when there Bere heavy ground-ssoells on the shores of the Virgin Islands; making allowance for tlle time which must elapse before the eSects of a storm can influence the sea along these shores, and also paying regald to the magni- tude of the waves, as on that circumstallce depellds their velocity. The obstacles opposed to the tidal wave between the Virt,in Islands cause great irregularity in its set and velocitv; and though coasters reckon UpOIl a windward tide from tlle moon's rising to her zenith, and upon a leeward tide from her zenith to her setting7 30 On the Tides amongst the Miryin Islands. no dependence can be placed on this, the tides differing often one or two hours, so that the change from ebb to flood sometimes pre- cedes the risiug or setting of the moon, though it more commorlly succeeds it. The windward tide, or that 7hich sets to the south alld comes from the Atlantic, ols running through these islands makes high water, hilst the ebb or lee tide sets to the 1lorth-west. The flood tide, very probably, does not extend far south, being there overcome by the currents existing in the Caribbean sea, swelled by the flow of +sater vvhich issues from the large rivers Orilloco, Essequibo, Amazon, &c.; and the llortherll or lee tide I conceive to be of still more limited extent, being overcome by the gelleral W.N.W. current so soon as it-leaves the Virgin Islands. Through the greater part of the year an almost regular tide takes place alongshore amono the Virgin Islands; but it is dif- ferent in midwshallnel, where the flood-tide continues to run south., while the ebb has already comnlel ced to set to the north-westward alongshore. As an exanlple, on the western and northern shores of Tortola, the {lood acquires its highest level, at fllll atld change, at tell o'clock; and the same takes place fifteen minutes later on the southern side. But at mid-chanllel, between Tortola alld St. Sohn's, it continues to How to the windward for an hour and a half to two hours longer. rRlle pressure of the ebb-tide appears, houTesrer, to lae of nlinor force, perhaps from the circumstance that the flood-tide comes from the maill ocean, whilst the ebb has not so extensive a range; awld, consequently, the diXerence of the time betuTeen the reflux of tlle tidal stream near ttie shore arld mid-channel is not so considerable as in the former instance, seldogl amourlting to more than from thirty to forty minutes. The time dtlring which the fiood-stream continues to run to willdward in the middle of the channels (i.e. betweell shore alld shore of the diXerellt islands) is not everywhere the same among the virgixl Isles, but suffers great modificatiolls; and whilst to the east of Mary Point (the northern angle of St. John's) it often amollnts to all hour alld a half, or two, it is scarcely nore than forty-five minutes to the westutard of it. Droghers or coasters, acquainted stith this fact, when boulld to the westward, make short tacks alongshore frona Mary Point to Pelican Bay, avoidillg the shore of Tortola as much as possible, alld thereby escaping Inuch of the influence of the north tide; whereas vessels less acquainted, usin^, the whole sea-room aflorded by the channel.} are much re- tarded in their progress. rI'he direction of the tides is also uluch cut up and altered ill force bT the winds, and various impediments which present them- selves ill the fornl of promontories, narrow passages, reefs, shal- .lows, &c.; and it is OIlly with time and by experiellee that a CD \ <Zo ttstr,, g t+w v \ 5 X / ZrccA6Zitjt t} A _ t / .-*<jS i ) | 5 2t v t :1' 4^eB?'; , .z- . eadv / e..S Z>4rtiS'l 9/ t f <vA 7ut X/ / tJ se? .t; i // .,,, , : ' ' ?XPLS J9SrRtOffS 0 . v '/A1t:. direcmiort of the / 0 S0ow bu ?t, ow t b {- -fc; trrvG-<-- Jl? t jiw671 StV Jy 2 - i ar,0;hatWw - Thd >, 7do 3te4 znrz l56u' rmt At 10NC5T THEM . : . . . . On the lE'des amongst the Virgin Islands. 31 navigator may become acquainted svith the different sets irl the channels alld passages. During the period that I re-surveyed the Virgin Isles, 1 paid particular attentiotl to this subject, and I must freely confess that it was full of difficulties. 'the accompanying sketch of the Virgin Islallds, on which the different courses of the tides have been represelltedj xvill elucidate the following remarks :- There are foul great outflows for the southern or tiood-tide, namely,-1. Between the western end of Virgin Gorda and Peter'.s Island, which space affords passages to tlle tidal stream entering between lTirgin Gorda and the islets to the east of Tortola. The conflux of so many branches creates necessarily an eddy tide, whicll we find to the east of Scrub Island. *he chief mass of the stream directs its course thence westerly to the passage between Salt and Peter's Islands, a branch escaping between Broken Jelusalem and Round Rock.-c2. Betweell Norman's Island and St. John's. The stream to the west of Road Harbour, in Tortola, and to the east of Mary Points at St. John's, are directed towards this passaget and unite to the north-east of Red Point, at St. Jolln's, one brallch flowill, thence towards Ram's Head and the other to the south-east.- 3. Between the western end of St. John's and the eastern end of St. Thomas. The southern tide is here of colesiderable strength, a1ltl causes nowhere betweell these islands so heavy a swell the waves becolming often mountaills hit,h, and the extent of water over which the eye sweeps offering the aspect of a raging war betweell ^save and wave. After having cleared the passat,es thetstream of the flood-tide directs its course tonvards Frenchman'3 Cap, or Bird Islandt with the exception of a branch which runs towards Reef Bay, in an easterll direction. 4. Between the western end of St. Thomas alld Culebre. A branch of this great outflow sets throllgh the pa3sage between the westerll end of S;t. Thomas and West Bay7 running off towards Brigantine; a stream strikes, however, to the south-east. Having cleared the differellt passages the sollthern tide is now acted UpOll by the trade-wind, and flows off soutll-west until it is turned by the cur- rent existing in the Caribbean Sea. I am inclilled to think that its whole range does not amount to more than 60 miles. The ebb-tide, with a fEw exceptionss takes a more decided north-westerrl direction. Its first great outflow is between Guana Island alld Tortola, its second between the western elld of Toltola and Mary Point, and it5 third betvveen Green Kay and Thatch Kay. The uelocity witll which the northern tide runs through these three passages is nowhere surpassed, though it has a great many by-ways for its outflow, which the map will point out. From the harbour of Tortola a stream of the ebb-tide sets easterly, which is again met by allothel comiug; froln the passat,te at Peter's Island, alld by a third from the RoLlnd iRock passage; they unite oS the 32 On the Tides amonyst tAle Virgin Islands. southern bluff point at Beef Island, causing an eddy tide and a considerable swell. Frenchman's Bay is divided from the mainland of Tortola by a small and shallow channel; generally speaking, the tide here sets west. This would be its natural directioll during ebb-tide, alld the reverse during flood; but at that period the tidal stream rtlll- nillg with great velocity through the passage between Tortola and Thatch Island, it finds itself a second time compressed by the narrow passage between Frenchman's Bay and little Thatch Island; the waters on escaping this compressioll extelld and come in contact with the bluff at the tower, and a re-flux takes place towards the passage, which acts as an in-draught, forming conse- quently at ilood-tide an eddy race around the vvhole island.* This passage is said to have become deeper within the recol- lection of many of the inhabitants; if this be really the case, it must be ill consequence of the transportin^, power of this local curl ent. The velocity of the tides betsveen the Virgin Islands depends very much on local circumstances. Where two streams unite, after having made their wav throuzh differellt passages, the velocity is generally itlcreased. The southern tide is of considerable force between St. John's and St. Thomas's; I have known that tide to be so stronc,, that six able boatmen collld make llo progress or head way for hours; it must then have run at the rate of five miles.t The same is the case between St. John's and Tortola shore. But the north-western tide is of still greater strength than the flood- tide, though the latter eomes from theAtlantic: the plevailin;, current in the latitude of these islands setting W.N.u., the {lood- tide has to overconle its opposing force, which weakens its velocity. This is not the case with the ebb, where the set of the tide and current being nearly the same, the latter adds its force to the first andincreases its velocity. I have seen many vessels, on beating through these islands during a north-western tide, iixed to one and the same spot for a considerable time; and others come to an anchor, relinquishing the contest with so heavy a lee-tide. The tides have their greatest force at springs, but especially at the day of full and change; and the tide which happens at the time this takes place is considerably stronger than the previous one. The velocity of the northern tide is strongest between Beef Island and Comanoe, and it is often impossible to cross from one island to the other during sllch a tide. The attempt proved nearly fatal to Mr. L., of * Anegada, inside the reefs, oders a similar instance on a larger scale: the current is here however permanent, which is not always the case at Frenchman's Bay, but chiefly when a strong northerly wind prevails during the period when the southern ti(le is predominant. t I scarcely need to obserare, that whexl miles are here spoken of, nautscal are illtended, 60 of whicb make a degree. On the Tides amongst the VirS/in Istands. 33 lSeef Island, \\TI]O returning from Comanoe, thotJOl-,t himself strong enough to contend with the opposinO tide, but was soon deprived of his oars, Whicl1 were illstalltly sevept away. Pilldint, that the J)orthern current set him to leeward he used the seats of his boat as paddles, which met, however, the same fate as the oars. Meanwhile the tide cl-sanged, and at day-break he found himself driftillg towards the Round Rock passage. Without fresh water, or a morsel to eat, his boat became the sport of the changillg tides for the next two days, sometimes so near Beef Island that l-le could llOt think but that the boat would be (lrifted ashore, and a southern tide then sweeping hin1 towards the Roulld Rock or 13loken Jerusalem. Nearly overcome by hullger and thi,st, and given up for lost by his relations, he was at last discovered, on tbe thirct morning, by sonle people from Spanish Town, who hastened to his assistance. A very strong northerly tide rulls likewise between Tortola and Thatch Island, which but lately oXered a more trag,ical illstance of its force. An African purposillg to return from 13elmont estate, at Tortola, to Thatch Island, late in the evening, oll {inding that his companion eleclined to set oS at so late an hour, thought that he could manage the boat alone. He was never seen again; the keel and broken timbers of the boat were found on the eastern end of 'rhatch Island, and told his fate. Not able to stem the tide, his boat was probably driven against the rocks and split to pieces. The oals? some time after, were pickecl up in one of the Bays ola the north side of St. Thomas's. The tides are so powerful itl some of the passages between the snlaller Virgin Islands that the bltoys attached to the ropes whicl indicate ^here the fish-pots are placed, sink so that tlle {ishermelx cannot haul them except at slack tide, whell the blloys become again visible. The gleat strength of these tides is, however, orsly paltial: their avera^,e velocity in general does not exceed a mile allst a half Ol txvo nliles, in ordinary case.s, in the channel, and pro- bably decreases at some distance out at sea. The medium of the pelpelldicular rise of the titlal wave between the Virgin Islands does not amouat to more than t^o feet, beig at spring tides 26 to 36 inches, and at neap tides 16 to 18 inches. These comparatively low tides tend to prove how little tide tbele is in the Atlantic near the equator; and though there is no gleat range of coasts to produce a considerable elevation, the narronv passage alld challnel of which this ;loup is composed might 11ave led us to expect a different result. Tlle accumulation of water in collsequence of the tlade-Xninds and the equatorial current, may, in some lespectSX prevent a tsighel elevatioll; anci accordillgly we {ind that be-olld these latitlldes the tide rises to a greater heigilt, evell uyhele the rallge of coast is not so extensive, as flom 8 to 10 VO . V. On the Tides amonget the Viryin Islands. 4 feet at the Canarigs, from 4 to 6 at the Cape Verd Islands,- and from 5 to 6 at the Bermudas. The sandy shores alld beaches of the Virgill Islands are flat, or very gently sloping, which we may take as a proof that the tides have never been of greater height there, at least llot for several ages; and the progress of the tidal wave must consequently be very trifling. The southern tide is predominant durillg the summer months, i. e. from the middle of June to the middle of August; and two tides have been then known to follow ill succession, chiefly if the wind has been westerly. The consequence was that the perpen- dicular rise of the tidal wave ras considerably increased, alld, as an extraordinary case, the water reached the height of three feet. There is another circumstance which deserves to be particularly mentioned. At the period when the southern tide becomes pre- dominant, svhich is generally in the middle of June, the tide sets for eight or ten days continually to the south, with a force very seldom surpassed. It i3 called lsy the fishermen 4 the St. John's tide,' the day of this saint occurring about that period; and com- menced last year on the 12th of Julle, lasting to the 21st of the same month. The seine-boats could not round fish for the wllole week, nor were the fishermen able to discover their pots, the buoys being all sunk. At other times the ebb sets to the north for the course of an hour or two, when the flood begins to flow again to the south. 13uring the months of September, November, March, and April, the northeln tide is prevailing, and of considerable force, beillg assisted by the current. At this period also tlle highest watel is generally in the morning, and there i8 only a half-tide in the evening; the reverse takes place dllring the summer months. ln estimating the transportillg power of tides in general, we mtlst be careful not to consider it the salne as that of tbe currents of rivers. It has been stated that a velocity of three inches per second at the bottom of a river will just begin to work upon fine clay, and, however firm and compact it may be, will tear it up; a velocity of six inches will ift fine sand; eight illches, sand as coarse as lillseed; twelve illches will sweep away fine gravel; twenty-four inches will roll along rounded pebbles an inch in diameter; and three feet per second will sueep along shivery angular stones of the size of an egg (Encycl. Brit., art. Wiver). Considering the ave- rage velocity of the tides between these islands to be two nautical miles ( Ol2O feet-73440 inches x 2-l46880 inches . 3600), this would give forty-one inches per second, a greater power than the highest above stated; yet even in the comparatis7ely shallow challnels, where we might conclude that the superficial velocity extended to the bottom, the water, nevertheless, remains clear during the strongest tide: thus showing either that the force or 01z the Tides amongst the Viryin Islands. 5 monint, power of the tides at the bottom is not equal to their velo- city on the surface, or else that their action is inferior to the moving poer of river-currents. When the ground-sea is not prevailing, the water in the channels is even remarkable for its clearness, and strangers are often alalmed by seeing the bottom distinctly in eit,ht and nine fathoms water. I have myself distinctly observed at that depth a peculial kind of sea sponge called ' Java pots' (a species of Alcyonum).* The unchanged character of sotindings for a length of time in places whicil have beell surveyed oZith accuracy, and to the results regarding nhich implicit confidence may be given, has attracted already the attention of geolot,ists to the fact, that the transporting power of tides is small. Nevertheless, where channels are contracted, and the general depth is not considerable, and the velocity is ilicreased by other obstacles, they nvill produce some change at the bottom of the sea, chiefly lJy affecting the shape of sand-ballks where they approach the surface, and are thils besides subjected to the disturbing power of the z aves There are fev r ivers which durilig freshes do not convey a quantity of detrittis into the sea, and if their mouths are tidal, this detritus is collamitted to the charge of estilary tides; if they be tideless, generally deltas are formed. Few of the rivers along the north-eastern coast of South Anlerica are tideless, and the quantity of detritus borne down by the Orinoco is carried forward ulitil local cvlrrents turn its direction and convey it to distant shores or shallovvs. In a paper on ' Anegada,' published in the Journal of the Roaal Geot,raphical Society of Londoll (vol. ii.), I invited attelition to the existence of a currelit passing that island in a W.N.W. direction, and which I conceived to deposit detritus on its shores.t To this current and its tralisporting power sve must * Mr. Maclean, a gentleman in Tortola, high in scientific attainments, drew my notice to another phenomenon, which may be observed in the charlnel between that island and Jost van Dykes, namely, a counter current at a (lepth from two to three fathoms, to which his attention lvas first attracted by seeing pieces of wood, &c. moving in a difEerent direction from those on the surface: this statement I afterwards corroborated by my own investigations. In calm weather, whell the surface of the sea was wInruffled I went out in a boat, and having attached a lead to a line, to which at interv.als of a foot small pieces of deal wood were tied, I threw the lead where the ti(le was running strollg to the south; the upper pieces of wood, consequently, floated in that direction, but those at the depth of eleven feet and upnvards pointe(l to thxe northward. Xither the -moving action of the tide, therefore, only extends to that depth, or this arises from the W.N.W. current, which, though too weak between the islands to resist the strong southern tide at the surface, extends to a greater depth {han it, and keeps its original course lower down. t While on the subje.ct of this current, it may perhaps be interesting to observe that I Elave received ssIlce the publication of the aboure remarks two proots which are sllfficient to substantiate my surmises with respect to this current. Ill the latter part of 1831 a bottle was picked llp on the southern side of Virgin Gorda, which, according D 2 36 On the Tides amon!yst the Firgin lslands. look for the origin of the large sand-bank hich extends from tlle western end of Anegada to within a short distance of the Island of Jost van Dykes, alld which is called the middle ground. On its passage along Anegada the current is inHuenced by the tides of the Virgin lsles, alld delisers part of its detritus to the tidal stream, which the usllal check of the counteracting tides causes to be de- posited. The greatest extent of this bank is in a south-westerly direction twenty-two nautical miles, whilst its breadth varies from one mile and a half to three miles, provillg in a striking mantlel that the flood-tide deprives the current of the detritus which com- po3es the bank. The action of lhe waves during a gale or a heavy ground-sea possesses more IIIOVilig power thall a tidal stream or currellt of the greatest velocity; and the salld, once detached from this ballk, is .set afloat and carried forward and backward by the tide until deposited. If we cast a glance on tlle accompanyillg tidal map of the Virgin Isles, we observe that mherever the stream of {lood directs its course through one of the passages after having passed over the middle ground, a sand-bank of more or less extent has been formed. The stream of flood being opposed by the reflux, by 11eadlands, or cotstracted channels, by sunkell rocks, or any othel to a paper inclosed in it, had been thrown from the ship " Gambia ' ill the River Galsbia; and on the 8th of January, 1833, another bottle was picked up on the northern side of Anegada which contained a I)aper llow in my I)ossession, of whicls the following is a correct copy- " Currents of tfie Ocean.-The bottle containing this note was cast overboard from the bark Emerald of Londoll, bound to Jamaica, the l 7th day of December, 1831, in lat. 36? 40t N., and long. 12? 32t W. by chronometer. Whoever finds it is reqllested to forward it to the e(litor of axly nexYspaper who may be kind enough to notice it for PUb11C InfOrmat10n. " C. VV. NOCKEI.l.S, Commander. " C. O. HODGSON ) " (Signe(1) " E. M. GEACHY,N3 PaS8enger8* - (' NOTE.-Tsvo bottles are thrown otterboard here, both of the same import. Two more svere also cast overboald on the 5th inst. in lat. 41?48t N., and lollg. 13?49tby chronometer. The vinds for tbe last three days 1lave beexl from N. and N.W. to s.X\r. For eight days previous it blew a continued and heavy gale from S.W. and W-.N.W. lyillg-to the whole time, and drifting from lat. 41? 28t 237 miles to the northward." The southern currellt along the coast of S;pain and Portugal had probably drifted this bottle towarxls the mouth of the river Gambia, where it may have been taken up by the western ctlrrent all(l (lrifte(l tonrards Cape North, allzl thence by the N.W. current to the shores of Anegada. If we calclllate, therefore, the direct lellgth of the three main courses of the currents, we have a distance of 4796 tlautical miles, and the bottle having been taken IlI) Oll the 743rd day after its havintr been thrown in the water, supposing it to have been drifting col1tinually during that period, the mean ?relocity of all three currents would be *26 knots in an hour, or nearly seven miles ill a day; the diff;:rence in the winds, and perhaps other circumstances and (letentions not included. The above calculation of the velocity of this current is necessalrily vague * neverS theless, it may aCord an addition to our knowle(lge of the gelleral velocity of currents - alld the drifting of these two bottles establishes the trllth of my former retnarks re K wr(ling the current passillg .9Wnegada. 36 On the Tides amon!yst the Firgin lslands. look for the origin of the large sand-bank hich extends from tlle western end of Anegada to within a short distance of the Island of Jost van Dykes, alld which is called the middle ground. On its passage along Anegada the current is inHuenced by the tides of the Virgin lsles, alld delisers part of its detritus to the tidal stream, which the usllal check of the counteracting tides causes to be de- posited. The greatest extent of this bank is in a south-westerly direction twenty-two nautical miles, whilst its breadth varies from one mile and a half to three miles, provillg in a striking mantlel that the flood-tide deprives the current of the detritus which com- po3es the bank. The action of lhe waves during a gale or a heavy ground-sea possesses more IIIOVilig power thall a tidal stream or currellt of the greatest velocity; and the salld, once detached from this ballk, is .set afloat and carried forward and backward by the tide until deposited. If we cast a glance on tlle accompanyillg tidal map of the Virgin Isles, we observe that mherever the stream of {lood directs its course through one of the passages after having passed over the middle ground, a sand-bank of more or less extent has been formed. The stream of flood being opposed by the reflux, by 11eadlands, or cotstracted channels, by sunkell rocks, or any othel to a paper inclosed in it, had been thrown from the ship " Gambia ' ill the River Galsbia; and on the 8th of January, 1833, another bottle was picked up on the northern side of Anegada which contained a I)aper llow in my I)ossession, of whicls the following is a correct copy- " Currents of tfie Ocean.-The bottle containing this note was cast overboard from the bark Emerald of Londoll, bound to Jamaica, the l 7th day of December, 1831, in lat. 36? 40t N., and long. 12? 32t W. by chronometer. Whoever finds it is reqllested to forward it to the e(litor of axly nexYspaper who may be kind enough to notice it for PUb11C InfOrmat10n. " C. VV. NOCKEI.l.S, Commander. " C. O. HODGSON ) " (Signe(1) " E. M. GEACHY,N3 PaS8enger8* - (' NOTE.-Tsvo bottles are thrown otterboard here, both of the same import. Two more svere also cast overboald on the 5th inst. in lat. 41?48t N., and lollg. 13?49tby chronometer. The vinds for tbe last three days 1lave beexl from N. and N.W. to s.X\r. For eight days previous it blew a continued and heavy gale from S.W. and W-.N.W. lyillg-to the whole time, and drifting from lat. 41? 28t 237 miles to the northward." The southern currellt along the coast of S;pain and Portugal had probably drifted this bottle towarxls the mouth of the river Gambia, where it may have been taken up by the western ctlrrent all(l (lrifte(l tonrards Cape North, allzl thence by the N.W. current to the shores of Anegada. If we calclllate, therefore, the direct lellgth of the three main courses of the currents, we have a distance of 4796 tlautical miles, and the bottle having been taken IlI) Oll the 743rd day after its havintr been thrown in the water, supposing it to have been drifting col1tinually during that period, the mean ?relocity of all three currents would be *26 knots in an hour, or nearly seven miles ill a day; the diff;:rence in the winds, and perhaps other circumstances and (letentions not included. The above calculation of the velocity of this current is necessalrily vague * neverS theless, it may aCord an addition to our knowle(lge of the gelleral velocity of currents - alld the drifting of these two bottles establishes the trllth of my former retnarks re K wr(ling the current passillg .9Wnegada.