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National Park Service Cultural Landscapes Inventory Annaberg Sugar Factory Virgin Islands National Park 2010 Table of Contents Inventory Unit Summary & Site Plan 1 Concurrence Status 7 Geographic Information and Location Map 7 Management Information 12 National Register Information 13 Chronology & Physical History 17 Analysis & Evaluation of Integrity 28 Condition 53 Treatment 55 Bibliography & Supplemental Information 56 Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Inventory Unit Summary & Site Plan The Cultural Landscapes Inventory Overview: Inventory Summary Purpose and Goals of the CLI The Cultural Landscapes Inventory (CLI), a comprehensive inventory of all cultural landscapes in the national park system, is one of the most ambitious initiatives of the National Park Service (NPS) Park Cultural Landscapes Program. The CLI is an evaluated inventory of all landscapes having historical significance that are listed on or eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, or are otherwise managed as cultural resources through a public planning process and in which the NPS has or plans to acquire any legal interest. The CLI identifies and documents each landscape’s location, size, physical development, condition, landscape characteristics, character-defining features, as well as other valuable information useful to park management. Cultural landscapes become approved CLIs when concurrence with the findings is obtained from the park superintendent and all required data fields are entered into a national database. In addition, for landscapes that are not currently listed on the National Register and/or do not have adequate documentation, concurrence is required from the State Historic Preservation Officer or the Keeper of the National Register. The CLI, like the List of Classified Structures, assists the NPS in its efforts to fulfill the identification and management requirements associated with Section 110(a) of the National Historic Preservation Act, National Park Service Management Policies (2006), and Director’s Order #28: Cultural Resource Management. Since launching the CLI nationwide, the NPS, in response to the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), is required to report information that respond to NPS strategic plan accomplishments. Two GPRA goals are associated with the CLI: bringing certified cultural landscapes into good condition (Goal 1a7) and increasing the number of CLI records that have complete, accurate, and reliable information (Goal 1b2B). Scope of the CLI The information contained within the CLI is gathered from existing secondary sources found in park libraries and archives and at NPS regional offices and centers, as well as through on-site reconnaissance of the existing landscape. The baseline information collected provides a comprehensive look at the historical development and significance of the landscape, placing it in context of the site’s overall significance. Documentation and analysis of the existing landscape identifies character-defining characteristics and features, and allows for an evaluation of the landscape’s overall integrity and an assessment of the landscape’s overall condition. The CLI also provides an illustrative site plan that indicates major features within the inventory unit. Unlike cultural landscape reports, the CLI does not provide management recommendations or CLI General Information: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory treatment guidelines for the cultural landscape. Inventory Unit Description: The U.S. Virgin Islands are located between the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Three islands--St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, and a number of small cays lie 50 miles east of Puerto Rico. The Virgin Islands National Park occupies three-fifths of St. John Island, the smallest of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Hassel Island, off of Charlotte Amalie harbor on St. Thomas Island. While geographically and geologically associated with the Greater Antilles, the Virgin Islands are Leeward Islands, historically tied to the Lesser Antilles (Hatch 1972, 1). Sheltered bays, sandy beaches, and craggy cliffs define the perimeter of St. John while steeply sloped mountains and thick vegetation cover the inland landscape. The Annaberg Sugar Factory lies in the Maho Bay (northeast) quarter of St. John on Leinster Bay. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape sits on an elevated knoll 102’ above the shoreline commanding a view of Mary Creek, Leinster Bay, Little Thatch Island, Great Thatch Island, and the western edge of Tortola, part of the British Virgin Islands. The Annaberg Sugar Factory is a component of a larger estate landscape built and used during the height of Danish colonial sugar production (1779-1867). Located along the National Park Service’s North Shore Road with access via a parking lot and taxi turnaround, the site includes stabilized ruins of an historic industrial complex, the remains of an enslaved laborer’s village, and a modern provisional garden. A retaining wall encloses the north and eastern boundaries of the complex with a system of aqueducts and cisterns that divert water from the slope above. Annaberg Sugar Factory has interpretive trails that wind through the surviving industrial buildings. Beyond the retaining wall to the west, an enslaved laborer’s village remains as an archeological site and the slope continues dropping steeply to the shore. The ridgeline, Leinster Bay, and two natural ravines, known locally as guts, roughly bound the Annaberg Sugar Factory component landscape. The Isaac Constantin Plantation component landscape is directly to the east. The complex bounded by the retaining wall and uphill slope contains a stone and coral rubble windmill, a circular animal mill, the ruins of a sugar processing factory, pillars from an historic bagasse shed, a twentieth-century cookhouse, a bake oven, an ox pound, and ruins of a stable, a dungeon, and a bleach (a pile of stones used to dry clothes in the sun). East of the wall, two unidentified buildings remain covered in thick vegetation. Three cisterns and a stone aqueduct are located on the slope above the factory. Terraces once used to maximize sugar cane acreage may also remain under the extensive second-growth forest, but were not identified during the 2008 site visit. The enslaved laborer’s village is offset from the center of sugar production and exists as a series of foundation ruins. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape includes the industrial buildings used to process harvested sugar cane. The windmill and animal mill generated power to crush the stalks and extract cane juice. The stalk waste was stored in the bagasse shed to dry for later use as fuel while the cane juice was funneled into the factory, boiled down and refined into sugar, molasses, and rum. Auxiliary buildings supported the industry, housing animals, workers, and providing water and cooking facilities. The cluster of buildings served as the center of sugar processing amid cultivated cane fields on the shallower slopes along the north shore. Cart roads not only connected the fields to the sugar factory at Annaberg, but also adjacent plantations and the associated great house overlooking Leinster and Waterlemon Bay. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory The historic sugar production at Annaberg is significant to the Danish colonial history and the agricultural land use of St. John. The industrial landscape remains one of the best-preserved and most visited sugar factories on the island. The architectural detailing and spatial organization of the landscape reflect the height of colonial period sugar production. Later nineteenth-century changes reveal accommodations made to the complex for new technology. Beginning as a sugarworks on Issac Constantin’s plantation, Annaberg expanded in 1779 under the supervision of Lind and Jones. The height of production occurred at the turn of the century when Annaberg was unified with other sugar plantations on the north shore by James Murphy. The shifting economy, emancipation, and natural disasters ended the active period of Annaberg Sugar Factory in 1867. The landscape was used for subsistence farming and a homestead in the twentieth century and in 1956, the National Park Service acquired the land as part of the Virgin Islands National Park. The component landscape retains integrity of location, design, workmanship, materials, and association. The loss of surrounding sugar cane fields diminishes the overall integrity of setting. The manicured lawn and asphalt paths around the buildings as well as the loss of the enslaved laborers’ village compromise the integrity of feeling. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape is stabilized and managed as a cultural resource by Virgin Islands National Park. Encroaching vegetation is removed on a regular basis and a provisional garden and baking exhibits interpret the history of the site. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Site Plan Annaberg Sugar Factory site plan, 2010. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Annaberg Sugar Factory site plan detail, including vegetation, 2010. Property Level and CLI Numbers Annaberg Sugar Factory Inventory Unit Name: Property Level: Component Landscape CLI Identification Number: 975474 Parent Landscape: 550031 Park Information Virgin Islands National Park -VIIS Park Name and Alpha Code: Park Organization Code: 5360 Park Administrative Unit: Virgin Islands National Park CLI Hierarchy Description Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Annaberg Sugar Factory is a component landscape of Annaberg Estate Historic District, a historic Danish plantation on St. John in Virgin Islands National Park. Several component landscapes contribute to the Annaberg Estate Historic District parent landscape, which once marked the extent of James Murphy’s land holdings during the productive period of sugar harvesting in the early nineteenth-century. Other component landscapes include: Isaac Constantin Plantation, James Murphy Estate House, Mary Point Estate (Carl Francis Boiling House), Leinster Bay Industrial Complex, Annaberg School, Leinster Bay Guard House, and Betty’s Hope. The Annaberg Sugar Factory component landscape is listed on the National Register as “Annaberg Historic District” as part of a 1981 Multiple Resource Area nomination in Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS). Brown Bay Plantation is associated with Annaberg Estate, but has not been researched or documented and may constitute an individual landscape designation. Annaberg Estate CLI hierarchy, VIIS, 2010. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Concurrence Status Inventory Status: Incomplete Completion Status Explanatory Narrative: Sean Styles identified six potential landscapes: Annaberg Sugar Plantation, Annaberg School, Dennis Bay Plantation, Cinnamon Bay Sugar Plantation, Catherineburg (Hammer Farm), Lameshur Plantation and Jossie Gut Factory during an assessment in 2000 (Level 0, CLAIMS). David Hasty and Beth Wheeler conducted a site visit to the park in May 2008. During the visit, several other landscapes were identified, though only Annaberg Estate Historic District (expanded beyond the existing National Register district) and associated component landscapes were added. In 2010, a team from SERO revisited Annaberg and updated the site map to include vegetation. The park contact is Ken Wild. Concurrence Status: National Register Concurrence: Eligible -- Keeper Date of Concurrence Determination: 07/23/1981 Geographic Information & Location Map Inventory Unit Boundary Description: The cultural landscape of Annaberg Sugar Factory matches the boundaries of the Annaberg Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The landscape borders the shoreline of Leinster Bay at the low water line and rises south to the ridge encompassing the historically cultivated cane fields on the slope above the industrial complex. The eastern landscape boundary follows a natural streambed, yet extends beyond the formal retaining wall (supporting the Annaberg windmill) to include two unidentified structures. The east boundary connects the shore (north) to the ridgeline (south) and is adjacent to the Isaac Constantin Plantation component landscape. The southern boundary of the component landscape connects the eastern streambed to a ravine west of the modern parking lot. The extent of cane fields associated with Annaberg Sugar Factory is unknown at this time, though aerial photography shows the slope above the sugar factory landscape near the southern boundary cleared as late as 1947. The western boundary follows a natural ravine north to the shore, 100’ west of the drinking trough and parking lot. State and County: VI State: County: St. John Island Size (Acres): 15.00 Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Boundary UTMS: USGS Map 1:24,000 Source: Area Type of Point: Other Datum Datum: 20 UTM Zone: 31,736 UTM Easting: 2,031,311 UTM Northing: USGS Map 1:24,000 Source: Area Type of Point: Other Datum Datum: 20 UTM Zone: 317,211 UTM Easting: 2,030,757 UTM Northing: USGS Map 1:24,000 Source: Area Type of Point: Other Datum Datum: 20 UTM Zone: 317,052 UTM Easting: 2,030,791 UTM Northing: USGS Map 1:24,000 Source: Area Type of Point: Other Datum Datum: 20 UTM Zone: 317,175 UTM Easting: 2,031,279 UTM Northing: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Location Map: USGS topo map cropped and centered on Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Regional Context: Cultural Type of Context: Description: Throughout the Lesser Antilles, prehistoric habitation was limited to a mobile, marine-based culture as early the Archaic period (8000 BCE-1000 BCE). St. John inhabitants included Carib and Taino (Arawak) Indians evidenced by the ceramics, lithic tools, and petroglyphs later discovered in Reef Bay and Cinnamon Bay. The colonization of St. John by the Danish government began intermittently in the late 17th century and became official in 1718 when Governor Eric Bredal colonized Coral Bay. Under the Danish flag, plantation owners claimed tracts of land and began harvesting sugar and cotton. Labor-intensive sugar production altered the landscape, displaced native islanders, and necessitated an influx of enslaved Africans. Meanwhile, absentee white owners managed plantations while living on St. Thomas. The growth of the Danish colony paired with slavery created a Creole culture that persists today. The 2000 census notes over 108,000 residents of the U.S. Virgin Islands with tourism as the primary industry on St. John. Physiographic Type of Context: Description: St. John is a small, tropical Caribbean island formed by volcanic activity roughly five miles wide and eight miles long. The mountainous landscape slopes steeply to the sea along a spine oriented east-west through the center of the island. The elevation plummets to sea level in less than 2 miles from the highest peak at Bordeaux Mountain (1200’) leaving shallow, well-drained soils, rugged topography, and scenic views. Soils consist of stony clay loams and there is little fresh water on St. John. Above 900’ elevation, second-growth tropical forests grow on fertile soils and cover much of the island. Each peninsula and bay has slightly different climatic conditions, ranging from lush, subtropical vegetation to drier cacti-supporting slopes. Annaberg Sugar Factory includes thick, shrub vegetation. Political Type of Context: Description: St. John is one of the United States Virgin Islands, a territory of the U.S. government that is organized, yet unincorporated. The Virgin Islands have an at-large congressional seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. The representative cannot vote on the house floor (only in committee). Residents are U.S. citizens, but cannot vote in presidential elections, though they may vote in presidential primaries. A territorial governor, elected every four years, heads the executive branch; however, prior to 1970 the U.S. President appointed the Virgin Islands governor. The territorial judicial system is similar to the United States and the islands have a unicameral legislature composed of 15 senators. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape is located in St. John’s Central district. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Management Unit: VIIS Tract Numbers: 01-133, 02-117 GIS File Description: GIS data used to produce a site map included aerial photographs from 1947, 1999, and 2007 as well as .shp files with vegetation data, soil data, trails, roads, and historic features. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Management Information General Management Information Management Category: Must be Preserved and Maintained Management Category Date: 07/23/1981 Management Category Explanatory Narrative: Annaberg Sugar Factory meets National Register criteria and is managed as a cultural resource by the park. A draft National Historic Landmark (NHL) nomination dates to 2004, suggesting the potential significance of the site is elevated. Agreements, Legal Interest, and Access Management Agreement: Cooperative Agreement Type of Agreement: Management Agreement Explanatory Narrative: Friends of the Park provides seasonal docents for the site and maintains the provision garden. NPS Legal Interest: Fee Simple Type of Interest: Public Access: Unrestricted Type of Access: Adjacent Lands Information Do Adjacent Lands Contribute? Yes Adjacent Lands Description: The land surrounding Annaberg Sugar Factory is undeveloped and covered in second growth vegetation. The fields that historically supported a monoculture of sugar cane reverted to wilderness after harvesting ending in the mid-1800s. The National Park Service owns all adjacent land to the east and west and preserves the extended area as a natural resource. Private land bordering the southern boundary is undeveloped and not visible beyond the ridgeline. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory National Register Information Existing National Register Status National Register Landscape Documentation: Entered Inadequately Documented National Register Explanatory Narrative: The historic district is included in a Multiple Resource Area (MRA) nomination accepted in July 1981 as one of several historic resources on St. John Island. The Annaberg Historic District listed on the National Register encompasses only the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape and corresponds to the boundaries of this CLI inventory unit. The 1981 nomination which nominates the Annaberg Historic District also includes the following historic districts: Brown Bay Plantation, Rustenberg Plantation South, Dennis Bay, More Hill, Hermitage Plantation, Reef Bay Sugar Factory, Reef Bay Great House, Jossie Gut, L’Esperance, Liever Marches Bay, Trunk Bay Sugar Factory, and Lind Point Fort. Lameshure Plantation, Cinnamon Bay Plantation, Mary Point Estate, and Cathrineberg-Jockumsdahl-Herman Farm were previously listed on the National Register in 1978. The MRA nomination included the America Hill Historic District and Annaberg School, but these two portions were returned by the SHPO. The VIIS Multiple Resource Area nomination contains overall landscape information including spatial organization, building descriptions, and small-scale landscape features as well as an historic context for St. John. The primary nomination addresses the extent of natural vegetation on the island and the clustered arrangement of factories and estate houses from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. An appendix accompanies the nomination and describes the architecture of each building and feature in the Annaberg Historic District, i.e. the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. The listed historic district is significant to the history of the U.S. Virgin Islands territory (Criteria A) and for the potential to yield archeological information (Criteria D). The architecture of the complex represents Danish colonial sugar production in the late eighteenth and early nineteen centuries and adaptations made to counter the rugged topography of the north shore (Criteria C). The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape matches the boundaries of the National Register historic district, though features and component landscapes contribute to a larger plantation once known as Annaberg Estate. For the purposes of this CLI, the Annaberg Estate Historic District refers to the parent landscape surrounding not only the Annaberg Sugar Factory, but seven other component landscapes. With further research, the landscape and features associated with the broader estate should be added to the National Register. Existing NRIS Information: Name in National Register: Annaberg Historic District NRIS Number: 81000090 Other Names: Annaberg Mill and Factory 07/23/1981 Primary Certification Date: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory National Register Eligibility National Register Concurrence: Eligible -- Keeper Contributing/Individual: Individual National Register Classification: District Significance Level: State A - Associated with events significant to broad patterns of our history Significance Criteria: C - Embodies distinctive construction, work of master, or high artistic values Significance Criteria: D - Has yielded, or is likely to yield, information important to prehistory or history Significance Criteria: Area of Significance: Architecture Area of Significance Category: Agriculture Area of Significance Category: Industry Area of Significance Category: Archeology Area of Significance Category: Historic-Non-Aboriginal Area of Significance Subcategory: Statement of Significance: The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape is significant at the territory (state) level for the historic, architectural, and archeological resources that represent a rural eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sugar plantation (1779-1867). The labor-intensive production of sugar and related byproducts became the primary agricultural industry on St. John during the 1700s. The Annaberg Sugar Factory reflects this broader landscape history (Criteria A) and represents the adaptation of Danish colonial architecture to sugar plantation buildings on the steep slopes of the north shore (Criteria C). The site also preserves the potential to provide further archeological information (Criteria D). The Annaberg Sugar Factory cultural landscape includes the agricultural fields and industrial complex used during the height of production on the estate. St. John was colonized in 1718 and small plots of land were forcibly cleared to farm cotton and sugar. As settlement increased, estates grew in wealth, Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory acreage, and slave labor and multi-building complexes replaced individual sugar works. The existing sugar factory at Annaberg began construction in 1779, though evidence suggests sugar processing occurred earlier on-site. The complex produced sugar, molasses, and rum from a monoculture of sugar cane grown on surrounding fields until 1867. The period of significance (1779-1867) encompasses the apex of both sugar production and combined land holdings along the north shore of St. John. At the height of operation, Annaberg estate included Betty’s Hope, Munsbury, Mary Point, Leinster Bay, and portions of Brown Bay plantation all owned by James Murphy. The Annaberg landscape is representative of agriculture and industry on St. John throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth century. The plantation is a complete cultural landscape that characterized the Virgin Islands under Danish rule. The sugar plantation reflects the adaptation of colonial architecture to the island environment, as well as the technological advances that occurred during the period of significance. The buildings at Annaberg are constructed of local materials, including brain coral and stone rubble, and remain the best-preserved example of a sugar factory on St. John. Plantation landscapes were terraced into steep hillsides to maximize sugar cane production and a retaining wall secured the central leveled portion of the factory complex at Annaberg. The windmill was positioned on a prominent knoll to take advantage of trade winds. Cisterns and an aqueduct located upslope transported water into a gravity-fed system through the complex. The use of local materials in building construction reveals Danish influence in architectural detailing, most notably in quoins, window detailing, and the arched openings of the Annaberg windmill. The architecture is utilitarian and specialized by function, from grinding the sugar cane stalks to processing and storage. The windmill and animal mill ground cane stalks and funneled cane juice to the factory for refinement. Other buildings provided support functions, such as a cookhouse, cisterns, enslaved laborer dwellings, a bagasse shed, a privy, stables, and a dungeon. The Annaberg Sugar Factory preserves the major factory buildings and most of the auxiliary structures and features, providing one of the more complete St. John plantation landscapes. The preserved enslaved laborer’s village is a significant component of the cultural landscape at Annaberg. The realities of slavery, alongside the industrial production of sugar, convey the full history of life on St. John in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. The village remains include three rows of foundations and archeological evidence west of the animal mill. In 1991, excavations took place in conjunction with the stabilization of the enslaved laborers’ village. The artifacts and features revealed a great deal of subsurface information at Annaberg and retain the potential for additional findings. Future archeology may yield more information, particularly on the daily life of the sugar plantation. The MRA nomination based the inclusion of resources on relative integrity, condition assessment, and the representation of aspects of St. John’s history. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape (represented as Annaberg Historic District in 1981) retains integrity of location, design, materials, workmanship, and association. The sugar complex displays intact original buildings and conveys the dramatic view (and history) of the site. The interpretive path, loss of enslaved laborers’ house sites, and diminished agricultural fields compromise the integrity of feeling and setting. National Historic Landmark Information National Historic Landmark Status: No Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Landmark Theme: A 2004 draft NHL nomination for Estate Annaberg is on file in t World Heritage Site Information World Heritage Site Status: No Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Chronology & Physical History Cultural Landscape Type and Use Cultural Landscape Type: Ethnographic/Traditional Vernacular Designed Current and Historic Use/Function: Primary Historic Function: Manufacturing Facility (Mill) - Other Primary Current Use: Leisure-Passive (Park) Other Use/Function Other Type of Use or Function Multifamily (4+ Units) Historic Agricultural Field Historic Current and Historic Names: Name Type of Name Annaberg Both Current And Historic Francis' Castle Historic Ethnographic Study Conducted: No Survey Conducted Chronology: Year Event Annotation Explored Christopher Columbus landed in West Indies. St. John`s claimed by Spanish crown. AD 1493 Colonized Danish West India Company colonized St. Thomas AD 1672 Colonized Danish West India Company colonized St. John, led by Eric Brendal. The first permanent European settlement was Estate Carolina in Coral Bay, though many sources date Danish colonization of St. John to 1718. AD 1694 - 1718 Colonized Governor Bredal reports an increasing number of land holdings. In 1722, 38 individuals lived on the island, but 1728, 91 agricultural land claims were on the tax rolls. AD 1722 - 1728 Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Established Isaac Constantin established plantation overlooking Water Lemon Bay AD 1722 - 1746 Built Constantin plantation tax records indicate sugarworks built on property. AD 1730 Slave rebellion. Constantin sugar works, dwelling house, storage building, boiling house, and slave village burned in revolt. AD 1733 Land Transfer Issac Constantin plantation transferred to Mads Larsen, husband of daughter Sarrie Constantin. AD 1736 Built Sugar works rebuilt on site by Mads Larsen after previous building burned in 1733 slave rebellion. AD 1737 Land Transfer Salomon Zeeger Janzoon purchases former Constantin sugar plantation. AD 1758 Land Transfer Salomon Zeeger Janzoon purchases former Constantin sugar plantation. Increase in manpower (57 enslaved laborers grows to 92) and boost in production. Annaberg sugar factory established and relocated from former Constantin plantation. AD 1779 Land Transfer Mary Point parcel added to Issac Constantin holdings (during this period) AD 1786 - 1790 Land Transfer Annaberg, including Mary Point and Betty`s Hope plantations, sold to James E. Murphy. Murphy bought the adjacent Smith Bay plantation the year earlier and renamed it Leinster Bay. AD 1796 Built Annaberg sugar factory, windmill, and other industrial buildings. The site was terraced and natural drainage manipulated into an aquaduct system to supply the sugar works with water. AD 1797 - 1805 Land Transfer Murphy acquired Munsbury plantation to the south of the Annaberg tract. AD 1803 Land Transfer Murphy purchased Brown`s Bay estate east of Leinster Bay AD 1807 Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Altered James Murphy dies on St. John and is buried on a hill near his estate house. AD 1808 Land Transfer Murphy land holdings divided between his son (Leinster Bay estate) and daughter (Annaberg, Mary`s Point, Betty`s Hope). The Annaberg and Leinster Bay estates are associated with common family ownership through 1863. Munsbury and Brown Bay parcels owned by James Murphy are sold and reverted to mortgage holders respectively. AD 1809 - 1863 Abandoned Mass slave desertion. 11 enslaved laborers escaped on Kitty Berg and fled to Tortola. Slave flight provided impetus to construct custom, or guard, houses on Mary`s Point and Leinster Bay. AD 1840 Abandoned Slavery abolished. AD 1848 Land Transfer Abraham Hill purchases Annaberg and Leinster Bay, but doesn`t live to own property. Thomas Loyd buys the land at auction in 1863. AD 1862 - 1863 Land Transfer Governor Hans H. Berg willed individual parcels of the Annaberg and Leinster Bay estates to workers on each plantation. AD 1863 Land Transfer George (Carl) Francis, a former overseer, purchases Mary`s Point property. Loyd struggles to maintain sugar production. Hurricane damages buildings during his tenure and cane field revert to bush in 1871. AD 1863 - 1871 Damaged Hurricanes, earthquakes, and labor shortages end work at Annaberg factory. Windmill, factory, and school close due to damage. AD 1867 Land Transfer George Francis owns former Annaberg plantation until his death in 1875. AD 1871 - 1875 Built Francis boiling house constructed. Located on the former Betty`s Hope plantation, the Francis boiling house was the last sugar factory built on St. John. AD 1874 Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Altered Antoine Anduse owned and farmed the land, grazing cattle. AD 1875 - 1899 Inhabited Francis` relatives regain title to Annaberg and live in an estate house on the property. AD 1899 - 1935 Damaged Hurricane AD 1916 Theodore DeBooy excavats Carib Indian site and identifies petroglyphs in Reef Bay, St. John. AD 1916 - 1917 Virgin Islands purchased by U.S. government from Denmark for $25 million. AD 1917 Damaged Hurricane. Francis house damaged on animal mill. AD 1924 Land Transfer Carl Emanuel Francis (George`s son) sells property to Herman O. Creque AD 1935 Land Transfer Creque sells Annaberg to Jackson Hole Preserve, an organization set up to donate land for a national park. AD 1954 Established Virgin Islands National Park AD 1956 Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Physical History: Prehistory - 1493 AD Archeology reveals an extended prehistory on the Virgin Islands, but anthropologists do not agree on the origin of the first inhabitants of St. John. Ethnologists suggest that native people migrated from South America, though others attribute migration to the North American mainland (CRMP, 1986, 16). Settlement patterns likely began on the southeastern end of the Virgin Islands and spread throughout the smaller islands of the Lesser Antilles. A marine-based island culture hunted birds, gathered, fished, and began rudimentary agriculture during and after the Archaic Period (8000 BCE-1000 BCE). The natural topography of St. John was too mountainous to compete with other nearby agricultural islands and the population remained sparse. Prehistoric sites near Lameshur Bay date to 740 BC and include ceremonial complexes and burial grounds. Evidence of lithic tools, artifacts, and ceramics left by Carib and Taino, or Arawak Indians were found on St. John in the twentieth-century. Taino petroglyphs survive in Reef Bay valley, revealing the social and religious beliefs of the prehistoric culture. At the time of European exploration, few, if any inhabitants lived on the island. 1493 AD - 1718 AD Christopher Columbus “discovered” St. John in 1493 after arriving in the West Indies for the first time in 1492. After laying Spanish claim to Hispãniola, Columbus sailed by a plethora of small islands he promptly named “Las Once Mil Virgenes” after the legend of St. Ursula and the eleven thousand virgins of Cologne. European contact began the rapid demise of native inhabitants of the Virgin Islands, however, St. John remained sparsely populated with a few remaining Caribs. No documentary or archeological evidence reveals the number or location of the last native inhabitants. As the Spanish colonized and settled the Greater Antilles, shipping and trade increased in the area. The sheltered bays of the islands provided pirates, privateers, and legitimate seamen a waypoint and respite to stow tropical products and silver. Though the Virgin Islands had few natural resources for exploitation, other Europeans including the British, French, and Dutch moved to claim territory in the Caribbean Sea. The Danish West India Company colonized St. Thomas in 1672 as an area for cotton and sugar cane production. Enslaved Africans brought from the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) harvested sugar cane, coffee, cotton, indigo, and other products. On March 25, 1718, the Danish company led by Eric Bredal, the governor of St. Thomas colonized St. John at Coral Bay. 1718 AD - 1796 AD The Danish arrival on St. John ushered in a period of colonial history marked by plantation life and founded on a slave-based economy. The settlers, with the labor of enslaved natives and Africans, cleared land, planted crops, built roads and walls, and established factories to process sugar cane. Danish West Indies agriculture altered the natural vegetation and changed the island landscape forever. Annaberg Estate started as a small plantation under the ownership of Isaac Constantin in 1722. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Constantin was a French Huguenot refugee denied the rights of property and inheritance in the French Caribbean after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Constantin landed on St. John with his wife and daughter and obtained a deed to land on the north shore of the island and cleared sub-tropical native vegetation from the landscape. The Constantin plantation was located just east of the present Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. The 1723 tax records list Constantin, his wife- Gierterud Sara Baset, daughter- Sarrie, and nine enslaved laborers on the plantation. Five years later the landscape was described as “lying by Water Lemon [sic] Bay, length running ESE and WNW and breadth East from Jac. V. Stell in Governor Moth’s plantation, North and South to the machineel trees by the seashore” 3,000 (Danish) feet long by 2,000 feet broad (Knight, 15). The same year 24 slaves were recorded at the plantation. By 1730, Constantin was successful enough to hire an overseer to supervise the construction of a sugar works and able to return to live on St. Thomas Island. He died there in 1732. The land owned by Constantin on St. John was the nucleus of what became the much-larger Annaberg Estate. Though land records are inconclusive as to the bounds of the original land tract, Constantin owned 138 acres with a dwelling house, warehouse, animal mill, animal pens, boiling wall with copper kettles, and an enslaved laborers’ village. In the winter of 1733-1734 during the probate proceeding for Isaac Constantin’s estate, St. John experienced a slave rebellion. The nearly-successful revolt devastated the island and eventually influenced legislation well beyond the Virgin Islands. Enslaved workers destroyed buildings, field crops, and property at each plantation on the island and killed one-third of white landowners, overseers, and families. The ratio of slaves to Europeans before the rebellion was 1,087 to 208. After the Danish regained control with the help of the French in 1734, plantation slavery continued. The revolt prompted the end of slave trade to the Danish colonies in 1803 and guard houses were constructed to provide speedy communication between estate houses located on promontories. The British Virgin Islands abolished slavery in 1834 and maroonage became common as St. John slaves escaped to freedom across the narrow strait. Guardhouses then served to monitor the shoreline until the abolition of slavery in the Danish colonies in 1848. Sarrie Constantin, Isaac’s daughter retained the land on St. John’s north shore after her father’s death and married Mads Larsen in 1736. The sugarworks and other buildings destroyed during the revolt were rebuilt in 1737 and without an heir at the time of her death; the estate became administered by the court. A gap in the tax records leaves the ownership of the former Constantin plantation undetermined between 1740 and 1755, though in 1755 Chancery Counselor Jens Nielson Kragh managed the estate. Kragh was the Secretary of the Danish West Indies and Guinea Company and may have transitioned into administration of Annaberg from his role in the high court (Knight, 17). Salomon Zeeger Janzoon purchase the Constantin estate in 1758, after arriving in St. Thomas in 1753, and marrying Anna deWindt, the daughter of a prominent Danish couple. He moved to Cruz Bay to operate a small cotton plantation before purchasing the Constantin estate. Salomon and Anna had four daughters, Anna Maria, Elizabeth Mooy, Anna, and Adriana, who through inheritance, marriage, and purchase, expanded the estate to include adjacent properties on the north shore of St. John. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory The name “Annaberg” means Anna’s Mountain, likely in honor of the family matriarch or Anna, the third daughter who passed away at an early age. Anna Maria Zeeger married Peter deWindt, owner of Betty’s Hope (Dewindtsburg) and her sister, Adriana Zeeger married John Shatford Jones. Jones purchased Mary Point in 1789 and merged the property with the family estate. Elizabeth Mooy Zeeger married Benjamin Lind, who acted as provisions agent, customs officer, and postmaster at one time or another for the Danish crown. The Zeeger daughters and their well-connected husbands renamed the Annaberg estate and united multiple properties on the north shore, including Annaberg, Betty’s Hope and Mary Point. Annaberg developed into a sugar plantation and the construction of the industrial complex overseen by Benjamin Lind and John Shatford Jones signified the beginning of development at the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. The center of industry relocated from the sugarworks at the former Constantin location to its present site sometime around 1779. The Annaberg Sugar Factory appears on the map Peter Oxholm produced in 1780, but construction was likely incomplete during his survey in 1779. Oxholm mapped the entire St. John Island and noted estate house, roads, windmills, and sugar factories. His manuscript map, along with an 1800 update, remains the only historic maps from this period. Annaberg tax records show the number of enslaved laborers at leapt from 57 to 92 in 1779 and considering the value of labor, this investment likely signifies major improvements to the landscape. A 1793 inventory lists 120 acres planted in sugar cane, 111 acres of pasture and a still house, animal mill, 21 slave houses, a store house, a bagasse house, a kitchen/storage, overseer house, chicken coop, storehouse, boiling house, and curing house. Elements of this early complex may survive as part of the cultural landscape today and were likely integrated into later upgrades at the turn of the century. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Detail of 1780 Peter Oxholm Map (161/3021 Historical Base Map) 1796 AD -1862 AD In 1796, James Murphy, an Irish ship owner purchased Annaberg estate adjacent to his property on Leinster Bay (formerly Smith Bay) and began expanding sugar production. From 1797 to 1805, Murphy constructed a windmill, factory building, and estate house and the surrounding lands were cultivated in sugar cane. Murphy used plans produced by Peter Oxholm for the windmill and factory design, though modified the plan to accommodate the topography. The builders of the Annaberg factory consolidated the sugar processing into one three-story building. In 1803, Murphy purchased Munsbury plantation south of Annaberg and in 1807, Brown Bay to the east of Leinster Bay estate. During the most prolific years, Annaberg estate produced over 100,000 pounds of raw sugar. Annaberg Estate under Murphy’s ownership covered 530 acres of cane fields and made him one of the top producers on St. John. Murphy died in 1808 and was buried near his estate house overlooking Leinster Bay. His combined estate at the time included 1,300 acres and 662 enslaved laborers. The estate reconciled debt and sold off Brown Bay and Munsbury and the original parcel was split between his son Edward C. Murphy (Annaberg, Mary Point, Betty’s Hope) and daughter Mary Murphy Sheen (Leinster Bay). Though the land was divided, the family association remained until 1862. Mary Murphy Sheen and her husband passed away and the Leinster Bay land reverted to her brother Edward’s widow, Catherina Murphy in 1827. Catherina Murphy was Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory married to Hans H. Berg who became governor of St. Thomas and St. John in 1853. Slavery was abolished in the Danish Virgin Islands in 1848 and emancipation brought major changes to the plantation landscape. After the abolition of slavery, the population on St. John declined and subsistence farming and bay rum production became the primary industries on the island. The technology to produce sugar from beets soon dampened the sugar cane markets of the Caribbean and attempts to diversify failed. Soil depletion, a declining colonial economy, and emancipation all contributed to the end of sugar production on St. John. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape continued to produce sugar in decreasing amounts and native vegetation reclaimed the agricultural fields. In 1861, Annaberg yielded only five thousand pounds of raw sugar. Berg retained title to Annaberg and Leinster Bay until his death in 1862 (Knight, 25). Features on St. John extant from this period include sugar factories, windmills, curing houses, cisterns, stables, gate houses, boiling houses and additional work spaces used to process cotton, rum, tobacco, coffee, and indigo. The Annaberg Sugar Factory includes the major sugar-producing buildings, auxiliary structures, second-growth agricultural fields, the surrounding industrial landscape, and an enslaved laborers’ village. 1807 Murphy land holdings on St. John from David W. Knight’s “Annaberg: An Updated Survey of the Annaberg Factory Complex, Virgin Islands National Park” 1862 AD -1899 AD An auction divided the unified Annaberg estate upon Berg’s death and Abraham C. Hill bought Annaberg and Leinster Bay, while George Francis purchased Mary Point. Hill died before he Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory could receive title to the land and Thomas Letsom Loyd purchased the property in 1863. In 1867, a major hurricane and a series of earthquakes occurred and ended sugar processing at the Annaberg Sugar Factory. The natural disasters ruined many buildings on St. John, including Annaberg School. Thomas Loyd struggled to maintain the sugar operation and slopes once dominated by cane became wilderness. He sold the Annaberg and Leinster Bay plantations to George Francis in 1871. George Francis owned the reunified estates of Mary Point, Annaberg, and Leinster Bay until his death in 1875. His widow, Lucy Blyden Francis sold the land the following year to Antoine Anduze, a St. Thomas merchant. Anduze supported cattle grazing and subsistence agriculture on the land and hired an overseer. The Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape remained abandoned during this period until the property sold to Carl Francis, George’s son, in 1899. 1899 AD - 1956 AD Carl Emanuel Francis built a home and a cookhouse on the animal mill of the Annaberg complex and used the windmill and portions of other buildings naming the site, Francis’ Castle. In 1924, a hurricane damaged the house. Little information exists on the use or condition of the sugar factory landscape during this period, though Carmen Francis Jensen published a first person account of the 1924 storm. The house built by Carl Francis remained in ruins until dismantled by the National Park Service. Francis sold the property to Herman Creque in 1935 and Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc. acquired the property in 1954. During Carl Francis’ ownership, the Virgin Islands lost their place as an asset to Denmark in the global economy. In 1917, the United States purchased St. John and the other Virgin Islands, St. Thomas and St. Croix for $25 million dollars. Carl Francis house at Annaberg. St. John Backtime Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory 1956 AD - Present Congress authorized the establishment of the Virgin Islands National Park on August 2, 1956 from land donated by Jackson Hole Preserve, Inc. and acquired by Laurence S. Rockefeller and other members of the Rockefeller family. The enabling legislation (70 Stat. 940) included preserving the Virgin Islands National Park for “outstanding scenic and other features of national significance…” on St. John Island and surrounding cays and rocks. Annaberg became part of the new park with existing trails and roads, some dating to the Danish period, providing access to the sugar factory. Stabilization of the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape took place in late 1950s. The roof of the bagasse shed was removed and the former Carl Francis house was disassembled. Today the landscape is open and interpreted for the public. Stabilization efforts at Annaberg Sugar Factory. (NPS photo) Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Analysis & Evaluation of Integrity Analysis and Evaluation of Integrity Narrative Summary: Cultural landscapes are analyzed according to several landscape characteristics that include tangible and intangible aspects. These aspects individually and collectively give a landscape its historic character and range from large-scale patterns to specific site details. At the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape, the following characteristics were relevant to the site and have features that contribute to the history of sugar cultivation and processing: topography, vistas and views, circulation, archeological sites, cultural traditions, buildings and structures, small-scale features, vegetation, and spatial organization. These characteristics convey the history and architecture of an eighteenth and nineteenth-century Danish plantation during the period of significance (1779-1867). The topography of Annaberg Sugar Factory retains aspects of the natural slope and man-made alterations that date to the period of significance. The steep slope of the north shore above Leinster Bay is preserved in the surrounding landscape and the retaining wall, leveled work area, and ramps survive to express the adaptations made by enslaved workers to modify the natural topography. The terraces once cultivated with sugar cane may still be evident under thick vegetation. The views to and from Annaberg Sugar Factory remain much as they did during the historic period. The cultural landscape overlooks Leinster Bay with views of Anna Point, Mary Creek, Waterlemon Bay, and the British Virgin Islands. The views retain integrity despite the loss of cane fields surrounding the complex and express the social hierarchy of Danish colonial plantations with views of the Leinster Bay guard house and James Murphy Estate House. Circulation within Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape was primarily open during the period of significance. The spatial organization of buildings and retaining walls signify the routes within the complex and separation of the laborer’s village. The historic patterns of animals and workers within the sugar factory landscape are compromised by modern circulation today, though a Danish cart road survives along the shore of Leinster Bay. Archeologists uncovered significant features related to the historic landscape and the site still retains the potential to yield archeological information. Excavations and surveys in 1950s and 1990s uncovered artifacts and occupation layers related to the industrial process of sugar making and the lives of the enslaved laborers at Annaberg. The integrity of these sites and others is preserved in the cultural landscape. The cultural traditions related to a plantation supported by slave labor are also part of the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. The buildings and structures in varying states of ruin convey sugar processing and related uses at the center of the Annaberg component landscape. The cultural landscape includes a retaining wall, windmill tower, animal mill, factory, bagasse shed, oxpound, stable, cookhouse, cistern/unidentified building, cistern-aqueduct system, slave quarters, two bake ovens, another unidentified building, and a drinking trough. Non-contributing or undocumented structures include modern pit toilets, a stone oven, a storage shed, a dungeon, and toll booth. These features compose an industrial complex with an Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory adjacent village for enslaved workers and modern amenities for park staff and visitors. Many small-scale features, once part of the historic sugar complex do not survive in the landscape. A twentieth-century bleach (pile of stones used for drying) is located near the animal mill and may contribute to the later use of the site, but is undetermined at this time. The vegetation at Annaberg Sugar Factory includes specimen plantings representative of native St. John vegetation such as flamboyant tree (Royal Poinciana), turpentine (Bursera simaruba), and sweet apple (Annona squamosa) as well as genip (Melicoccus bijugatus) planted within the industrial area. A moist second-growth forest with genip, tan-tan (Leucaena leucocephala), and acacia (Acacia macracantha) covers the slope above and around the complex. A provisional garden interprets the native crops, medicinal plants, and sugar cane once grown on the Annaberg estate. The spatial organization is the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape conveys the historic use as an industrial and agricultural landscape. The placement of buildings, survival of the Danish road, and the archeological remains of the enslaved laborer’s village express the connection of Annaberg to other St. John plantations and the arrangement of space used to maximize the process of sugar production. The clustered organization of the sugar processing buildings highlights the topography of the site. Integrity Landscape characteristics have integrity if they convey historic significance. Integrity is present if the landscape retains a combination of seven aspects: location, setting, design, feeling, association, materials, and workmanship. Annaberg Sugar Factory has slightly diminished integrity, yet conveys the historic significance of Danish colonial sugar production as the most complete sugar plantation cultural landscape on St. John. The component landscape retains integrity of location, design, workmanship, materials, and association. Annaberg Sugar Factory retains integrity of location. The landscape characteristics remain in the same physical location and the site survives from its beginnings as a sugarworks in 1779. The original design of the sugar factory landscape retains integrity. The architecture modified from Peter Oxholm’s plan is unchanged and the spatial organization of the complex is intact. The buildings also convey the workmanship of the enslaved laborers with examples of brick, coral, and stone ruins and details such as quoins, arched entries, and stuccoed ovens. The landscape retains integrity of association with the Danish colonial period and the materials remain significant to the various structures in the landscape. Local coral and stone are combined with imported brick to form buildings used for animals, industry, storage, and processing. The loss of surrounding sugar cane fields and reintroduction of second-growth vegetation diminishes the integrity of setting. The maintenance parking lot takes away from the setting and feeling of the factory, while the manicured lawn and asphalt paths around the buildings compromise the integrity of feeling. The loss of the enslaved laborers’ village also diminishes the integrity of feeling, though the archeological significance is preserved. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Aspects of Integrity: Materials Association Workmanship Design Location Landscape Characteristic: Buildings and Structures The structures of Annaberg Sugar Factory are contributing resources to the National Register district. The buildings, each constructed for a specific function of sugar production or related work, are primarily utilitarian. Most construction was stone and coral rubble, though later alterations include rubble with brick inclusions. The house foundations for the enslaved laborers remain intact but likely had less permanent building materials, including wattle and daub discovered by archeologists. The structures at Annaberg date to the major building campaign in 1797-1803 by James Murphy, yet buildings constructed during the Lind and Jones tenure may still exist within the site. More recent structures built by Carl Francis include the cookhouse on the animal mill platform in the twentieth century, though his home (adjacent) was dismantled by the NPS in the 1950s. The 1797 construction included the windmill and factory plan adapted from Peter Oxholm’s design as well as auxiliary structures. The retaining wall may have been built or expanded at this time to support the new mill. The animal mill likely predates the windmill as the primary mill at Annaberg. The construction of the oxpound, stable, bake oven and the unidentified buildings to the east is not known, though a thorough historic structure report may provide information in the future. The Annaberg Sugar Factory buildings are preserved in poor condition, yet retain integrity of location, design, materials, workmanship, and association to varying degrees. The ruins at Annaberg convey the local materials used for construction and in some places the workmanship of the enslaved workers. The architectural style reveals the association between St. John and the Danish crown. The setting and feeling of the buildings is diminished due to the surrounding overgrown landscape and the ruinous foundations of the enslaved workers village. Wooden railing deters visitors from climbing on ruins and protects the dungeon, factory, and windmill. The Annaberg windmill tower (H33-02) constructed of stone and coral rubble rises 38 feet in a truncated cone. The openings are dressed in cut coral blocks and a ramp from the west leads to the interior. A fireplace is located across from the entrance and openings are articulated for the removal of cane juice (south) and bagasse (northwest). The building retains integrity and was constructed in 1797-1803. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory The animal (horse) mill (H33-03), located between the windmill and the bagasse shed, is a round level platform 75’ in diameter. A stone retaining wall encloses the mill and rises from 3’ to 13’ in height allowing for entry to the northeast. The cane juice gutter and grinding foundation remain intact. The platform created by the animal mill is maintained as a mown lawn and used for interpretation during demonstrations at the cookhouse. There are three picnic tables on the mill platform for visitors. The animal mill retains integrity, though was altered during the 20th century by the Francis family. The factory (H33-04) forms a “T” with the boiling house oriented north-south and the storage, curing portion, and still built east-west. The two-story building has openings and quoins of brain coral, an architectural detail that denotes the importance of the structure. A courtyard paved with fieldstone on the northeast corner of the building contains a cistern, staircase, and arched entry on the north façade. The factory walls are intact and the building has integrity of location, design, materials, workmanship, and association. The setting is compromised by the overgrown wilderness adjacent to the south and the maintenance parking lot to the west. The loss of the roof and surrounding lawn diminish the integrity of feeling. The bagasse shed (H33-05) west of the animal mill remains as a row of four 2’ square stone rubble pillars standing to full height. Another row of pillars to the south and the shed roof does not remain. The pillars were capped with concrete for stabilization in the 1950s. Although the thatched shed roof is missing, the bagasse shed remains are an integral component to complete sugar-making process. The ox pound (H33-06) is a rectangular (60’ x 120’) stone rubble foundation. The building is completely overgrown in vegetation presently, though footings and a cross wall are preserved within the existing wall sections. The oxpound has diminished integrity and survives in poor condition. A bake oven (H33-07) is located between the windmill and factory building at the end of the retaining wall. The large oven for community baking has an ash flue above the rounded opening to the bake chamber on the west façade. The bake oven retains integrity and is in fair condition. The stable (H33-08) south of the factory remains as rubble foundation walls and footings (24’x 32’) with a masonry staircase along the south wall. The National Register nomination lists the use of this building as conjectural. The building retains the original location and materials, though the workmanship, feeling, and setting are compromised. Vegetation is starting to encroach on the stable and the slope above the factory building and the stable remains in poor condition. Two unidentified buildings (H33-10, 11) are listed in the LCS and located east of the perimeter retaining wall. The LCS describes one outbuilding as a cistern/catch basin in an alternate record. The other is unidentified. The cistern is 8’ square while the structure further in the forest is 18’ x 24’. These buildings have diminished integrity due to encroaching vegetation, Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory sparse documentation, and unmaintained foundations. A dungeon is connected to the southeast corner of the retaining wall. The arched entry is accessible by a path from the bake oven leading behind the windmill. The room is built into the grade enclosed by the retaining wall. The one-room structure has one window with a plantation-era etching on the interior wall. The dungeon possesses integrity, but it not individually listed on the LCS. A twentieth-century cookhouse built by the Francis family was moved and stuccoed in 1960. The cookhouse now resides on the southwest corner of the animal mill, used for interpretive baking demonstrations. The building is not listed in the National Register nomination, though the LCS lists the structure (H33-09) as determined eligible. The cookhouse does not have integrity of location or association, but does retain integrity of materials, setting, feeling, and workmanship. The water collection system (H33-12) upslope from the factory includes three cisterns and connecting aqueducts. The intermittent stream providing water to the complex would have likely been dammed, though no evidence exists today. The cisterns are constructed of stone and the final cistern (nearest the factory) is elevated to provide a gravity feed. The water system extends 600’ south and east of the factory and retains integrity. The slave quarters (H33-13-28) are post-in-ground construction and survive as 16 house site ruins. Each site is 22’ x12’ and regularly spaced (between 8’ to 20’) in rows parallel to the slope (east-west). Two house foundations are oriented north-south. The masonry foundations held posts upright for walls and roofs, providing dwellings both sturdiness and flexibility during hurricanes. The existing foundations vary from less than one foot to 3’5” in height. The village is in poor condition with stabilized ruins, cleared vegetation, and documented archeology. Evidence of wattle and daub mortar and tax records of slave houses suggests that earlier structures existed at the site. A bake oven (#2) (H33-29) located in the middle of the enslaved laborers’ village is covered in vegetation and rubble. The stone oven appears as a low mound and is 5’ square. The bake oven has diminished integrity and survives in poor condition. The retaining wall (H33-01) encloses the level platform of the windmill and animal mill in the Annaberg Sugar Factory complex. The stone rubble wall varies from five to twenty feet in height and extends from the bake oven east to the dungeon, then turns north encircling the rear of the windmill. The wall continues north to the furthest point overlooking Leinster Bay and turns sharply east, extending to the enslaved laborers’ village before gently tapering out. The section of the wall facing south is slightly deteriorated and missing short portions, though the overall condition is good. A concrete cap stabilizes sections along the pedestrian path and a semi-circular overlook remains to the north of the windmill. Other retaining walls are located near the bake oven and animal mill, each extending the formal retaining wall and constructed of Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory loose stone rubble. Two masonry drinking troughs (H33-30) are located to the south (alongside the road) and west of the Annaberg Sugar Factory complex. The oblong, shallow troughs, each 45 feet long and two feet wide, form an “I” and terminate in a well shaft. The troughs contribute to the system of water retention and dispersal and are likely a twentieth-century improvement, possibly dating to the ownership of Carl Francis. Modern structures accommodate visitors and staff at Annaberg today. Pit toilets are located near the taxi turnaround and a tollbooth, though closed, greets visitors. A small round stone structure is located immediately behind the tollbooth. This round structure is 3’ tall and may be an historic oven. A wooden shed provides storage south of the demonstration garden. The open area between the maintenance road and the bagasse shed has stone rubble piled beneath the trees. The stones dislodged from buildings are cleared to allow for mowing. Character-defining Features: Retaining wall Feature: 144541 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7097 IDLCS Number: Windmill tower Feature: 144543 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 1367 IDLCS Number: Animal mill Feature: 144545 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7098 IDLCS Number: Factory Feature: 144549 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7099 IDLCS Number: Bagasse shed Feature: 144535 Feature Identification Number: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7100 IDLCS Number: LCS Structure Name: Bagasse Shed-Annaberg Factory Complex H33-05 LCS Structure Number: Oxpound Feature: 144551 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7101 IDLCS Number: Bake Oven Feature: 144537 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7102 IDLCS Number: LCS Structure Name: Bake Oven-Annaberg Factory Complex H33-07 LCS Structure Number: Cook house Feature: 144567 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7104 IDLCS Number: Cistern/Unidentified Feature: 144569 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7105 IDLCS Number: Unidentified structure Feature: 144555 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7106 IDLCS Number: Cisterns/Aqueduct Feature: 144557 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory 7107 IDLCS Number: LCS Structure Name: Runoff Cisterns & Aqueduct,Annaberg Mill & Factory H33-12 LCS Structure Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144561 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7108 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144571 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7109 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144573 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7110 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144577 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7111 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144579 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7112 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144581 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7113 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory 144583 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7114 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144585 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7115 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144587 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7116 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144589 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7117 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144591 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7118 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144593 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7119 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144597 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7120 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144599 Feature Identification Number: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7121 IDLCS Number: Slave quarters ruins Feature: 144601 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7122 IDLCS Number: Bake oven #2 Feature: 144539 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7124 IDLCS Number: LCS Structure Name: Bake Oven #2-Annaberg Mill and Factory H33-29 LCS Structure Number: Drinking trough Feature: 144563 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: 7125 IDLCS Number: Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Enslaved laborer's house. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Annaberg windmill, 2008. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Twentieth-century cook house, 2008. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Annaberg factory building, 2008. Archeological Sites Since NPS management began in the 1950s, several archeological investigations for compliance and research have been conducted at the Annaberg Sugar Factory. A surface collection during the 1958 stabilization and restoration recovered tools, implements, and artifacts related to occupation and the industrial process. Excavation also took place to mitigate the North Shore Road realignment. In 1991, excavation of the enslaved laborers’ village at Annaberg uncovered original floors within several house sites, domestic artifacts, and fauna remains. Similar to typical enslaved laborer villages on St. John, the dwellings at Annaberg are located on a steep and rocky slope unsuitable for agriculture near the periphery of the complex. Nineteen houses remain today as masonry foundations with post-in-ground construction, though remnants of wattle and daub mortar suggest rudimentary houses predated the extant village remains. The house sites at Annaberg are all oriented east-west with two positioned north-south to take advantage of the slope. A masonry bake oven (HS-29) is located between several foundations and outdoor hearths were uncovered near the doors of houses further from the bake oven. (Leabo, 2) An excavation related to the North Shore Road uncovered a blacksmith shop to the west of the village at Annaberg. The smithy was documented, removed, and a parking lot was constructed on the site. (161/41039, Annaberg Parking Plan) Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory The landscape retains integrity and significance for its potential to yield archeological information in the future. Subsurface finds and extensive research can uncover more about the lives of the enslaved workers who produced sugar and lived at Annaberg. Archeology may also produce a more in-depth understanding of the larger landscape and its context or reveal terraces and features, yet undiscovered. Character-defining Features: Annaberg Factory and Mill Feature: 144679 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: VIIS 00040 ASMIS ID Number: Annaberg Factory and Mill ASMIS Name: Views and Vistas The view to and from Annaberg Sugar Factory was an essential feature of the historic landscape. The view north and west includes Leinster Bay, Waterlemon Cay, Mary Creek, and Anna Point. The view of nearby Tortola, part of the British Virgin Islands was crucial, since the island historically provided a haven for escaping slaves. After the slave revolt in 1733, close vigilance and quick communication became a necessity between neighboring plantations and the Leinster Bay guard house overlooked Annaberg. The James Murphy Estate House, visible to the east, oversaw the daily operations and enslaved laborers working on-site. The placement of Annaberg on a prominent knoll allowed for wide views of the surrounding bay, other peninsulas, and promontories and captured breezes from the water to power the windmill. The cane fields would have been visible from the complex, though today the slopes are covered in second-growth vegetation. The siting of the estate house, guard house, and sugar factory reiterated the social hierarchy within the landscape. The overseer was visible, but distant from the sugar operations. The views at Annaberg remain extant today and contribute to the siting and spatial organization of the factory. Due to minimal development beyond the park, the integrity of views is good. While the loss of the cane fields affects the views of Annaberg, the existing vegetation closely resembles the native vegetation of St. John. Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory View of Mary Creek and Mary Point from Annaberg retaining wall, looking northwest. NPS photo, 2008. Cultural Traditions The cultural landscape at Annaberg Sugar Factory conveys the ethnic and social organization of a Danish plantation based on slave labor. The pattern of land use, hierarchy of building forms, location, and architectural materials reflects the relationship between Danish planters and overseers and the enslaved natives and Africans responsible for cultivating and processing the sugar. Colonial planters established traditional architecture (i.e., windmills from Europe) and reserved architectural details like quoins and arches for important buildings on site. The enslaved laborers village occupied less valuable land and buildings do not survive due, in part, to impermanent building materials. The present site represents the vast difference of cultural traditions and between classes in the colonial era. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Small Scale Features There are few small-scale features left in the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape from the period of significance. Historically, the industrial complex would have had many features including, large copper pots for boiling sugar into molasses and rum, cannon for protection after the 1733 slave revolt, and large storage barrels for processed sugar. Equipment for animal husbandry and sugar production were likely part of the cultural landscape. Tax records and probate inventories confirm the presence of some of these features, though today the landscape does not contain any small-scale historic features. A twentieth-century feature remaining in the landscape dates to the use of the complex by Carl Francis and his family. A bleach, or pile of stones used for drying clothing, is located northeast of the animal mill. The fieldstone pile is 3’ tall and forms a rough circular shape 11 to 12 feet in diameter. The bleach is not a certified record on the LCS at this time. Character-defining Features: Bleach Feature: 144777 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Bleach in foreground of animal mill, NPS photo 2010. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Circulation The historic circulation of workers, work animals, and water is demarcated in the landscape by spatial organization, adjacent retaining walls, and topography. Work animals were housed in the ox pound and stable, worked in the animal mill, and utilized cart roads to and from the fields and shoreline. The transportation of sugar cane mirrored the route of animals—coming in from the fields on cart roads to the mill. The cart road along the north shore of Leinster Bay remains as a hiking trail today, though portions to the east have been washed out by sea action. Ramps remain intact and illustrate access to the animal mill and windmill. The enslaved laborers likely used informal footpaths throughout the complex. The space between buildings and defined by retaining walls suggests the network of pathways throughout the site. The retaining wall (HS-01) and change in elevation separates the industrial complex from the enslaved laborer’s village. Available water was funneled down-slope into aqueducts and cisterns and channeled, like the cane juice, to specific areas for processing or use. Overall, the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape was an industrial workspace with open circulation. The current circulation at Annaberg Sugar Factory includes a vehicle parking lot at the shore of Leinster Bay, a wooden boardwalk and hiking trail leading from the parking lot to the taxi turnaround, and series of asphalt paths that wind through the component landscape. The beginning of the trail is marked with an interpretive sign and a 14’ stone paved trailhead. The asphalt path is 4’ wide and highlights the enslaved laborer’s village, the windmill, bake oven, factory, and views from behind the retaining wall. Fieldstone steps descend the grade behind the factory building. Maintenance vehicles can drive from the taxi turnaround to a small parking lot located between the factory and provisional garden. The integrity of circulation is diminished at Annaberg Sugar Factory due to modern visitor amenities at the site. The parking lot, taxi turnaround, and walking paths do not contribute to the historic landscape. Remnants of the Danish cart road along the shore of Leinster Bay survive from the earliest development of the land and contribute to the landscape of Annaberg. Character-defining Features: Parking lot Feature: 144779 Feature Identification Number: Non Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Danish cart road Feature: 144781 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Taxi turnaround Feature: 144783 Feature Identification Number: Non Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Walking path Feature: 144785 Feature Identification Number: Non Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Access road Feature: 144787 Feature Identification Number: Non Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Pedestrian walkway at Annaberg, 2008. Topography The natural and altered topography is a character-defining feature of the Annaberg Sugar Factory landscape. The change in elevation emphasizes the dramatic view of Leinster Bay and retains the historic structures set into the original slope. The labor required to build the complex on a precipitous slope and transform the extended hillside into a large, producing plantation is evident. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory The physical landscape on the north shore of St. John slopes steeply to sea level at Leinster Bay. Ajax Peak rises above the Annaberg Sugar Factory as part of the east-west ridgeline that bisects the island. The historic industrial complex occupies a natural knoll overlooking Mary Creek and Leinster Bay. Before Danish colonization, the natural topography was covered with sub-tropical vegetation. The steeply sloped site required an aqueduct and cistern system to collect water, a retaining wall to create a level workspace, and terracing to accommodate crops. The hillside was cut and filled to maximize sugar cane acreage and the enslaved laborers’ village was built into the downhill slope west of the animal mill. The siting of the windmill on the accentuated knoll captured sea breezes to power the factory. Today the slope once terraced for sugar cane appears natural, dropping abruptly to the shoreline. Remnants of terracing may still be evident on the slope above the complex but are obscured under thick vegetation. Sugar cane may also have been planted on the more gradual slopes east and west of the sugar factory. Historically, the topography dictated not only site of the windmill, but also the design of the industrial buildings. Peter Oxholm’s single-story sugar mill plan was architecturally modified at Annaberg into a two-story factory to make efficient use of the mountainous terrain and conserve valuable space. The retaining wall, a major structure in the landscape, shows the disproportionate amount of labor needed to manipulate the topography. Other man-made elevation changes survive within the industrial complex. An earthen ramp leads from the animal mill to the western base of the windmill. The ramp allowed bagasse, or cane stalks to be removed after crushing. The addition of the windmill to supplement the animal mill in processing cane required a massive retaining wall and the ramp provide space to transport the cane. The animal mill is elevated with a ramp to the northeast so animals powering the mill could have sloped access to the circular space. These features contribute to the industrial significance of Annaberg Sugar Factory. The topography at Annaberg Sugar Factory contributes significantly to the cultural landscape and retains integrity as a feature of the site. The location and setting remain unchanged with the natural slope visible in the surrounding landscape. The design of sugar factory adapted specifically to the site from Oxholm’s plan survives and reveals the severe topography of Annaberg that dictated such changes. The workmanship is evident in the retaining walls and ramps in the landscape. The topography captures the feeling of the steep terrain and the challenges of sugar cultivation on the north shore. A modern pedestrian path graded behind the factory building does not contribute to the cultural landscape. Character-defining Features: Ramp to windmill Feature: 144793 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Natural knoll Feature: 144797 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Ramp to animal mill Feature: 144801 Feature Identification Number: Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Pedestrian path Feature: 144803 Feature Identification Number: Non Contributing Type of Feature Contribution: Farming terraces Feature: 144805 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Spatial Organization The spatial organization of the Annaberg Sugar Factory represents the industrial process of a typical slave-operated plantation. The building design and layout of Annaberg adapted from Peter Oxholm’s plan is unique to the north-slope topography on St. John. Historically, Jones and Lind built Annaberg Sugar Factory as a small sugarworks on the site sometime around 1779. The 1779 works was incorporated into the existing complex and expanded by James Murphy at the turn of the century. The arrangement of utilitarian buildings was dictated by the method of processing sugar, while residential and ancillary buildings occupied the periphery. The National Register MRA nomination notes the windmill and animal mill were elevated on a leveled terrain with the boiling house (factory), cisterns, stills, and a bagasse shed nearby. Cisterns and aqueducts funneled water from the ridge to the clustered buildings to provide efficient manufacturing. The ox pound and stable remain off to the south and the enslaved laborers’ village to the west. The arrangement reflects the use of each specified building and reiterates the social hierarchy in the landscape, with overseers remaining removed (or above) the workspace and enslaved laborers living just below the retaining wall. The complex advanced the production of sugar by organizing the landscape in the most efficient way to maximize space around a knoll on an otherwise steep slope. The spatial organization conveys the process of sugar production and retains integrity. The addition of visitor amenities and loss of cultivated cane fields slightly diminishes the integrity spatial organization. Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory 1995 aerial of Annaberg. Vegetation Shallow soils, little precipitation, frequent hurricanes, and constant trade winds result in ecosystems on St. John that range from mangrove and salt flat areas to moist bay rum forests, dry evergreen forests, secondary vegetation, and pasture. The native vegetation on the north-facing slopes over Leinster Bay began as a sub-tropical forest before being cleared in the eighteenth-century for sugar cane agriculture. Little is known of the historic landscape during the period; however, fields were a uniform crop of sugar cane six feet tall. The inhospitable environment was altered with an intense process of clearing, planting, and harvesting. Sugar fields were likely on the immediate slopes surrounding the factory landscape and may have extended south on steeper slopes with stone terraces. After sugar production ceased in 1867, cattle grazing kept the sloped fields from successive growth until the 1950s, when the NPS acquired the site. The extended historic landscape of the Annaberg Sugar Factory included cart paths and plots Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory of less significant subsistence crops. A 1793 inventory listed 15 acres set aside for “Negro grounds and provisions;” however, archeology has not located the site of a subsistence farm for the enslaved laborers. Yams, sweet potatoes, beans, maize, and cassava would likely have been grown. (Leabo, 3) Though the fields of sugar cane that covered the landscape are no longer present, a provisional garden at Annaberg interprets the native and subsistence crops grown on St. John. The fenced interpretive garden located between the factory building and ox pound produces a sample of sugar cane, medicinal crops, and native plants. Other specimens include banana, plantains, pomegranate, wild cherry, lemon grass, avocado, tomato, squash, basil, bay leaves, pumpkin, and other herbs. The garden is surrounded by a chain-link fence and tended by a local volunteer. The current dry forest landscape surrounding Annaberg Sugar Factory contains acacia tan-tan, catch-and-keep, genip, and croton scrub (Woodbury & Weaver, 1987). The Annaberg industrial complex includes specimen plantings of genip, papaya, gumbo-limbo or turpentine, catch-and-keep, and a variety of palms. A mature flamboyant tree is centered between the windmill and animal mill and two frangipani (Plumaria alba) grow along the retaining wall to the north. Kapok, mango, sweet apple, false nutmeg (Cassine xylocarpa), sweet lime, sandbox, saman, strangler fig, and soursop also grow in the area. The remaining vegetation on the site exists as a manicured interpretative area with shade trees and open lawn. Character-defining Features: Flamboyant tree Feature: 144851 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Provision garden Feature: 144855 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Frangipani Feature: 144857 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Turpentine Feature: 144861 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Sweet apple Feature: 144863 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Genip Feature: 144865 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Papaya Feature: 144873 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: False nutmeg Feature: 144879 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Acacia Feature: 144881 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Tan-tan Feature: 144921 Feature Identification Number: Undetermined Type of Feature Contribution: Landscape Characteristic Graphics: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Sugar cane in the provision garden, 2008. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Condition Condition Assessment and Impacts Fair Condition Assessment: 07/25/2010 Assessment Date: Condition Assessment Explanatory Narrative: The Annaberg Sugar Factory is preserved in fair condition. The industrial complex is the most complete, interpreted, and visited sugar plantation on St. John. Vegetation and inappropriate maintenance have a minor impact on the cultural landscape. The grounds are managed by mowing and the buildings are stabilized and interpreted for the public. The vegetation was inventoried and marked with small, interpretative signs in 2009. The trees and provision garden are well-maintained and preserve views of Leinster Bay. Intrusions in the historic landscape include a chain-link/barbed wire fence around the garden, an access road for maintenance vehicles, and the succession of second-growth forests in fields once covered in sugar cane. Impacts Type of Impact: Inappropriate Maintenance External or Internal: Internal Impact Description: All repair work should follow Section 106 compliance for historic resources. Type of Impact: Vegetation/Invasive Plants External or Internal: Both Internal and External Impact Description: Vegetation growing upslope from the Annaberg Sugar Factory encroaches on the cisterns, stable ruins, and ox pound causing deterioration to the structures and foundations. Non-native species such as Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), tan tan (Leucaena leucocephala), and sweet lime (Triphasia trifolia) threaten natural resources. Soil erosion and declining habitat also threaten endangered species, such as mangrove at lower elevations. Type of Impact: Vandalism/Theft/Arson External or Internal: Internal Impact Description: The threat of vandalism exists throughout the park. A chainlink fence with barbed wire was added in 2009 around the provision garden. Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Treatment Treatment Approved Treatment: Preservation Approved Treatment Document: General Management Plan Approved Treatment Completed: Yes Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Bibliography and Supplemental Information Bibliography John Lonzo Anderson Citation Author: Citation Title: Random Notes on the History of St. John. 1970 Year of Publication: Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Ken Wild and Roy W. Reaves Citation Author: Citation Title: Archeological Investigations Along North Shore Road, Virgin Islands National Park 1986 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: SEAC Betty Ausherman Citation Author: Citation Title: St. John Sites Report 1982 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: Division for Archeology and Historic Preservation, Virgin Islands Planning Offic SERO Citation Location: Mark Barnes Citation Author: Citation Title: Estate Annaberg National Historic Landmark (NHL) nomination draft 2004 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS Narrative Citation Type: SERO files Citation Location: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory David M. Brewer and Susan Hammersten Citation Author: Citation Title: Archeological Overview and Assessment, Virgin Islands National Park, St. John, U.s. Virgin Islands 1988 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: SEAC CRBIB Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: William Chapman Citation Author: Citation Title: "Slave Villages in the Danish West Indies: Changes of the Late Eighteen and Early Nineteenth Centuries" in Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture. 1991 Year of Publication: Other Source Name: Narrative Citation Type: SERO files Citation Location: Eastern Office, Design and Construction, National Park Service Citation Author: Citation Title: Historic Structures Report (Part I) on Windmills, Virgin Islands National Park, Architectural Data Section 1963 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS CRBIB Source Name: Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Charles Hatch Citation Author: Citation Title: The Quiet Place, Historic Resource Study, Virgin Islands National Park 1972 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS CRBIB Source Name: Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Karen Hjerpe Citation Author: Citation Title: Ethnographic Study of St. John, USVI, Histories and Identities: Cutlrual Heritage Revisited. 1999 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: Department of Anthropology, University of Florida SERO, VIIS Citation Location: Regina M. Leabo Citation Author: Citation Title: "Investigations Conducted at the Slave Village on the Annaberg Plantation, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands" in Searching...archeological Heritage of the Virgin Islands Quarterly Newsletter 1997 Year of Publication: Other Source Name: Narrative Citation Type: SERO files Citation Location: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory National Park Conservation Association Citation Author: Citation Title: Virgin Islands National Park and Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument: A Resource Assessment 2008 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPCA Other Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: David W. Knight Citation Author: Citation Title: Annaberg: An Updated Survey on the Annaberg Factory Complex, Virgin Islands National Park, St. John, USVI (with overviews of contributing sites with the Annaberg Historic District) 2001 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS CRBIB Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: NPS Citation Author: Citation Title: General Management Plan 1983 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS CRBIB Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Ruth Hull Low and Rafael Valls Citation Author: Citation Title: St. John Backtime: Eyewitness Accounts from 1718 to 1965 1985 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: Eden Hill Press Library of Congress/Dewey Decimal Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Roy O. Woodbury and Peter L. Weaver Citation Author: Citation Title: The Vegetation of St. John and Hassel Island, U.S. Virgin Islands, Research/Resources Management Report 1987 Year of Publication: Citation Publisher: NPS CRBIB Source Name: Narrative Citation Type: SERO, VIIS Citation Location: Bruce Schoonover Citation Author: Citation Title: "Historical Society Install Plant Signs at Annaberg and Provides Guidence to Friends' Docent" in St. John Historical Society Newsletter, Vol. X, No. 5 2009 Year of Publication: Other Source Name: Both Graphic and Narrative Citation Type: SERO Citation Location: Cultural Landscapes Inventory Virgin Islands National Park Annaberg Sugar Factory Supplemental Information Title: 161/25003 Sugar Factory Estate Annaberg Description: Historic American Building Survey (HABS) Virgin Islands, 1959 Title: 161/30004 Estate Boundaries, St. John Island Description: September 1, 1959. Title: 161/3015 Development Plan, Annaberg Estate Ruins Description: Part of Master Plan, Virgin Islands National Park, Eastern Division, Design and Construction, NPS, June 10, 1958. Title: 161/3015A Development Plan, Annaberg Estate Ruins Description: Part of Master Plan, Virgin Islands National Park, Eastern Division, Design and Construction, NPS. Frederick C. Gjessing, March 1, 1961. Title: 161/3021 Historical Base Map Description: Part of Master Plan, Virgin Islands National Park. Based on 1780-1800 Peter L. Oxholm map, Eastern Division, Design and Construction, National Park Service, October 10, 1958. Title: 161/41039 Annaberg Parking Plan Description: D. Gray, December 20, 1989 Title: 161/41039A Annaberg Parking Plan Description: Profile of Raised Boardwalk and Walkway details included, D. Gray, December 20, 1989, 3 sheets. Title: 161/80041 Windmill, Estate Annaberg Description: Historic American Building Survey (HABS) Virgin Islands Field Office, Frederick C. Gjessing, 1962, 5 sheets. Cultural Landscapes Inventory