USVI Public Records

Document text

SITE SUMMARIES 269 SAVANA ISLAND Description. The Savana Island site is a midshelf fringing reef facing the Atlantic Ocean to the northwest in depths of 5 – 17 m. The reef is a well-developed coral community atop bedrock, with some insipient carbonate accumulation. Savana has been monitored since 2003, with permanent benthic transects installed in 2007. Outstanding Feature. Savana harbors behemoth colonies of boulder star coral (Orbicella faveolata) and a diverse and abundant fish community. Threats. Savana is threatened the invasive algae Ramicrusta sp. (identification provisional) and by warming ocean temperatures, as O. faveolata can be susceptible to bleaching, disease, and partial mortality. The area is also open to fishing and the occasional accumulation of debris can be seen. Figure 176. Savana. (top) Location. (right) A representative photo of the reef showing large colonies of Orbicella faveolata (Nov. 17, 2015). SAVANA ISLAND 270 Figure 177. Savana benthic temperature record (10 m depth). Physical Characteristics. Current. Currents have not been measured directly at Savana. Strong unidirectional currents can influence the surface near the site. Wave-driven oscillatory currents are common and occasionally strong. Temperature. Savana has temperatures cooler than other shallow sites, likely due to the proximity of the open Atlantic Ocean. Month SITE SUMMARIES 271 Benthic Community. Boulder star corals, predominately large (>2m wide) colonies of Orbicella faveolata, dominate the coral community at the Savana monitoring site. The site lost 45.2% of its coral cover in the 2005 bleaching event. Coral cover has continued to decline, rather than recover, and this is related to a striking increase in the red encrusting algae Ramicrusta sp. to over 60% cover (this is responsible for the spike in “macroalgae” in benthic cover after 2005). This algae overtops coral edges leading a slow, creeping mortality. Gorgonians and sponges are also prominent components of the sessile epibenthic animal community. Coral Health. The coral community at Savana was highly affected in the 2005 bleaching event, with 80% of corals affected on almost 90% of the colony surface. Bleaching was also very prominent in 2006, but at a lower extent. Bleaching was moderate during the 2010 bleaching event, with over 50% of colonies bleached at a low extent. Coral diseases can reach high prevalence and are diversely represented. Particularly noticeable is the dramatic outbreak of white disease in 2006. Dark spots disease has also affected a high proportion of corals from 2008 onwards. Old partial mortality increased markedly after the 2005 coral bleaching event and has declined only slightly. Recent partial mortality after the 2005 coral bleaching event was unprecedented for any site. Figure 178. Savana Island. (left) Relative composition of the sessile epibenthic animal community. (right) Relative composition of the algal community and unconsolidated sediment. SAVANA ISLAND 272 Figure 179. Savana Island benthic cover and coral health through time (mean ± SE). SITE SUMMARIES 273 Fish Community. The Savana Island fish community is fairly small in biomass, but is quite diverse, and highlights the variety of benthic resources available to fishes in the area. The site is dominated by herbivores, but it also supports a diverse invertivore community. Planktivores in the quiet protected bay are limited to the smaller pomacentrids and wrasses. However, these fish groups are all quite prolific. The most numerous piscivore observed in the first three years of fish monitoring has been the schoolmaster snapper. One small yellowmouth grouper (11-20 cm) was observed on a belt transect in 2012, the first seen on a site in shallow water located near land. The area is highly fished with fish traps. No large commercially important fish have been seen in the bay. SAVANA ISLAND 274 Figure 180. The Savana Island fish community by absolute and relative biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish princess parrotfish ocean surgeonfish blue tang striped parrotfish redband parrotfish queen parrotfish redfin parrotfish yellowtail damsel dusky damsel doctorfish threespot damsel Beaugregory cocoa damsel orangespotted filefish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Invertivores bluestriped grunt yellow goatfish Spanish hogfish porkfish spotted goatfish French grunt blackbar soldierfish yellowhead wrasse Caesar grunt saucereye porgy striped grunt puddingwife spotted drum smallmouth grunt fairy basselet dusky squirrelfish slippery dick harlequin bass shy hamlet yellowtail hamlet butter hamlet clown wrasse Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Planktivores blue chromis creole wrasse bicolor damsel brown chromis Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Piscivores schoolmaster trumpetfish sand diver graysby bar jack yellowmouth grouper black hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 SITE SUMMARIES 275 SEAHORSE COTTAGE SHOAL Description. The Seahorse Cottage Shoal site is a large patch reef surrounded by sand and rhodolith in depths of 17 – 23m. The isolated reef is flat topped and dominated by Orbicella spp.. Seahorse has been monitored since 2003, with permanent benthic transects installed in 2007. A ciguatera study with monthly sampling has been ongoing since 2009. Outstanding Feature. Seahorse supports a diverse and abundant coral and fish community adjacent to the St. Thomas East End Reserves. Threats. Seahorse is buffered from land-based sources of pollution. The site is a targeted site in the St. Thomas trap fishery and trap strings have been observed over and adjacent to the site. Figure 181. Seahorse Cottage Shoal. (top) Location. (right) A representative photo of the reef. SEAHORSE COTTAGE SHOAL 276 Figure 182. Seahorse benthic temperature record (21 m depth). Physical Characteristics. Current. Currents have not been directly measured at Seahorse Cottage Shoal. Unidirectional benthic currents tend to be slow and wave-driven oscillatory currents only occur during heavy storm activity. Temperature. Benthic temperatures are moderate to high during warming events. Month SITE SUMMARIES 277 Benthic Community. The coral community of the Seahorse site is dominated by the boulder star coral (Orbicella spp.), but hosts a high diversity of other coral species. The site lost 46.6% of its cover in the 2005 bleaching event and had only regained 4.7% of this loss by 2011. Gorgonians and sponges are also common components of the sessile epibenthic animal community. The algal community is co-dominated by epilithic algae and the macroalgae Lobophora variegata and Dictyota spp.. Coral Health. The coral community bleached severely in the 2005 bleaching event with nearly 100% of corals bleaching over about 100% of their surface. Bleaching prevalence after 2005 was slow to decline due to delayed recovery in large Orbicella spp. colonies. The site also had a high prevalence of bleaching in the 2010 event, but at a low extent on colonies. Bleaching was also moderately prevalent in 2011. Coral diseases are common and diverse at Seahorse. White disease was also prevalent in 2004, which is rare for a site at this depth. Dark spots disease is also ubiquitous. Old partial mortality increased to a very high prevalence after the 2005 bleaching event, but had declined by 2011. Figure 183. Seahorse Cottage Shoal. (left) Relative composition of the sessile epibenthic animal community. (right) Relative composition of the algal community and unconsolidated sediment. SEAHORSE COTTAGE SHOAL 278 Figure 184. Seahorse Cottage Shoal benthic cover and coral health through time (mean ± SE). SITE SUMMARIES 279 Fish Community. Seahorse Cottage Shoal supports a large variety of reef fish and hosts aggregations of gray snapper and lane snapper during the summer months. The trophic guilds on the offshore reef are split relatively evenly between herbivores, invertivores, and piscivores. This reflects the heterogeneity of reef substrate and the availability of unconsolidated sand and rhodolith habitat surrounding the reef. Mutton snapper and queen triggerfish are relatively common. Adult stoplight and redband parrotfish dominate herbivores, although most of the larger parrotfish species do occur, including both adult and juvenile phase. Glasseye snapper and graysby dominate the piscivores trophic guild. Large groupers have never been seen on the reef. Seahorse Cottage Shoal is well known to fishermen and fairly heavily fished. Traps on the reef are common during surveys. However, schoolmaster, lane, gray, and mahogany snapper are all common. This may reflect the proximity to nursery habitats in the St. Thomas East End Reserves and the mangrove habitats therein. SEAHORSE COTTAGE SHOAL 280 Figure 185. The Seahorse Cottage Shoal fish community by absolute and relative biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish redband parrotfish striped parrotfish princess parrotfish orangespotted filefish queen parrotfish doctorfish blue tang yellowtail damsel threespot damsel redfin parrotfish ocean surgeonfish Beaugregory dusky damsel greenblotch parrotfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Invertivores queen trigger sailors choice tomtate French grunt blackbar soldierfish yellow goatfish yellowhead wrasse Spanish hogfish red hind bluestriped grunt squirrelfish shy hamlet clown wrasse harlequin bass yellowbelly hamlet spotted goatfish butter hamlet fairy basselet striped grunt slippery dick Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Planktivores creole wrasse blue chromis bicolor damsel yellowtail snapper brown chromis tobaccofish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Piscivores blue runner bar jack glasseye snapper mahogany snapper schoolmaster graysby gray snapper sand diver trumpetfish spotted moray red lionfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 SITE SUMMARIES 281 SOUTH CAPELLA Description. The South Capella site is located on a rise of the St. Thomas-St. John midshelf reef complex in depths of 16 - 25 m. The reef is made of rolling ridges of coral and pavement interspersed with sand grooves. South Capella has been monitored since 2003, with permanent benthic transects installed in 2007. Outstanding Feature. The South Capella site is part of an outstanding shallow water midshelf reef system that is essential fish habitat. Threats. The St. Thomas trap fishery heavily targets South Capella. Active and derelict trap strings crisscross the site and a derelict trap appeared in permanent transect 1 in 2008 and has been degrading there since. The trap was still fully intact as of 2016 but not actively trapping. The reef was also highly affected by the 2005 coral bleaching event, suggesting a susceptibility to rising sea surface temperatures. Figure 186. South Capella. (top) Location. (right) The reef with a derelict Antillean fish trap in Transect #1. SOUTH CAPELLA 282 Figure 187. South Capella benthic temperature record (24 m depth). Physical Characteristics. Current. Currents were directly measured at South Capella and this data will be included in a future report. Wave-driven oscillatory currents have not been experienced but are likely during swells and storms. Unidirectional benthic currents are usually weak, but strong currents can develop from the surface to midwater. Temperature. South Capella has relatively cool benthic temperatures for a shallow site during warm years, which may be a reflection of its moderately deep depth and proximity to deep water to the south. Month SITE SUMMARIES 283 Benthic Community. Boulder star corals (Orbicella spp.) dominate the coral community at South Capella. These corals were very heavily affected by mortality due to the 2005 coral bleaching event. The site lost 56.4% of its cover and had not regained any cover by 2011 (- 3.7% recovery). Gorgonians and sponges are also common components of the sessile epibenthic animal community. The macroalga Lobophora variegata dominates the algal community, with epilithic algae and Dictyota spp. comprising the second largest shares. There was also a high abundance of crustose coralline algae and filamentous cyanobacteria. Coral Health. Corals were moderately-heavily affected by the 2005 bleaching event, with a prevalence of 80%, but an extent on colonies of only about 50%. Bleaching prevalence also increased during the 2010 bleaching event, but at a low extent. Bleaching is moderately prevalent at this site even in years without notable thermal stress. Coral diseases are common and diverse at South Capella. White disease was prevalent after the 2005 bleaching event in 2006, and then again in 2009 and 2011. Black band disease was found in 2002, which is unusual for a site at these depths. Dark spots disease was also typically present in most years. Old partial mortality increased after the 2005 bleaching event and has declined to 2011. Recent partial mortality was prevalent in most years of monitoring, particularly in 2006. In years not following thermal stress the highest identifiable source of recent partial mortality was biting from territorial damselfish (Stegastes spp.). Figure 188. South Capella. (left) Relative composition of the sessile epibenthic animal community. (right) Relative composition of the algal community and unconsolidated sediment. SOUTH CAPELLA 284 Figure 189. South Capella benthic cover and coral health through time (mean ± SE). SITE SUMMARIES 285 Fish Community. South Capella is characterized by a fairly diverse fish community that is fairly well split between trophic levels. In 2011, a large school of schoolmaster snapper skewed this balance toward piscivores; however, this was probably a spawning event, and not typical of the daily fish community. The reef is spur and groove with complex reef edges and sand channels that support a large number of invertivores and variety of omnivores. Planktivores include yellowtail snapper and black durgeon. Benthic herbivores are dominated in biomass by large stoplight parrotfish. The South Capella reef is highly fished and traps are commonly seen during our survey events. The rich, complex reef is noticeably bare of large snappers and groupers. The serranid group is represented only by the graysby and small hamlets, with an occasional red hind observed. Lionfish are more common on this site than other offshore sites. SOUTH CAPELLA 286 Figure 190. The South Capella fish community by absolute and relative biomass. Herbivores striped parrotfish princess parrotfish stoplight parrotfish doctorfish redband parrotfish blue tang ocean surgeonfish redfin parrotfish queen parrotfish yellowtail damsel Beaugregory threespot damsel Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Invertivores saucereye porgy queen trigger red hind spotted goatfish tomtate French grunt yellowhead wrasse longsnout butterflyfish fairy basselet harlequin bass Spanish hogfish yellowbelly hamlet yellowtail hamlet striped grunt clown wrasse Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Planktivores blue chromis bicolor damsel brown chromis creole wrasse yellowtail snapper chalk bass tobaccofish Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Piscivores graysby great barracuda bar jack trumpetfish gray snapper green moray black hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 SITE SUMMARIES 287 SOUTH WATER Description. South Water is a hardbottom coral community along the sharp break of a midshelf reef complex in depths of 17 – 28 m. The reef has a sharp break in slope leading to a steep escarpment that terminates in a sand/sediment plain at the reef base. South Water has been monitored since 2005, with permanent benthic transects installed in 2007. Outstanding Feature. South Water is a commercially important fishing ground for reef fishes and spiny lobster. Threats. South Water is primarily threatened by fishing and strings of fish and lobster traps are common over the site. Figure 191.South Water. (top) Location. (right) A representative photo of the reef. SOUTH WATER 288 Figure 192. South Water benthic temperature record (24 m depth) Physical Characteristics. Current. Current measurements have not been taken at the South Water site. Unidirectional benthic currents can be moderate on the hardbottom reef top and strong from the surface to midwater. Wave-driven oscillatory currents are likely to be felt on the reef top during swells and storms. Temperature. South Water has relatively moderate temperatures compared with other shallow water sites during warm years. This may be due to the deeper depths of the site and the proximity of deep water. Month SITE SUMMARIES 289 Benthic Community. The sparse coral community at South Water is very diverse. Coral cover increased by 21.3% over the 2005 bleaching event and had increased by 42.6% between 2005 and 2011. However, permanent transects were not installed until 2007 and the low coral cover means that small variations in detection of corals can lead to large apparent year-to-year differences in cover. Sponges and gorgonians dominate the sessile epibenthic animal community. The algal community is nearly equally divided between Lobophora variegata, Dictyota spp., and epilithic algae. Crustose coralline algae and filamentous cyanobacteria are also very common. Coral Health. Corals were severely affected by the 2005 coral bleaching event, with over 80% of corals bleaching over nearly the entire coral surface. Corals were moderately affected in the 2010 bleaching event, with just less than 50% of corals bleaching at a low extent. Bleaching tends to be moderately prevalent even in non-thermal stress years. Coral diseases are not common, although there is a trend of increasing dark spots disease. Old partial mortality increased in prevalence after the 2005 bleaching event, but at a lower prevalence than most other sites. Recent partial mortality is rare. Figure 193. South Water. (left) Relative composition of the sessile epibenthic animal community. (right) Relative composition of the algal community and unconsolidated sediment. SOUTH WATER 290 Figure 194. South Water benthic cover and coral health through time (mean ± SE). SITE SUMMARIES 291 Fish Community. South Water Island is a low lying reef with hard bottom that supports primarily invertivores. Fish biomass is lower on this site than other offshore St. Thomas sites. Queen trigger and red hind dominate invertivore biomass. Mutton snapper are occasional. Stoplight and princess parrotfish dominate herbivores, and many juvenile and sub-adults of these species occur on the site. Piscivores make up only 5% of the biomass on the South Water Island site; the guild is primarily composed of the graysby. South Water Island is highly fished and traps are commonly seen during our survey events. Lobsters are common on this low-lying reef, hiding in the hard bottom ledges that extend across the site. Except for mutton snapper, the reef is bare of large snappers and groupers. SOUTH WATER 292 Figure 195. The South Water fish community by absolute and relative biomass. Herbivores stoplight parrotfish yellowtail damsel queen parrotfish redband parrotfish redfin parrotfish striped parrotfish threespot damsel dusky damsel blue tang Beaugregory princess parrotfish ocean surgeonfish doctorfish redlip blenny Fish Biomass (g) 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 Invertivores smallmouth grunt red hind French grunt yellowhead wrasse tomtate spotted drum striped grunt spotted goatfish dusky squirrelfish fairy basselet harlequin bass butter hamlet yellowtail hamlet clown wrasse puddingwife Spanish hogfish Fish Biomass (g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Planktivores brown chromis yellowtail snapper blue chromis creole wrasse bicolor damsel chalk bass Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Piscivores dog snapper great barracuda bar jack trumpetfish spotted moray glasseye snapper graysby black hamlet Fish Biomass (g) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 2016 ANNUAL TCRMP REPORT 293 Literature Cited Acevedo R, Morelock J (1988) Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico. Proceedings of the Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium 2:189-194 Albins M, Hixon M (2011) Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environmental Biology of Fishes:1-7 Anderson D, Macdonald L (1998) Modelling road surface sediment production using a vector geographic information system. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 23:95-107 Armstrong R, Singh H, Torres J (2002) Benthic survey of insular slope coral reefs using the Seabed AUV. Backscatter 13:22-25 Armstrong RA (2007) Deep zooxanthellate coral reefs of the Puerto Rico: US Virgin Islands insular platform. Coral Reefs 26:945 Armstrong RA, Singh H, Torres J, Nemeth RS, Can A, Roman C, Eustice R, Riggs L, Garcia-Moliner G (2006) Characterizing the deep insular shelf coral reef habitat of the Hind Bank marine conservation district (US Virgin Islands) using the Seabed autonomous underwater vehicle. Continental Shelf Research 26:194-205 Ballantine David L, Ruiz H, Lozada-Troche C, Norris James N (2016) The genus Ramicrusta (Peyssonneliales, Rhodophyta) in the Caribbean Sea, including Ramicrusta bonairensis sp. nov. and Ramicrusta monensis sp. nov Botanica Marina 417-431 Bellwood DR, Fulton CJ (2008) Sediment-mediated suppression of herbivory on coral reefs: decreasing resilience to rising sea-levels and climate change? Limnology and Oceanography 53:2695-2701 Betancur-R R, Hines A, Acero P A, Ortí G, Wilbur AE, Freshwater DW (2011) Reconstructing the lionfish invasion: insights into Greater Caribbean biogeography. Journal of Biogeography 38:1281-1293 Booij N, Ris RC, Holthuijsen L (1999) A third generation wave model for coastal regions. Part 1: Model description and validation. Journal of Geophysical Research C4:7649-7666 Bright AJ, Rogers C, Brandt M, Muller E, Smith T (2016) Disease prevalence and snail predation associated with swell-generated damage on the threatened coral, Acropora palmata (Lamarck). Frontiers in Marine Science 3:77 Brooks GR, Devine B, Larson RA, Rood BP (2007) Sedimentary development of Coral Bay, St. John, USVI: a shift from natural to anthropogenic influences. Caribbean Journal of Science 43:226-243 Bruckner AW (2007) Field Guide to Western Atlantic Coral Diseases and Other Causes of Coral Mortality. NOAA, UNEP-WCMC, PADI Budd AF, Fukami H, Smith ND, Knowlton N (2012) Taxonomic reclassification of the coral reef coral family Mussidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 166:465-529 Calnan J, Smith T, Nemeth R, Kadison E, Blondeau J (2008) Coral disease prevalence and host susceptibility on mid-depth and deep reefs in the US Virgin Islands. Revista Biologia Tropical 56 (suppl. 1):223-224 Canals M, Morell J, Corredor JE, Leonardi S (2012) Expanding the Caribbean Coastal Ocean Observing System into the nearshore region Oceans, 2012. IEEE, Hampton Roads, VA 1-4 Cote IM, Maljkovic A (2010) Predation rates of Indo-Pacific lionfish on Bahamian coral reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series 404:219-225 De'ath G, Fabricius K (2010) Water quality as a regional driver of coral biodiversity and macroalgae on the Great Barrier Reef. Ecological Applications 20:840-850 Dixon KR, Saunders GW (2013) DNA barcoding and phylogenetics of Ramicrusta and Incendia gen. nov., two early diverging lineages of the Peyssonneliaceae (Rhodophyta). Phycologia 52:82-108 Eakin CM, Morgan JA, Heron SF, Smith TB, Liu G, Alvarez-Filip L, Baca B, Bartels E, Bastidas C, Bouchon C, Brandt M, Bruckner AW, Bunkley-Williams L, Cameron A, Causey BD, Chiappone M, Christensen TRL, Crabbe MJC, Day O, de la Guardia E, Díaz-Pulido G, DiResta D, Gil-Agudelo DL, Gilliam DS, Ginsburg RN, Gore S, Guzmán HM, Hendee JC, Hernández-Delgado EA, Husain E, Jeffrey CFG, Jones RJ, Jordán- Dahlgren E, Kaufman LS, Kline DI, Kramer PA, Lang JC, Lirman D, Mallela J, Manfrino C, Maréchal J-P, Marks K, Mihaly J, Miller WJ, Mueller EM, Muller EM, Orozco Toro CA, Oxenford HA, Ponce-Taylor D, Quinn N, Ritchie KB, Rodríguez S, Ramírez AR, Romano S, Samhouri JF, Sánchez JA, Schmahl GP, Shank BV, Skirving WJ, Steiner SCC, Villamizar E, Walsh SM, Walter C, Weil E, Williams EH, Roberson SOUTH WATER 294 KW, Yusuf Y (2010) Caribbean corals in crisis: record thermal stress, bleaching, and mortality in 2005. PLoS ONE 5:e13969 Eckrich CE, Engel MS (2013) Coral overgrowth by an encrusting red alga (Ramicrusta sp.): a threat to Caribbean reefs? Coral Reefs 32:81-84 Edmunds PJ, Witman JD (1991) Effect of Hurricane Hugo on the primary framework of a reef along the south shore of St. John, US Virgin Islands. Marine Ecology Progress Series 78:201-204 Edmunds PJ (2019) Three decades of degradation lead to diminished impacts of severe hurricanes on Caribbean reefs. Ecology 100:e02587 Ennis RS, Brandt ME, Wilson Grimes KR, Smith TB (2016) Coral reef health response to chronic and acute changes in water quality in St. Thomas, United States Virgin Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 111:418-427 Fabricius K (2005) The effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: a review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50:125-146 Fong P, Paul VJ (2011) Coral Reef Algae. In: Dubinsky Z, Stambler N (eds) Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition. Springer Science, pp241-272 Fong P, Smith TB, Wartian MJ (2006) Epiphytic cyanobacteria maintain shifts to macroalgal dominance on coral reefs following ENSO disturbance. Ecology 87:1162-1168 Friedlander AM, Jeffrey CFG, Hile SD, Pittman SJ, M.E. M, Caldow C (2013) Coral reef ecosystems of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands: Spatial and temporal patterns in fish and benthic communities (2001-2009). NOAA Technical Memorandum 152. NOAA, Silver Spring, MD 150pp Furnas M, Mitchell A, Skuza M, Brodie J (2005) in the other 90%: phytoplankton responses to enhanced nutrient availability in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51:235-265 Gladfelter WB (1982) White-band disease in Acropora palmata - implications for the structure of shallow reefs. Bulletin of Marine Science 32:639-643 Gray SC, Gobbi KL, Narwold PV (2008) Comparison of sedimentation in bays and reefs below developed versus undeveloped watersheds on St. John, US Virgin Islands. Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium 1:345-349 Green SJ, Akins JL, Côté IM (2011) Foraging behaviour and prey consumption in the Indo-Pacific lionfish on Bahamian coral reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series 433:159-167 Hatcher BG (1984) A maritime accident provides evidence for alternate stable states in benthic communities on coral reefs. Coral Reefs 3:199-204 Hatcher BG, Larkum AWD (1983) An experimental analysis of factors controlling the standing crop of the epilithic algal community on a coral reef. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 69:61-84 Henderson LM, Blondeau J, Taylor M, Nemeth RS, Smith TB (in press) Terrestrial and silt-clay sediment flux affect stony coral health in the nearshore US Virgin Islands. Frontiers in Marine Science Herzlieb S, Kadison E, Blondeau J, Nemeth RS (2005) Comparative assessment of coral reef systems located along the insular platform south of St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands and the relative effects of natural and human impacts. Proc 10th Int Coral Reef Symp 4-2:1144-1151 Hinderstein L, Marr J, Martinez F, Dowgiallo M, Puglise K, Pyle R, Zawada D, Appeldoorn R (2010) Theme section on mesophotic coral ecosystems: characterization, ecology, and management. Coral Reefs 29:247- 251 Jackson A, Semmens BX, Sadovy Y, Nemeth RS, Heppell S, Chapman R, Aguilar-Perera A, Claydon J, Calosso M, Sealey K, Sharer M, Bernardi G (2014) Population structure and phylogeography in Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), a mass-aggregating marine fish. PLoS ONE in press Kadison E, Nemeth R, Herzlieb S, Blondeau J (2006) Temporal and spatial dynamics of Lutjanus cyanopterus and L. jocu (Pisces: Lutjanidae) spawning aggregations on a multi-species spawning site in the USVI. Revista Biologia Tropical 54(suppl. 3):69-78 Kadison E, Nemeth RS, Blondeau J, Smith TB, Calnan JM (2010) Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, with evidence for a spawning aggregation site recovery. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 62:273-279 Kadison E, Brandt M, Nemeth R, Martens J, Blondeau J, Smith T (2017) Abundance of commercially important reef fish indicates different levels of over-exploitation across shelves of the U.S. Virgin Islands. PLOS ONE 12:e0180063 2016 ANNUAL TCRMP REPORT 295 Kohler K, Gill SM (2006) Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Computers and Geosciences 32:1259-1269 Kramer P, Lang J, Marks K, Garza-Perez R, Ginsburg R (2005) AGRRA Methodology, version 4.0, June 2005. University of Miami, Miami Kuffner I, B., Walters L, J., Becerro M, A., Paul V, J., Ritson-Williams V, J., Beach K, S. (2006) Inhibition of coral recruitment by macroalgae and cyanobacteria. Marine Ecology Progress Series 323:107-117 Manzello DP, Brandt ME, Smith TB, Lirman D, Hendee JC, Nemeth RS (2007) Hurricanes benefit bleached corals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104:12035-12039 Menza C, Kendall M, Hile S (2008) The deeper we go the less we know. Revista Biologia Tropical 56:11-24 Menza C, Kendall M, Rogers C, Miller J (2007) A deep reef in deep trouble. Continental Shelf Research 27:2224- 2230 Menza C, Ault J, Beets J, Bohnsack J, Caldow C, Christensen J, Friedlander A, Jeffrey C, Kendall M, Luo J, Monaco M, Smith S, Woody K (2006) A Guide to Monitoring Reef Fish in the National Park Service's South Florida/Caribbean Network. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NOS NCCOS 39 166 Miller J, Muller E, Rogers C, Waara R, Atkinson A, Whelan K, Patterson M, Witcher B (2009) Coral disease following massive bleaching in 2005 causes 60% decline in coral cover on reefs in the US Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 28:925-937 Morris JAJ, Whitfield PE (2009) Biology, ecology, control and management of the Invasive Indo-Pacific Lionfish: An Updated Integrated Assessment. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington D.C., NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 9 Mumby PJ (2006) The impact of exploiting grazers (Scaridae) on the dynamics of Caribbean coral reefs. Ecological Applications 16:747-769 Mumby PJ, Harborne AR (2010) Marine Reserves Enhance the Recovery of Corals on Caribbean Reefs. PLoS ONE 5:e8657 Mumby PJ, Dahlgren CP, Harborne AR, Kappel CV, Micheli F, Brumbaugh DR, Holmes KE, Mendes JM, Broad K, Sanchirico JN, Buch K, Box S, Stoffle RW, Gill AB (2006) Fishing, trophic cascades, and the process of grazing on coral reefs. Science 311:98-101 Nemeth R, Kadison E (2013) Temporal patterns and behavioral characteristics of aggregation formation and spawning in the Bermuda chub (Kyphosus sectatrix). Coral Reefs 32:1067-1076 Nemeth RS (2005) Population characteristics of a recovering US Virgin Islands red hind spawning aggregation following protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 286:81-97 Nemeth RS, Sladeck Nowlis J (2001) Monitoring the effects of land development on the near-shore reef environment of St. Thomas, USVI. Bulletin of Marine Science 69:759-775 Nemeth RS, Kadison E, Herzlieb S, Blondeau J, Whiteman E (2006) Status of a yellowfin grouper (Mycteroperca venenosa) spawning aggregation in the US Virgin Islands with notes on other species. Proc 57th Gulf Carib Fish Inst 57:543-558 Nemeth RS, Smith TB, Blondeau J, Kadison E, Calnan JM, Gass J (2008) Characterization of deep water reef communities within the marine conservation district, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Submitted to the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas 90 + appendices NOAA (2006) Tropical Ocean Coral Bleaching Indices. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Springs, Maryland Pastorok R, Bilyard G (1985) Effects of sewage pollution on coral-reef communities. Marine Ecology Progress Series 21:175-189 Pueschel CM, Saunders GW (2009) Ramicrusta textilis sp. nov. (Peyssonneliaceae, Rhodophyta), an anatomically complex Caribbean alga that overgrows corals. Phycologia 48:480-491 Ramos-Scharrón CE, MacDonald LH (2007a) Measurement and prediction of natural and anthropogenic sediment sources, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Catena 71:250-266 Ramos-Scharrón CE, MacDonald LH (2007b) Runoff and suspended sediment yields from an unpaved road segment, St John, US Virgin Islands. Hydrological Processes 21:35-50 Randall JE (1963a) A fatal attack by the shark Carcharhinus galapagensis at St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Marine Science 3:201-205 SOUTH WATER 296 Randall JE (1963b) An analysis of the reef fish populations of artificial and natural reefs in the Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Marine Science 3:31-47 REEF (2012) Reef Environmental Education Foundation-Volunteer Fish Survey Project Database Rogers C, Garrison V (2001) Ten years after the crime: lasting effects of damage from a cruise ship anchor on a coral reef in St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands Bulletin of Marine Science 69:793-803 Rogers CS (1982) The Marine Environments of Brewers Bay, Perserverence Bay, Flat Cay and Saba Island, St. Thomas, U.S.V.I., with Emphasis on Coral Reefs and Seagrass Beds, November 1978-July 1981 181 Rogers CS (1990) Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 62:185-202 Rogers CS, McLain LN, Tobias CR (1991) Effects of Hurricane Hugo (1989) on a coral reef in St. John USVI. Marine Ecology Progress Series 78:189-199 Rothenberger J, Blondeau J, Cox C, Curtis S, Fisher B, Garrison G, Hillis-Starr Z, Jeffrey C, Kadison E, Lundgren I, Miller W, Muller E, Nemeth RS, Paterson S, Rogers CS, Smith TB, Spitzack A, Taylor M, Toller W, Wright J, Wusinich-Mendez D (2008) The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the U.S. Virgin Islands. In: Waddell JE, Clarke AM (eds) The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008. NOAA Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team, Silver Spring, MD, pp567 Sabine AM, Smith TB, Williams DE, Brandt ME (2015) Environmental conditions influence tissue regeneration rates in scleractinian corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin 95:253-264 Schofield PJ (2009) Geographic extent and chronology of the invasion of non-native lionfish (Pterois volitans [Linnaeus 1758] and P. miles [Bennett 1828]) in the Western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea. Aquatic Invasions 4:473-479 Smith TB, Fong P, Kennison R, Smith J (2010a) Spatial refuges and associational defenses promote harmful blooms of the alga Caulerpa sertularioides onto coral reefs. Oecologia 164:1039-1048 Smith TB, Nemeth RS, Blondeau J, Calnan JM, Kadison E, Herzlieb S (2008) Assessing coral reef health across onshore to offshore stress gradients in the US Virgin Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56:1983-1991 Smith TB, Brown K, Ennis R, Honisch B, Martens J, Wright V (2013a) United States Virgin Islands Department of Environmental Protection. Section 106 Research Program. Study of Nutrient Analysis and Distribution and Sedimentation Rate. Final Project Report (GC085DNR11). University of the Virgin Islands 79 Smith TB, Gyory J, Brandt ME, Miller WJ, Jossart J, Nemeth RS (2016a) Caribbean mesophotic coral ecosystems are unlikely climate change refugia. Global Change Biology 22:2756–2765 Smith TB, Blondeau J, Nemeth RS, Pittman SJ, Calnan JM, Kadison E, Gass J (2010b) Benthic structure and cryptic mortality in a Caribbean mesophotic coral reef bank system, the Hind Bank Marine Conservation District, U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 29:289-308 Smith TB, Brandt ME, Calnan JM, Nemeth RS, Blondeau J, Kadison E, Taylor M, Rothenberger JP (2013b) Convergent mortality responses of Caribbean coral species to seawater warming. Ecosphere 4:art87 Smith TB, Brandtneris VW, Canals M, Brandt ME, Martens J, Brewer RS, Kadison E, Kammann M, Keller J, Holstein DM (2016b) Potential structuring forces on a shelf edge upper mesophotic coral ecosystem in the US Virgin Islands. Frontiers in Marine Science 3:115 Smith TB, Brandt ME, Brandtneris VW, Ennis RS, Groves SH, Habtes S, Holstein DM, Kadison E, Nemeth RS (2019a) The United States Virgin Islands. In: Loya Y, Puglise KA, Bridge T (eds) Coral Reefs of the World: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems. Springer, Smith TB, Brandt ME, Brandtneris VW, Ennis RS, Groves SH, Habtes S, Holstein DM, Kadison E, Nemeth RS (2019b) Disturbance in Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems and Linkages to Conservation and Management. In: Loya Y, Puglise KA, Bridge T (eds) Coral Reefs of the World: Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems. Springer, Strand J, Jørgensen A, Tairova Z (2009) TBT pollution and effects in molluscs at US Virgin Islands, Caribbean Sea. Environment International 35:707-711 Tobias W (1997) Three Year Summary Report: Cooperative Fisheries Statistics Program #SF-42 (NA27FT0301- 01). Department of Fish and Wildlife, United States Virgin Islands 41 pp Williams ID, Polunin NVC, Hendrick VJ (2001) Limits to grazing by herbivorous fishes and the impact of low coral cover on macroalgal abundance on a coral reef in Belize. Marine Ecology Progress Series 222:187-196 2016 ANNUAL TCRMP REPORT 297 Woody K, Atkinson A, Clark R, Jeffrey C, Lundgren I, Miller J, Monaco M, Muller E, Patterson M, Rogers C, Smith TB, Spitzack T, Waara R, Whelan K, Witcher B, Wright A (2008) Coral Bleaching in the U.S. Virgin Islands in 2005 and 2006. In: Wilkinson C, Souter D (eds) Status of Caribbean Coral Reefs After Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, and Reef and Rainforest Research Center, Townsville, pp152