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SITE  SUMMARIES       113   KINGS  CORNER   Descrip(on.    The  Kings  Corner   monitoring  site  is  a  part  of  a  patchy  reef   complex  along  the  steeply  sloping  west   coast  of  St.  Croix  in  depths  of  15-­‐25  m.     The  reef  contains  a  high  diversity  of   corals  and  sponges  on  mounds   surrounded  by  sand.    Kings  Corner  has   been  monitored  since  2006,  with   permanent  transects  installed  in  2007.   Outstanding  Feature.    Kings  Corner  is  a   commercially  important  recreational   dive  site.    The  site  supports  a  high   diversity  and  density  of  fishes.    It  is  also   a  very  aesthetically  pleasing  site  with   high  topographic  relief.   Threats.    Kings  Corner  is  open  to  fishing  and  is  easily  accessible  as  part  of  the  calm  lee  of   western  St.  Croix  near  Frederiksted.    Derelict  fishing  lines,  fish  traps,  fish  weights,  and  other   marine  debris  are  in  evidence  in  and  around  the  site.    Large  plumes  of  sediment  that  wrap   around  Sandy  Point  from  the   south  coast  of  St.  Croix  also   periodically  affect  the  site.     Plumes  can  drop  visibility  to   near  zero  and  lead  to  high   incidence  of  sediment  on  coral   and  spotty  bleaching.   Figure  50.    Kings  Corner.  (top)   Location.    (right)  A  representative   photo  of  the  reef  with  a  school  of   lane  snapper  (Lutjaus  synagris).     KINGS  CORNER         114   Figure  51.    Kings  Corner  benthic  temperature  (17  m  depth)     Physical  Characteris.cs   Current.    Kings  Corner  currents  have  not  been  measured  directly.    The  site  is  protected   from  wave  action,  but  can  experience  strong  unidirectional  currents  at  times,  particularly  at   shallower  depths.   Temperature.    Kings  Corner  has  moderately  high  temperatures.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2009 2007 2010 2008 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month SITE  SUMMARIES       115     Benthic  Community.    The  Kings  Corner  site  supports  a  diverse  community  of  hard  corals   dominated  by  Orbicella  spp.    The  site  also  has  a  very  abundant  population  of  sponges.    This   site  was  not  monitored  until  after  the  2005  bleaching  event,  so  the  impacts  on  coral  cover   are  not  known.    Epilithic  algae  dominate  the  algal  community  at  Kings  Corner,  with  very   low  abundance  of  macroalgae  and  filamentous  cyanobacteria.    Sand  is  prominently   interspersed  among  the  coral  banks.   Coral  Health.    Non-­‐thermal  bleaching  with  moderate  prevalence  but  low  extent  on  colonies   is  a  common  feature  at  this  site,  likely  as  the  result  of  chronic  sedimentation.    The   prevalence  of  coral  diseases  has  been  low  with  dark  spots  disease  predominating.  Old   partial  mortality  has  been  very  high  at  this  site  since  monitoring  started  and  may  be  an   indication  of  impacts  from  the  2005  coral  bleaching  event.     Figure  52.    Kings  Corner  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.     (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   KINGS  CORNER         116   Figure  53.    Kings  Corner  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       117   Fish  Community.    Kings  Corner  represents  the  most  diverse  fish  community  with  the  highest   fish  biomass  in  the  St  Croix  monitoring  program,  with  a  huge  variety  of  resources  available   for  foraging  and  habitat.  The  site  is  dominated  by  invertivores,  influenced  highly  by  the   large  numbers  of  the  nocturnal  feeding  blackbar  soldierfish,  a  zooplanktivore,  and  the   tomtate,  a    more  opportunistic  and  benthic  feeder  of  invertebrates,  zooplankton  and   benthic  algae.  Other  common  planktonic  feeders  include  the  black  durgeon,  creole  wrasse   and  yellowtail  snapper.    Common  benthic  herbivores  include  the  blue  tang  and  ocean   surgeonfish  as  well  as  most  of  the  parrotfishes  (stoplight,  princess,  redband,  redfin,  queen,   and  striped).    Grunts  are  common  on  the  site;  however,  in  the  2012  census  mutton  snapper   made  up  the  bulk  of  the  invertivore  trophic  group  by  biomass.  Piscivores  as  a  group  were   relatively  high  in  biomass  in  2012,  primarily  as  a  result  of  the  great  barracuda  observed  in   relatively  high  numbers  at  the  site.  Other  piscivores  were  represented  by  bar  jacks   (pelagic),  glasseye  snapper  and  bigeye  (nocturnal  feeders),  and  graysby,  lionfish  and  small   snappers  (diurnal  bottom  feeders).           KINGS  CORNER         118   Figure  54.    The  Kings  Corner  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores ocean surgeonfish stoplight parrotfish blue tang princess parrotfish redband parrotfish striped parrotfish redfin parrotfish doctorfish orangespotted filefish threespot damsel Beaugregory queen parrotfish dusky damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 Invertivores mutton snapper blackbar soldierfish smallmouth grunt porcupine tomtate yellow goatfish lane snapper spotted goatfish French grunt yellowhead wrasse Spanish hogfish white grunt southern stingray yellowfin mojarra fairy basselet harlequin bass clown wrasse spotted drum Fish Biomass (g) 0 2e+4 4e+4 6e+4 8e+4 1e+5 Plankivores yellowtail snapper bicolor damsel brown chromis black durgon blue chromis creole wrasse Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Piscivores great barracuda bar jack glasseye snapper graysby red lionfish sand diver bigeye schoolmaster mahogany snapper trumpetfish redspotted hawkfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 SITE  SUMMARIES       119   LANG  BANK  EAST  END  MARINE  PARK   Descrip(on.    The  Lang  Bank  EEMP  site  is   a  shelf  edge  mesophotic  coral  reef   located  at  a  depth  of  27  –  30  m.    The   monitoring  site  sits  just  above  a  steep   shelf  break  and  is  composed  of  rolling   coral  knolls  dominated  by  boulder  star   corals  (Orbicella  spp.).    This  site  was   established  in  2009.   Outstanding  Feature.    The  Lang  Bank   EEMP  site  appears  to  be  a  well-­‐ developed  mesophotic  boulder  star   coral  reef  on  St.  Croix,  where  theses  reef   are  rarer  than  the  northern  US  Virgin   Islands.   Threats.    The  Lang  Bank  EEMP  is  in  the  outer  park  area  and  is  open  to  fishing  year-­‐round.   Therefore  fisheries  pressure  is  present.    Its  offshore  location  protects  it  from  land-­‐based   sources  of  pollution.   Figure  55.    Lang  Bank  EEMP.  (top)  Location.    (right)  A  representative  photo  of  the  reef.         LANG  BANK  EEMP         120   Figure  56.    Lang  Bank  EEMP  benthic  temperature  (28  m  depth)     Physical  Characteris.cs   Current.    Direct  current  measurements  have  not  been  taken  at  Lang  Bank  EEMP.    The   depth  buffers  the  site  from  wave-­‐driven  oscillatory  currents.    Only  weak  unidirectional   benthic  currents  have  been  experienced  at  the  site  during  monitoring;  however,  midwater   and  surface  currents  can  be  moderate  to  strong  (>10cm  s-­‐1).   Temperature.    Lang  Bank  EEMP  has  temperature  that  is  reduced  relative  to  shallow  water   sites,  as  shown  by  the  relatively  mild  temperatures  experienced  during  the  warm  water   event  of  August  to  September  2010.    This  may  be  protective  during  mass  bleaching  events,   but  temperatures  are  not  as  reduced  as  at  other  mesophotic  sites.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2009 2010 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month SITE  SUMMARIES       121     Benthic  Community.  Lang  Bank  EEMP  supports  many  coral  species  but  is  dominated  by   Orbicella  spp..    Sponges  are  also  quite  prominent  and  make  up  a  quarter  of  the  sessile   epibenthic  animal  community.    Epilithic  algae,  Lobophora  variegata,  and  filamentous   cyanobacteria  near  equally  represent  the  algal  community.    The  prominence  of  filamentous   cyanobacteria  is  quite  striking  and  has  reached  almost  40%  of  the  substrate  in  some  years.       Coral  Health.    Background,  non-­‐thermal  bleaching  prevalence  is  quite  high  at  Lang  Bank   EEMP.  White  disease  showed  an  outbreak  in  2011.    Lang  Bank  EEMP  was  not  initially   monitored  until  well  after  the  2005  coral  bleaching  event;  however,  a  high  prevalence  of  old   partial  mortality  suggests  that  corals  were  impacted.    Many  of  the  large  faviids  show  lesion   patterns  that  are  consistent  with  the  large  lunate  dead  areas  caused  by  white  diseases   following  bleaching  in  2005.     Figure  57.    Lang  Bank  East  End  Marine  Park  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic   animal  community.    (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated   sediment.   LANG  BANK  EEMP         122   Figure  58.    Lang  Bank  EEMP  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       123   Fish  Community.    The  Lang  Bank  East  End  Marine  Park  site  represents  a  mesophotic  reef   community  that  is  characterized  by  a  high  biomass  of  planktonic  feeders.  In  2012  the  high   overall  biomass  of  the  group  was  influenced  primarily  by  the  black  durgeon  while   numerically  creole  wrasse  were  dominant.  Many  queen?  triggerfish  were  observed  in   roving  dives.  Benthic  herbivores  were  dominated  both  numerically  and  in  biomass  by  the   redband  parrotfish  in  2012.  Large  parrotfish  were  uncommon;  however,  small  parrotfish   (striped  and  princess),  as  well  as  the  doctorfishes,  were  common.  The  benthic  invertivores   at  the  site  were  diverse  and  included  nocturnally  feeding  blackbar  soldierfish  and   squirrelfish,  as  well  as  several  species  of  grunt  (French,  tomtate,  white,  bluestriped,  Caesar   and  smallmouth).  Piscivores  were  dominated  in  biomass  by  a  single  barracuda;  however,   graysby  were  common  numerically.  Red  hind  spawn  during  the  full  moon  of  December,   January  and  February  on  the  Lang  Bank  site,  with  queen  trigger  following  a  few  days  after.   The  bank  is  closed  year-­‐round  to  all  bottom  gear,  and  from  December-­‐February  to  all   fishing.  One  red  hind  was  observed  during  June  on  roving  dives  at  Lang  Bank.  Several  queen   triggerfish  were  seen  in  roving  dives.  Other  piscivores  on  the  site  included  the  horse-­‐eye   jack  and  cero  mackerel,  indicators  of  a  deepwater  community.  Two  lionfish  were  observed   on  the  East  End  Marine  Park  site  in  2012  on  belt  transects,  however  none  were  observed   during  roving  dives.       LANG  BANK  EEMP         124   Figure  59.    The  Lang  Bank  EEMP  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores redband parrotfish stoplight parrotfish striped parrotfish ocean surgeonfish princess parrotfish doctorfish blue tang yellowtail damsel greenblotch parrotfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Invertivores blackbar soldierfish squirrelfish French grunt longsnout butterflyfish yellowhead wrasse yellow goatfish tomtate smallmouth grunt white grunt puddingwife spotted goatfish queen trigger bluestriped grunt dusky squirrelfish red hind Spanish hogfish clown wrasse Caesar grunt spotted drum harlequin bass yellowtail hamlet fairy basselet Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Plankivores black durgon creole wrasse black jack yellowtail snapper blue chromis brown chromis bicolor damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Piscivores great barracuda graysby horse-eye jack red lionfish glasseye snapper bigeye mahogany snapper bar jack redspotted hawkfish schoolmaster Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 SITE  SUMMARIES       125   LANG  BANK  RED  HIND  FISH  SPAWNING   AGGREGATION   Descrip$on.    The  Lang  Bank  Red  Hind   Fish  Spawning  Aggregation  (Lang  Hind)   monitoring  site  is  a  mesophotic  reef  of   relict  spur  and  groove  structure  at  a   depth  of  30  –  35  m.    The  site  is  perched   on  the  southeast  side  of  the  spur,  which   is  a  large  finger  that  rises  to  24  m  to  the   west  and  drops  on  all  other  sides  to  a   rhodolith/sand  plain  at  about  50  m.   Lang  Hind  was  initially  monitored  in   2001  at  a  site  on  the  shallower  (24  m)   portion  of  the  bank  to  the  west.     Monitoring  in  2004-­‐2007  occurred   along  random  transects  in  a  deeper  portion  of  the  reef  (~33  m  depth)  and  benthic  transects   were  made  permanent  in  this  area  in  2009     Outstanding  Feature.    Lang  Hind  supports  an  annual  fish  spawning  aggregation  of  the  red   hind  (Epinephelus  guttatus).    This  site  also  possesses  high  water  clarity  and  an  abundance   of  fishes,  including  sharks.   Threats.    The  Lang  Hind  site  is   removed  from  land-­‐based   stressors.    Fishing  of  the  red  hind   aggregation  was  common  prior  to   closure  of  the  area  to  fishing  in   1993.    However,  the  aggregation  is   near  the  closure  boundary.   Figure  60.    Lang  Bank  Red  Hind  FSA.   (top)  Location.    (right)  A  representative   photo  of  the  reef.     LANG  BANK  RED  HIND  FSA     126   Figure  61.    Lang  Bank  Hind  current  speed  (left)  and  benthic  temperature  (right;  33m  depth)     Physical  Characteris.cs   Current.    Lang  Hind  had  benthic  currents  recorded  with  ADCP  every  30  minutes  from   11/20/05  to  8/20/06,  and  12/11/06  to  3/10/07.Bottom  currents  most  typically  alternate   between  north  and  southeast  and  can  attain  strong  speeds  periodically  exceeding  0.4m  s-­‐1.   Temperature.    Lang  Hind  has  temperatures  that  are  reduced  due  to  thedepth  and   proximity  of  the  warm  season  thermocline.    However,  temperatures  are  not  as  cool  or   variable  as  sites  on  the  southern  Puerto  Rican  shelf,  indicating  that  this  site  may  be  more   susceptible  to  warming  ocean  temperatures.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2006 2009 2007 2010 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month N NNE NE ENE E ESE SE SSE S SSW SW WSW W WNW NW NNW Current Speed (m s -1) 0.5 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.5 0.3 - 0.4 0.2 - 0.3 0.1 - 0.2 0.0 - 0.1 SITE  SUMMARIES       127     Benthic  Community.  Lang  Hind  has  a  diverse  sessile  epibenthic  community  dominated  by   hard  corals,  predominantly  Orbicella  spp.,  gorgonians  and  sponges.    Coral  cover  actually   increased  by  110%  between  the  coral  bleaching  event  and  re-­‐monitoring  in  2006,  but  this   may  reflect  the  fact  that  transects  were  laid  in  random,  rather  than  permanent,  locations   prior  to  2009.    The  algal  community  is  largely  open  epilithic  algal  communities,  but  also   contains  large  proportions  of  Lobophora  variegata  and  filamentous  cyanobacteria.    The   algal  community  shows  high  inter-­‐annual  variability.   Coral  Health.    Lang  Hind  was  heavily  affected  during  the  2005  coral  bleaching  event,  with  a   very  high  prevalence  of  corals  that  were  100%  bleached  over  the  colony  surface.    Non-­‐ thermal  bleaching  with  moderate  prevalence  and  low  extent  on  colonies  also  occurred  in   later  years.    The  site  was  heavily  affected  with  white  diseases  after  the  coral  bleaching  event   and  has  had  high  disease  prevalence  in  all  years  of  monitoring.    Old  partial  mortality   jumped  after  the  2005  bleaching  event  and  was  variable  in  later  years.    Recent  partial   mortality  is  unusually  high  at  Lang  Hind,  largely  as  the  result  of  fish  bites  and  predation  by   the  corallivorous  snail  Coralliophila  spp.     Figure  62.    Lang  Bank  Red  Hind  FSA  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal   community.    (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   LANG  BANK  RED  HIND  FSA     128   Figure  63.    Lang  Bank  Red  HindFSA  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       129   Fish  Community.  The  fish  community  at  Lang  Hind  is  indicative  of  a  mesophotic  reef  system.   High  water  column  planktonic  feeders  are  abundant  and  include  the  black  durgeon,  creole   wrasse,  yellowtail  snapper  and  creolefish.  Bicolor  damselfish  are  numerous  while   herbivorous  damselfishes  are  uncommon.  Benthic  herbivores  are  relatively  low  in  diversity,   abundance  and  biomass  compared  to  nearshore  sites.  Invertivores  are  diverse  and  include   many  planktivores  as  well  as  benthic  feeders,  utilizing  the  varied  resources  of  the  bank.   Four  species  of  angelfish  were  observed  on  transects  reflecting  the  high  sponge  cover.  Lang   Hind  supports  a  red  hind  spawning  site,  active  during  December  through  February  each   year,  and  several  red  hind  were  observed  in  2011  on  both  roving  dives  and  transects.  In   addition  one  Nassau  grouper  was  observed  in  2011;  a  first  observation  across  all  St.  Croix   monitoring  sites.  There  is  reportedly  a  historic  Nassau  grouper  spawning  site  near  the  Lang   Hind  monitoring  site,  and  with  the  bank  now  closed  to  trap  fishing  there  is  hope  of  some  re-­‐ establishment  of  the  species  on  St.  Croix.  Mahogany  snapper  dominated  piscivorous  fish  on   Lang  Hind.  No  other  large  groupers  or  snappers  were  observed  although  a  Caribbean  reef   shark  was  seen.  Sharks  are  commonly  observed  while  diving  the  deep  bank.     LANG  BANK  RED  HIND  FSA     130   Figure  64.    The  Lang  Bank  Red  Hind  FSA  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores redband parrotfish queen parrotfish princess parrotfish stoplight parrotfish ocean surgeonfish blue tang striped parrotfish doctorfish redtail parrotfish yellowtail damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Invertivores queen trigger blackbar soldierfish French grunt Spanish hogfish yellowhead wrasse spotted goatfish yellow goatfish clown wrasse harlequin bass fairy basselet longsnout butterflyfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Plankivores black durgon creole wrasse blue chromis creolefish bicolor damsel brown chromis Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 Piscivores bar jack great barracuda graysby mahogany snapper horse-eye jack red lionfish spotted moray trumpetfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 SITE  SUMMARIES       131   MUTTON  SNAPPER   Descrip(on.    The  Mutton  Snapper  site  is   located  on  the  landward  side  of  a  shelf   edge  spur  and  groove  reef  on  the   southwest  shelf  of  St  Croix  in  depths  of   22-­‐24  m.    The  reef  was  dominated  by   boulder  star  coral  (primarily  Orbicella   franksi)  until  a  mass  coral  die-­‐off   following  the  2005  bleaching  event.     Mutton  Snapper  has  been  monitored   since  2003.   Outstanding  Feature.    The  Mutton   Snapper  site  was  located  in  conjunction   with  the  possible  proximity  of  a  mutton   snapper  (Lutjanus  analis)  spawning   aggregation.  It  is  seasonally  closed  to  fishing.    The  site  was  devastated  by  the  2005  coral   bleaching  event,  with  an  87%  drop  in  coral  cover  and  a  concomitant  increase  in  algae.   Threats.    The  Mutton  Snapper  site  is  threatened  by  fishing  pressure  as  evidenced  by  the   abundance  of  fishing  line  and  fishing  trap  debris.    This  site  is  offshore  and  less  likely   threatened  by  land-­‐based  stressors.    The  clear  waters  and  warm  temperatures  make  this   site  vulnerable  to  long-­‐term  seawater  warming.   MUTTON  SNAPPER         132     Figure  65.    Mutton  Snapper.  (top)  Location.    (right)  A  representative  photo  of  the  reef.       SITE  SUMMARIES       133   Figure  66.    Mutton  Snapper  benthic  temperature  record  at  23  m  (left)  and  39  m  depth  (right).     Physical  Characteris.cs.       Current.    Current  records  have  not  been  taken  at  Mutton  Snapper.    There  seems  to  be  little   wave-­‐driven  oscillatory  flow.    There  are  often  strong  unidirectional  currents  in  a  westward   direction  that  penetrate  to  nearly  the  bottom.   Temperature.    Benthic  temperatures  at  the  Mutton  Snapper  site  (23  m)  show  warming   above  the  bleaching  threshold  during  the  2010  bleaching  event,  whereas  benthic   temperatures  just  off-­‐shelf  from  the  site  (40  m)  show  few  excursions  above  the  bleaching   threshold.     J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2008 2009 2010 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2009 2007 2010 2008 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month MUTTON  SNAPPER         134     Benthic  Community.  The  Mutton  Snapper  site’s  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community  is   dominated  the  boulder  star  coral  (Orbicella  spp.),  with  sub-­‐dominance  of  sponges.    This  site   lost  an  extreme  amount  of  coral  cover  (87.0%)  in  the  2005  coral  bleaching  event  and  has   not  regained  any  cover  (-­‐2.3%)  as  of  2011.    Lobophora  variegata,  epilithic  algae,  and   filamentous  cyanobacteria  dominate  the  algal  community.    Apparent  is  the  rise  in  the   abundance  of  macroalgae  and  filamentous  cyanobacteria  after  2005.    Filamentous   cyanobacteria  reached  extreme  cover  values  (57.7%)  in  2009.    Current  levels  of  herbivory   no  longer  appear  to  be  able  to  control  algal  abundance.   Coral  Health.    Mutton  Snapper  bleached  heavily  in  the  2005,  with  100%  of  corals  bleaching   over  90%  of  the  colony  surface.    Bleaching  prevalence  has  remained  high  for  most  years   since  2005,  but  at  low  colony  extent,  indicating  continued  impairment  of  corals.    White   disease  has  been  at  consistently  high  values  through  many  years  of  monitoring.    Old  partial   mortality  increased  after  2005,  and  then  subsided  as  whole  colonies  were  lost  from  the   system.    Impairment  of  this  site  is  puzzling  as  stressors  besides  fishing  appear  to  be  low.     Clear  water  and  low  genetic  diversity  of  corals  may  increase  susceptibility  to  environmental   stress  and  white  disease.     Figure  67.    Mutton  Snapper  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.     (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   SITE  SUMMARIES       135   Figure  68.    Mutton  Snapper  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent MUTTON  SNAPPER         136   Fish  Community.    The  Mutton  Snapper  site  is  an  offshelf  site  with  a  fairly  diverse  and  rich   fish  community.  It  is  reportedly  in  an  area  that  mutton  snapper  spawn,  however  mutton   snapper  have  been  very  rare  in  surveys  conducted  at  the  site  over  the  past  5  years.  The   Mutton  Snapper  site  is  very  highly  dominated  in  biomass  by  the  black  durgeon,  a   phytoplankton  feeder,  and  numerically  dominated  by  the  creole  wrasse,  a  zooplankton   feeder.  Stoplight  parrotfish  and  doctorfish  contributed  the  most  biomass  to  the  benthic   herbivore  group  in  2012  surveys.  Many  parrotfish  species  can  be  found  on  the  Mutton   Snapper  reef,  however  sub-­‐adult  and  juveniles  are  by  far  the  majority  encountered.  The   invertivore  group  is  also  diverse,  indicative  of  the  variety  of  resources  available  on  the  reef.     Piscivores  are  not  common  on  Mutton  Snapper  and  in  2012  the  biomass  of  this  group  was   made  up  of  primarily  bar  jack  and  barracuda.  The  sole  piscivorous  serranid  was  the   graysby,  and  sole  lutjanid  the  mahogany  snapper.  Several  red  lionfish  were  observed  in   roving  surveys  and  in  transects  in  2012.   SITE  SUMMARIES       137   Figure  69.    The  Mutton  Snapper  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish doctorfish princess parrotfish striped parrotfish redband parrotfish ocean surgeonfish blue tang redfin parrotfish queen parrotfish Beaugregory orangespotted filefish threespot damsel greenblotch parrotfish cocoa damsel yellowtail damsel dusky damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Invertivores blackbar soldierfish French grunt yellowhead wrasse red hind striped grunt fairy basselet butter hamlet Spanish hogfish squirrelfish white grunt highhat dusky squirrelfish clown wrasse harlequin bass longsnout butterflyfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Plankivores black durgon blue chromis yellowtail snapper bicolor damsel creole wrasse brown chromis sargassum triggerfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 Piscivores bar jack great barracuda graysby mahogany snapper glasseye snapper red lionfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 SITE  SUMMARIES       139   SALT  RIVER  WEST   Descrip(on.    Salt  River  West  lies  just   atop  the  Salt  River  Canyon  west  wall  in  a   depth  of  9  m.    The  reef  is  a  flat  colonized   hardbottom/coral  community  atop   ancient  carbonates.    Salt  River  West  has   been  monitored  since  2001.   Outstanding  Feature.    Salt  River  West  is  a   popular  tourist  dive  site  with  a  unique   sharp  drop  to  the  wall  environment.   Threats.    Salt  River  West  is  exposed  to   the  outflow  from  the  Salt  River  Canyon   and  resuspension  of  sediment  from  the   Salt  River  eastern  flats.    The  site  is  now   within  in  the  Salt  River  National  Historic   Park  and  Ecological  Preserve.                 Figure  70.    Salt  River.  (top)   Location.    (right)  A   representative  photo  of  the   reef.     SALT  RIVER  WEST         140   Figure  71.    Salt  River  West  surface-­‐benthic  temperature  record  (1  and  5m  depths).    Data  provided  by   the  NOAA  ICON  monitoring  network.     Physical  Characteris*cs.       Current.    Currents  have  not  been  directly  measured  by  the  TCRMP.    Due  to  the  northern   exposure  and  shallow  depth,  Salt  River  West  experiences  wave-­‐driven  oscillatory  flow,   which  can  be  strong.    Unidirectional  benthic  currents  are  typically  weak  to  moderate   (<15cm  s-­‐1).       Temperature.    The  temperature  at  Salt  River  West  can  be  very  warm  and  in  2005   surpassed  the  bleaching  threshold  (29.5°C)  for  approximately  2.5  months  between  August   and  October.    The  record  also  shows  how  2010  was  actually  warmer  than  2005  until  the   passage  of  Hurricane  Earl  in  late  August  dropped  temperatures  precipitously.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2002 2007 2003 2008 2004 2009 2005 2010 2006 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month SITE  SUMMARIES       141     Benthic  Community.    The  Salt  River  West  epibenthic  sessile  animal  community  has  a  diverse   hard  coral  community  of  small  massive  head  corals  and  large  proportions  of  sponges  and   gorgonians.    The  site  lost  an  imperceptible  amount  of  coral  cover  in  the  2005  coral   bleaching  event  (-­‐13.6%)  and  had  regained  nearly  half  of  that  cover  by  2011  (37.1%).    The   algal  community  shows  extreme  dominance  by  epilithic  algae  and  low  abundance  of   macroalgae  and  filamentous  cyanobacteria.    However,  filamentous  cyanobacteria  have   increased  slightly  since  2005.   Coral  Health.    Corals  were  severely  bleached  during  the  2005  coral  bleaching  event,  with   over  90%  of  corals  bleached  over  80%  of  the  colony  surface.    Corals  were  assessed  just   prior  to  the  2010  bleaching  event  in  August,  but  were  showing  increased  prevalence  of  low   colony  extent  bleaching  by  then.    Diseases  are  typically  low,  with  the  outstanding  case  of   dark  spots  disease,  which  attains  some  of  the  highest  values  seen  in  TCRMP  sites.    Of  note,   is  the  fact  that  dark  spots  disease  actually  decreased  following  severe  bleaching  and   recovery  in  2005  and  2006.    Old  partial  mortality  increased  rapidly  after  the  2005   bleaching  and  then  subsided  somewhat  by  2011.    Recent  partial  mortality  can  be  high  and   is  primarily  caused  by  fish  biting,  such  as  from  parrotfish.      However,  extent  is  quite  low   (data  not  shown).     Figure  72.    Salt  River  West  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.     (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   SALT  RIVER  WEST         142   Figure  73.    Salt  River  West  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       143   Fish  Community.    Fish  biomass  is  relatively  low  on  the  Salt  River  West  site.    A  more  diverse     community  of  some  larger  fishes  can  be  seen  closer  to  the  edge  of  the  site,  near  the  Salt   River  wall,  however  the  top  of  the  reef  has  little  structure  for  larger  fishes,  with  low  lying   coral  heads,  gorgonians  and  sponges.    Wrasses  and  damselfishes  are  both  numerous  and   diverse;  the  most  dominant  species  on  the  site  is  the  bluehead  wrasse  followed  closely  by   the  bicolor  damselfish.    Black  durgeon,  an  opportunistic  planktivore  that  feeds  on   zooplankton,  phytoplankton  and  algae,  dominated  the  Salt  River  West  site  in  biomass,   followed  by  the  stoplight  parrotfish,  ocean  surgeonfish  and  creole  wrasse.    Piscivores  were   nearly  non-­‐existent,  and  included  only  trumpetfish  and  graysby  in  2012  belt  transects.  One   red  lionfish  was  seen  on  a  roving  dive.  Yellowfin  snapper  were  the  only  snappers  observed   on  the  Salt  River  West  site  and  these  were  recorded  only  on  roving  dives  near  the  shelf   edge.   SALT  RIVER  WEST         144   Figure  74.    The  Salt  River  West  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish ocean surgeonfish redband parrotfish princess parrotfish blue tang striped parrotfish redtail parrotfish doctorfish yellowtail damsel queen parrotfish orangespotted filefish dusky damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Invertivores French grunt squirrelfish yellowhead wrasse slippery dick sand tilefish red hind smallmouth grunt harlequin bass spotted goatfish bluestriped grunt Spanish hogfish yellowtail hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Plankivores black durgon creole wrasse blue chromis sunshinefish bicolor damsel brown chromis chalk bass Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 Piscivores trumpetfish graysby Fish Biomass (g) 0 50 100 150 200 250 SITE  SUMMARIES       145   SALT  RIVER  DEEP   Descrip(on.    The  Salt  River  Deep  site  is   located  on  the  steep  canyon  wall  just   below  the  Salt  River  West  monitoring   site.    The  reef  consists  of  vertical   buttresses  surrounded  by  extensive   sand  deposits.  The  reef  is  largely  formed   of  plating  coral  at  these  deep,   mesophotic  depths.    The  initial  site  was   deployed  in  2009  with  two  transects  at   30  m  depth  and  4  transects  at  40  m.     Due  to  low  coral  cover  at  40  m  transects   were  moved  to  30m  in  2010.   Outstanding  Feature.    Salt  River  Deep  is   a  heavily  visited  recreational  dive  site.     The  site  has  been  under  scientific  investigation  since  the  1970’s.    The  underwater   HYDROLAB  habitat  was  maintained  near  the  site  from  1977  to  1985  and  the  Aquarius   habitat  from  1986  to  1989.   Threats.  Salt  River  Deep  is   threatened  by  land-­‐based   sources  of  pollution  due   to  its  proximity  to  the  Salt   River  Canyon  outflow.     The  site  may  also  be   susceptible  to  warming   temperatures.   Figure  75.    Salt  River  Deep.   (top)  Location.    (right)  A   representative  photo  of  the   reef.     SALT  RIVER  DEEP         146   Figure  76.    Salt  River  Deep  benthic  temperature  at  30  m  depth  (left)  and  40  m  depth  (right).     Physical  Characteris.cs.       Current.    Salt  River  deep  currents  have  not  been  measured  directly  by  the  TCRMP.    Only   very  weak  oscillatory  and  unidirectional  currents  have  been  experienced  at  the  site.       Temperature.    Temperatures  on  the  wall  have  been  measured  at  two  depth  levels  at  30  m   and  40  m.    Both  sites  have  temperatures  that  are  much  cooler  than  the  shallow  site.    The  40   m  site  experiences  even  greater  cooling  and  experiences  more  diel  variability  (not  shown)   and  day-­‐to-­‐day  variability  due  to  the  influence  of  internal  waves.      Despite  some  interaction   with  the  thermocline,  cooling  is  not  as  great  as  at  the  mesophotic  reefs  at  similar  depths  on   the  southern  Puerto  Rican  Shelf.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2007 2008 2010 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2009 2010 2011 Temperature ( oC) Month SITE  SUMMARIES       147     Benthic  Community.    Hard  coral  community  of  the  Salt  River  Deep  monitoring  site  is   dominated  by  plating  lettuce  corals  (Agaricia  spp.);  however,  sponges,  gorgonians,  and   black  corals  dominate  the  overall  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.    The  site  was  not   monitored  during  the  2005  bleaching  event,  but  as  with  the  Cane  Bay  Deep  site,  severe   bleaching  was  observed  down  to  depths  of  40m.    The  algal  community  is  dominated  by   epilithic  algae  and  unidentified  diminutive  macroalgae.    The  site  is  notable  for  the  high   composition  of  sediment,  which  cascades  from  the  upper  reef  between  spurs  and   buttresses.   Coral  Health.    Low  extent  coral  bleaching  is  typically  in  moderate  to  high  prevalence  at  the   Salt  River  Deep  site.    Interaction  data  (not  shown)  indicates  that  sediment  and  Lobophora   variegata  overgrowth  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  bleaching.    Diseases  have  not  been   observed.    Old  partial  mortality  is  high  on  corals,  which  may  be  a  reflection  of  the  2005   bleaching  event  and  cumulative  impacts  from  interaction  with  sediment  and  algae.       Figure  77.    Salt  River  Deep  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.     (right)  Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   SALT  RIVER  DEEP         148   Figure  78.    Salt  River  Deep  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       149   Fish  Community.    The  relatively  high  turbidity  and  high  composition  of  sand  and  silt  bottom,   as  a  consequence  of  river  discharge,  influences  the  fish  community  of  Salt  River  Deep.  The   mesophotic  reef  wall  site  is  characterized  by  a  primarily  invertivore  fish  community,   leading  in  both  biomass  and  species  richness.  Invertivores  are  dominated  numerically  by   the  functionally  plantivorous  blue  chromis  and  creole  wrasse.  The  benthic  feeding  yellow   goatfish  highly  dominated  the  invertivore  group  by  biomass  in  2012,  swimming  in  small   schools  along  the  sandy  wall.    Mahogany  snapper  and  graysby  dominated  the  piscivore   group  both  numerically  and  by  biomass.  Sub-­‐adult  princess  and  redband  parrotfish   dominated  the  herbivores.  Characteristic  deepwater  fishes  observed  commonly  on  Salt   Water  Deep  include  the  sunshinefish,  bantum  bass,  fairy  basslet  and  longsnout   butterflyfish.  As  on  the  Cane  Bay  Deep  site,  occasional  cubera  snapper  (Lutjanus   cyanopterus),  mutton  snapper  (L.  analis)  or  southern  stingrays  (Dasyatis  americana)  are   observed  during  roving  dives  on  the  wall,  and  commonly  one  or  two  Caribbean  reef  sharks   (Carcharhinus  perezi)  are  present.           SALT  RIVER  DEEP         150   Figure  79.    The  Salt  River  Deep  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores redband parrotfish queen parrotfish ocean surgeonfish princess parrotfish redtail parrotfish striped parrotfish doctorfish threespot damsel midnight parrotfish stoplight parrotfish dusky damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Invertivores yellow goatfish fairy basselet black margate yellowhead wrasse Spanish hogfish French grunt spotted goatfish tomtate longsnout butterflyfish yellowtail hamlet bluestriped grunt white grunt smallmouth grunt butter hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 Plankivores yellowtail snapper creole wrasse black durgon blue chromis bicolor damsel sunshinefish tobaccofish chalk bass brown chromis Fish Biomass(g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Piscivores mahogany snapper graysby bar jack schoolmaster trumpetfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 SITE  SUMMARIES       151   SPRAT  HOLE   Descrip(on.    The  Sprat  Hole  site  is  a   nearshore/shelf-­‐edge  fringing  reef  in   depths  of  7  –  10  m.    The  site  is  a  rolling   boulder  star  coral  (Orbicella  annularis)   reef.    The  slope  to  the  west  drops  off  to   an  attractive  mixed  coral  community   with  abundant  fish.    Sprat  Hole  has  been   monitored  since  2001.   Outstanding  Feature.    Sprat  Hole  is  a   heavily  visited  reef  for  snorkel  and  dive   tours.   Threats.    The  Sprat  Hole  reef  is   vulnerable  to  land  based  sources  of   pollution  if  there  is  increased  development  of  the  watershed.    Low  wave  action  and  light   currents  favor  settling  of  small  particles  of  terrestrial  sediment  that  injure  corals.    The  site   is  also  frequently  fished  and  there  is  derelict  fishing  gear  in  abundance.    Recreational   overuse  may  also  be  a  threat.   Figure  80.    Sprat  Hole.  (top)  Location.     (right)  A  representative  photo  of  the   reef.       SPRAT  HOLE         152   Figure  81.    Sprat  Hole  benthic  temperature  (7  m  depth).     Physical  Characteris.cs.       Current.  Currents  have  not  been  measured  at  Sprat  Hole.    Oscillatory  currents  are  typically   weak  on  the  western  lee  of  St.  Croix.    Unidirectional  currents  during  monitoring  have   always  been  weak  (<10cm  s-­‐1).     Temperature.    Sprat  Hole  temperature  has  not  been  monitored  over  many  years  due  to   loss  of  probes.    This  is  likely  due  to  the  high  exposure  to  recreational  and  commercial   fishing  divers.      In  general  Sprat  Hole  appears  to  be  a  warm  site.       J F M A M J J A S O N D 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2007 2008 2009 Temperature ( oC) Month SITE  SUMMARIES       153     Benthic  Community.    Sprat  Hole  is  a  fringing  Orbicella  annularis  dominated  reef,  with  a  good   diversity  of  other  coral  species.    There  was  a  62.3%  decline  in  coral  cover  due  to  the  2005   coral  bleaching  event,  with  a  regain  of  11.9%  of  cover  by  2011.    Epilithic  algae  dominate  the   algal  community,  with  smaller  amounts  of  a  diverse  group  of  macroalgae,  including  Dictyota   spp.  and  Halimeda  spp.    There  has  been  variable,  but  increasing  cover  of  filamentous   cyanobacteria  since  2005.   Coral  Health.    The  coral  community  at  Sprat  Hole  was  heavily  affected  during  the  2005  coral   bleaching  event,  with  a  high  prevalence  of  bleaching  at  a  very  high  extent.    Bleaching   prevalence  has  tended  to  be  higher  since  the  event.      Disease  prevalence  can  be  quite  high,   particularly  for  white  disease.    Dark  spots  disease  has  also  been  in  high  prevalence  in   certain  years.    Old  partial  mortality  was  high  on  colonies  from  2005  to  2011,  and  low  when   recorded  in  2002.      In  this  case,  old  partial  mortality  is  a  very  common  feature  of  O.   annularis  and  it  is  likely  that  low  values  are  due  to  observer  bias  and  a  different  method  for   estimating  partial  mortality.    Recent  partial  mortality  is  consistently  very  high  at  Sprat   Hole,due  in  part  to  the  high  abundance  of  territorial  damselfish  (Stegastes  spp.)  forming   algal  lawns  on  O.  annularis.     Figure  82.    Sprat  Hole  (left)  Relative  composition  of  the  sessile  epibenthic  animal  community.    (right)   Relative  composition  of  the  algal  community  and  unconsolidated  sediment.   SPRAT  HOLE         154   Figure  83.    Sprat  Hole  benthic  cover  and  coral  health  through  time  (mean  ±SE).       Benthic Community Cover 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Coral Cyanobacteria Epilithic Algae Macroalgae Bleaching Prevalence/Extent 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Prevalence Extent Disease Prevalence 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% All disease Black Band Lesion Dark Spots Intercostal White Disease Yellow Band Unknown Partial Mortality 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 BL 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Prevalence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Old Recent SITE  SUMMARIES       155   Fish  Community.    Sprat  Hole  exhibits  a  fairly  typical  fish  community  structure  for  a   nearshore  coral  reef  ecosystem  receiving  some  amount  of  terrestrial  runoff  from  the   watershed.    Fish  biomass  is  moderate,  and  the  site  is  dominated  numerically  by  the  creole   wrasse  and  blue  chromis,  planktivorous  invertivores.    Benthic  herbivores  are  common  and   include  small  parrotfish  and  all  three  Caribbean  acanthurid  species.    Invertivores  are   diverse  and  include  both  planktivores  and  benthic  feeders;  mostly  small  fish  in  small   numbers.  A  mutton  snapper  was  recorded  on  four  belt  transects  in  2012,  elevating  the   invertivore  biomass  significantly,  however  these  observations  probably  represented  only   one  individual.  Numerically  and  by  biomass  the  graysby  dominated  the  piscivore  group  in   2012.  Larger  piscivorous  serranids  and  lutjanids  were  absent,  as  on  all  nearshore  reefs  off   St.  Croix.  Two  lionfish  were  observed  on  the  Sprat  Hole  site  in  belt  transects  in  2012.       SPRAT  HOLE         156   Figure  84.    The  Sprat  Hole  fish  community  by  absolute  and  relative  biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish striped parrotfish threespot damsel redband parrotfish blue tang ocean surgeonfish princess parrotfish dusky damsel doctorfish queen parrotfish redfin parrotfish cocoa damsel greenblotch parrotfish Beaugregory Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Invertivores mutton snapper yellowhead wrasse Spanish hogfish French grunt blackbar soldierfish red hind yellow goatfish squirrelfish clown wrasse slippery dick Caesar grunt spotted drum yellowtail hamlet yellowcheek wrasse striped grunt fairy basselet longsnout butterflyfish harlequin bass Fish Biomass (g) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Plankivores creole wrasse blue chromis brown chromis bicolor damsel yellowtail snapper black durgon Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Piscivores graysby redspotted hawkfish spotted moray red lionfish spotted scorpionfish bar jack mahogany snapper schoolmaster nurseshark trumpetfish black hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000