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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 1916 WASHINOTON GOVERNMENT HONTING OFHCE 1917 LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OP THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1016. Smithsonian Institut’ion, WasMngton, December 21 , 1916. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Kevised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1916. I have the honor to be. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Charles D. Walcott, Secretary. m. CONTENTS. Page. Letter from the Secretar}’^ submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to Congress in Contents of the report v List of plates vil General subjects of the annual report IX Officials of the Institution and its branches xi REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The Smithsonian Institution 1 The Establishment 1 The Board of Regents 1 Finances 2 The Freer Art Gallery 4 Researches and explorations— Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains 5 Mastodon from Indiana 7 Paleontological and stratigraphic studies in the Paleozoic rooks 7 Explorations in Siberia 8 Collecting fossil echinoderms in the Ohio Valley 9 Geological work in Pennsylvania and Viiginia 9 Expedition to Borneo and Celebes 10 Explorations in China and Manchuria 10 Explorations in eastern Siberia 10 Expedition to St. Thomas, Danish West Indies 11 Cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina 11 P'og-cleaiing investigations 13 Explorations of ancient Maya cities in Guatemala and Honduras 13 Study of nocturnal radiation 14 Researches under Ilarriman trust fund 10 Research Corporation ^ , 10 National Research Council 10 Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory 18 Publications 19 Library 21 International congresses and expositions: Second Pan American Scientific Congress 22 Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists 23 Panama-Pacific International Exposition 24 Panama-Califomia Exposition at San Diego 20 National Museum 20 V VI OOKTEKTS. Edge. Bureau of Amerieau Ethnology 28 International Exchanges 30 National Zoological Park 30 Astrophysical Observatory 31 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature 32 Necrology 33 Appendix 1. Keport on the United States National Museum 35 2. Beport on the Bureau of American Ethnology. 49 3. Report on the International Exchanges 73 4. Beport on the National Zoological Park 83 5. Beport on the Astrophysical Observatory^ 99 6. Report on the library 104 7. Beport on the International Catalogue of Scientific 1 itoraluie. . . 109 8. Beport on publications 112 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND REGENTS Report of Executive Committee 119 Proceedings of Board of Regents 324 GENERAL APPENDIX. Administration and activities of the Smithsonian Institution, by A. Howard Clark 13 News from the stars, by C. G. Abbot 157 The distances of the heavenly bodies, by W. S. Eithelbergcr. . . 169 A census of the sky, by B. A, Sampson 181 Gun-report noise, by Hiram P. Maxim 193 Molecular structure and life, by Am6 Pictet 199 Ideals of chemical Investigation, by Theodore W. Richards 213 The earth: Its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interioi, by T. C. Chamberlin, Harry Fielding Beld, John F. Hayford, and Frank Schlesinger. 226 Dry land in geology, by Arthur P. Coleman 255 The petroleum resources of the United States, by Ralph Arnold 273 The outlook for iron, by James Furman Kemp 289 The origin of meteorites, by Fr. Berwerth 311 The present state of the problem of evolution, by M, Caullory 321 ISome considerations on sight in birds, by J. C. Lewis 337 Pirates of the deep: Stories of the squid and octopus, by Paul Dartsc h 347 The economic importance of the diatoms, by Albert Mann 377 Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans, by W. E. Safford. . . 387 N^w archeological lights on the origins of civilization in Emope, by Arthur Evans 425 The great dragon of Quirigua, by W. H. Holmes 447 prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its people, by .1 . W. Fewkes 461 J&a art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio, by Charles C. Willoughby. ... 489 A half century of geographical progress, by J. Scott Keltic 601 Hhe relation of pure science to industrial research, by J. J. Carty 623 Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau of Mines, by , Vtth H. Manning 633 waterways in the United States, by W. W. Harts 645 N. Gill, by William H. Ball 579 JJplll life and work of Fabre, by E. L. Bouvier 587 LIST OF PLATES, Page. Smithsonian Institution (Clark) Plates 1-4 138 Plates 5-8 140 Plates 9, 10 142 Plates 11-14 148 Plates 15-18 150 Plates 19-22 152 News from the Stars (Abbot) : Plates 1,2 158 Plates 3,4 160 Plate 5 163 Census of the Sky (Sampson) Plates 1-6 192 Gun Report Noise (Maxim) Plates 1-7 198 Sight in Birds (Lewis) : Plates 1-4 338 Pirates of the Deep (Bartsch) Plates 1, 2 348 Plates 3, 4_,._ 350 Plates 5, 6 352 Plates 7, 8 .... 354 Plates 9, 10 356 Plates 11, 12 358 Plates 13, 14 360 Plates 15, 16 368 Plates 17, 18 372 Plate 19 374 Diatoms (Mann) Plates 1-6 386 Narcotic Plants (Safford) Plates 1-17 424 Page. Great Dragon (Holmes) Plates 1, 2 448 Plates 3, 4 450 Plates 5, 6 452 Plates 7, 8 454 Plates 9, 10 456 Mesa Yerde Pueblo (Pewkes) Plate 1 464 Plates 2-5 466 Plates 6-9 470 Plates 10, 11 472 Plates 12-15 476 Earthwork Builders (Willoughby) Plates 1-4 490 Plates 5, 6 494 Plates 7, 8 496 Plates 9-12 498 Plate 13 500 Geographic Progress (Keltic) : Plates 1, 2 512 Mine Safety l>evi(*os (^Manning) Plates 1, 2 538 Plates 3, 4 640 Plates 5, 6_.. 642 Plate 7 544 Natural Waterways (Harts) Plates 1, 2 552 Plates 3, 4 554 Plates 5, 6 558 Plates 7, 8 . 562 Plate 9 668 Theodore N. Gill (Dali) Plate 1 57d TO ANNUAL REPOET OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. SUBJECTS. 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1916, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1916. 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and coi-respondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1916. IX THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. June 30, 1916. presiding oficer ex officio.—Woodeow Wilson, President of the United States. Chancellor.—^Edwakd Douglass White, Chief .Tustice of tlie United States. Members of the Institution: Woodrow Wilson, I*resident of the United States. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States. Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the United States. lloBEKT Lansing, Secretary of State. William Gibbs McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury. Newton Diehl Baker, Secretary of War. Thomas Watt Gregory, Attorney General. Albert Sidney Burleson, Postmaster General. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy. Franklin Knight Lane, Secretary of the Interior. David Franklin Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. William Cox Redfikld, Secretary of Commerce. William Bauchop Wilson, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States. Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate. William J. Stone, Member of the Senate. Henry Fkenc’h Hollis, Member of the Senate. Scott Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives. Ernest W. Roberts, Member of the House of Representatives. James T. Ta.oyu, Member of the House of Represenattives. Andrew D. White, citizen of New York. Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. O. George Gray, citizen of Delaware. Charles F. Choate, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. John B. Henderson, Jr., citizen of Washington, D. G. Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana. Executive cowwiiftee.— eorge Gray, Alexander Graham Bell, Ernest W» Roberts. Secretary of the Institution.—Charles D. Walcott. Assistant secretary.—Richard Rathbun. Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsey. Aocoufitant and disbursing agent . W. I. Adams. Editor.—A. Howard Clark. As^stant librarian.— aitl Brockett. Property clerk.—J. H. Hill. SMTTHSONIAK INSTITUTIOIT, xn THK NATIONAL.MUSEUM. Keeper ex offlcio,—Chakles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. Assistant secretary in charge.—Richabd Rathbun. Administrative assistant.—W. de C. Ravenel. Head curators.—^William H. Holmes, Leonhard Stejnegee, G. P. Merrill. Curators.—Paul Bartscii, R. S. Bassler, A. Howard Clark, P. W. Clarke, P. V. CoviLLE, W. H. Dall, Chester G. Gilbert, Walter Hough, L. O. Howard, AleS HrdliOka, Frederick L. Lewton, George C. Maynard, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., Robert Ridgway. Associate curators,—J. C. Crawford, W. R. Maxon, David White. Curator^ National Gallery of Art .—W. H. Holmes. Chief of correspondence and documents.—Randolph T. Geabe. Disbursing agent.—W. I. Adams. Chief of exhibits {Biology).—James E. Benedict Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. S. Goldsmith, Editor.—Marcus Benjamin. Assistant librarian.—N. P. Scudder. Photographer.—^T. W. Smillie. Registrar.—S. C. Brown. Property clerk.—W. A. Knowles. Engineer.—C. R. Denmark. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Ethnologist'inrcharge.—F. W. Hodge, Ethnologists.—J. Walter Fewkes, John P. IlARuiNoroxN, J. N. B. Hewitt, Francis La Flesche, Truman Michelson, James Mooney, John R. Swanton. Special ethnologist.—Leo J. Fra( htenberg. Honorary philologist.—Franz Boas. Editor.—Joseph G. Gurley. Librarian.—Ella Leary. Illustrator.—De Lancey Gill. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Chief clerk.—C. W. Shoemaker. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Superintendent.—Frank Baker. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. Baker. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Director.—C. G. Abbot. B. Fowle, Jr. Bolometric assistant,—L. B. Aldrich. IPJOIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIBNTIFO LITERATURE. in charge,—Leonabd C. Gunnkii. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CHARLES D. WALCOTT, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. To the Board of Regents of the Simthsonian Institution: Gentlemen ; I have the honor to submit herewith the customary annual report on the operations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, including work placed by Congress under the direction of the Board of Eegents in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The general report reviews the affairs of the Institution proper and briefly summarizes the operations of its several branches, while the ap- pendices contain detailed reports by the assistant secretary and others directly in charge of various activities. The reports on operations of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology will also be published as independent volumes. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT. The Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment by act of Congress approved August 10, 1846. Its statutory members are the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board of Eegents, which is charged with the administration of the Institution, consists of the Vice President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three Members of the Senate, three Members of the House of Bepresentatives, and six citizens, “ two of whom shall be residents in the city of Was^ngton and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them from the same State.” 1 2 AKlsrtTAL BEPOax SMlXHSOIiriAN IKSXlXtJTIOK, 1916. In regard to the personnel of the board the only change during the fiscal year was the appointment of James T. Lloyd, Eepresenta- tive from Missouri. The roll of Eegents on June 30, 1916, was as follows: Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor; Thomas E. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; William J. Stone, Member of the Senate; Henry French Hollis, Member of the Senate; Scott Ferris, Member of the House of Kepresentatives Ernest W. Eoberts, Member of the House of Eepresentatives; James T. Lloyd, Member of the House of Eepresentatives; Andrew D. White, citizen of New York; Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. C.; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, jr., citizen of Washington, D. C.; and Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana. The board held its annual meeting on December 9, 1915. The i)ro- ceedings of that meeting, as also the annual financial report of the executive committee, have been printed, as usual, for the use of the Eegents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the present report of the Secretary. A detailed statement of disbursements from Gov- ernment appropriations, under the direction of the Institution for the maintenance of the National Museum, the National Zoological Park, and other branches, will be submitted to Congress by the Secretary in the usual manner in compliance with the law. FINANCES. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it was derived are as follows Deposited in the Treasury of the United States, Bequest of James Smithson, 1846 Residuary legacy of James Smithson, 18G7 Deposit of savings of income, 1887 Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875 $1,000 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895 1,000 Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1880^.. Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881 Gift Of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891 Fart of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894 peiptMit from savings of income, 1903 IftOUdnary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907 Dl>posit iWih savings of income, 1913 of bequest of WlUiam Jones Rhees, 1913^*. of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan- ^Oh Avery), 1913 : * hJ^aest of Addison T. Reid, 1914 of savinp from income, Avery bequest, 1914 $515, 169. 00 26,210.63 108, 620. 37 2, 000.00 500.00 51, 500. 00 200,000*00 8,000.00 25,000.00 7.918.00 036.04 251.96 9 . 092*^ 4,795.91 204.09 SSPOBT OP THB SEOBEXABT. 3 Deposit of savings from income, Avery fund, 1916 $1, 862. 60 Tieposit of savings from Income, Reid fund, 1916 420. 04 Deposit of balance of principal, $248.05, and Income, $28.89, Rhees fund, 1915 2X6.44 Deposit of first payment of Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, 1915 24,534.92 Deposit of part of principal of Addison T. Reid fund, 1910 4, 698. 69 Deposit of principal of George H. Sanford fund, 1916 1, 020. 00 Deposit of savings from Income, 1916 2, 681. 41 Total of fund deposited in the United States Treasury 996, 000. 00 Other regources. Registered and guaranteed 4 per cent bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value) 42, 000. 00 Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due July 1, 1918 (cost) 5,040.63 Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec. 15, 1917 (cost) 5,093.75 Total permanent fund 1, 048, 134. 38 The second installment to the Addison T. Keid fund, amounting to $4,698.59, and a bequest to be known as the George H. Sanford fund, amounting to $1,020, were added during the year to the per- manent fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States, which, together with incomes of several specific funds amounting to $2,681.41, now aggregates the total sum of $996,000, which bears interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum. The sum of $10,000, being a part of the bequest designated as the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, the income of which is to be applied to the maintenance of the Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks in the National collections, was received by the Institution in October, 1915, and on the advice of the executive committee was in- vested in gold notes maturing on December 15, 1917, and July 1, 1918. These investments form a nucelus of what will hereafter be known as the consolidated fund. The income account of each specific fund will be credited with the proportion of income which each in- vested fund bears to the whole fund. The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to $107,670.26, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent foundation, $60,751.23 ; contributions from various sources for specific purposes, $22,954.99 ; first payment of the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, $10,000; second payment on account of the Addison T. Beid fund, $4,698.59 ; and from other miscellaneous sources, $9,265.45. Adding the cash balance of $42,165.86 on July 1, 1915, the total i«Boaroes for the fiscal year amounted to $149,8^6.12. The disbu]^- EdOnts, wbidi are given in detail in the annual report of the executive 4 AiriTOM. BIPOBX SMITHSOKUH IKSXIXtJXIOK, im. committee, amounted to $105,125*10, leaving a balance of $44,711.02 on deposit June 30, 1916, in the United States Treasury and in cash. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1916 International exchanges $32,000 American ethnology 42, 000 Astrophysical Observatory 13,000 National Museum: Furniture and fixtures 25,000 Heating and lighting 46, 000 Preservation of collections 300, 000 Books 2,000 Postage 500 Building repairs 15,000 Bookstacks for Government bureau libraries 6, 500 National Zoological Park 100, 000 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature 7, 500 Total 589,500 In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed by the Institution there was included under the general appropriation for printing and binding an allotment of $76,200 to cover the cost of printing and binding the Smithsonian annual report, and reports and miscellaneous printing for the Government branches of the Institution. THE FREER ART GALLERY. One of the most important events since the foundation of the In- stitution was consummated in December last. In my last report it was mentioned that Mr. Charles L. Freer was considering the question of erecting a suitable building for the permanent preservation of the splendid collection of objects of art which he presented to the Institution in 1906 and has since augmented by many further gifts. It is exceedingly gratifying here to record the gift by Mr. Freer of $1,000,000 in cash for the immediate erection of a building and that the site and preliminary plans have been agreed upon, so that the actual construction work will soon begin. The building will be of granite and located at the southwest corner of the Smithsonian reservation at Twelfth and B Streets. The munificent donation by Mr. Freer of his collection and pro- visioil for its preservation is unsurpassed in this country, and is one ef the most notable gifts of its character in the world’s history. Mr. Freer describes his collection as follows: l^iejse several collections Include specimens of very widely separated periods artistic development,*beginning before the birth of Christ and ending t04ay. etteihpt has been made to secure specimens from unsympathe^e sonrceSi having been confined to American and Asiatic schools. My greie^ Of 1?HE SBCBBTAilY. 5 desire has beea to unite modern work with masterpieces of certain periods of hi^h civilization harmonious in spiritual and physical suggestion, having the power to broaden esthetic culture and the grace to elevate the human mind. The original collection consisted of about 2,300 paintings and other objects of art, and has since been increased to 5,346 items, including American paintings and sculptures, the Whistler collection, and oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea, Japan, and other Asiatic countries. A full catalogue of items is given by Mr. Eathbun in his Museum Bulletin on the National Gallery of Art. EXPLOllATIONS AND RESEARCHES. The usual activities were continued during the past year in ad- vancing one of the fundamental objects of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the increase of knowledge. In this work various explorations and researches were inaugurated or participated in by the Institution and its branches, covering practically all divisions of astronomical, anthropological, biological, and geological science. The extent of these explorations and researches during the history of the Institu- tion covers a wide range, although a great deal more of most impor- tant work could have been accomplished had adequate funds been available. Friends of the Institution have generously aided this work, particularly during the last few years, through the contribu- tion of funds for specific purposes, but much yet remains undone, and opportunities for undertaking important lines of investigation are constantly being lost through lack of means to carry them into execution. Several proposed expeditions to various parts of the world have been temporarily delayed by the war in Europe. I will here mention only briefly some of the recent activities of the Institution in these directions and for details of other investigations may refer to the appendices containing the reports of those directly in charge of the several branches of the Institution. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. In continuation of my previous work in the Eocky Mountain re- gion, I was engaged during the season of 1915 in field investigation in the Yellowstone Park area and from there north into the Belt Mountains east of Helena, Mont. The work in the Yellowstone Park Was carried on with two objects in view First. To determine, if possible, the extent to which the lower forms of algae and possibly bacteria contributed, through their activities, to the deposition from the geyser and hot spring waters of the con- tained carbonate of lime and silica. 73839"—SM 1916 2 $ JOSKOU, IQPSPOST SlifllHSOKUir IKSTITVllOlr, ISlfi. Second. The securing for the National Museum of a series of geyser and hot spring deposits, also silicified wood from the petrified forests and certain types of volcanic rocks. During the investigation and collecting, numerous photographs were taken of geysers and hot springs and of deposits made from the waters through evaporation and organic agencies. The collections were brought to the camps by pack horses and buckboard and subsequently packed for shipment at Fort Yellow- stone and Yellowstone. Material assistance was afforded by the co- operation of the acting superintendent of the park, Col. L. M. Brett, United States Army, and officers of the United States Engineer Corps in charge of the maintenance and development of the park roads and trails. Upward of 5 tons of specimens were collected and shipped to the National Museum. This collection permits of the preparation of a special Yellowstone Park exhibit of great beauty and interest. It was found that algal growth was everywhere present when the temperature of the waters was from 70° to not much above 180° F., and that this growth had a marked effect upon the amount and charac- ter of both calcareous and siliceous deposits. After completing the investigation of the geyser and hot spring deposits, a trip was made to the Fossil Forest in the northeastern section of the park, in the Lamar Eiver Valley. Large collections were made here of silicified wood and various minerals, one of the latter being a remarkable and beautiful form of calcite rosettes, Which were illustrated and technically described in the pamphlet on Smithsonian explorations in 1915.^ The camp site in the Lamar Valley was one of unusual interest and beauty. The high hills to the south showed the rock cliffs con- taining silicified woods, calcite rosettes, and beautiful specimens of chalcedony. A little way from the camp the party met with a large herd of bison grazing freely in the broad open valley; also herds of elk, bands of antelope, a few black bear, and an occasional wolf. On leaving the park, after 675 miles of travel with the camp out- fit, the party proceeded down the West Gallatin Eiver Canyon, stop- ping to examine the section of Cambrian rocks at the mouth of Squaw Creek. The next permanent camp was made in Deep Creek Canyon, 17 miles east of Townsend, Mont., where the extensive pre- Cambrian sections of the Big Belt Mountains are beautifully shown. About 2 tons of pre-Cambrian specimens were collected in this vi(|imty before the storms of late September (1915) closed the sea- smi’s field work. ^ SmltliBonia& MlBcella&eous Collectloii8» Vol. 60, No. 6, 1616. laEPOIKT OP THB BWmtABY, ( MASTODON PROM INDIANA. Many finds of mastodon and mammoth remains, especially from different localities in States bordering, on the Great Lakes, are con- stantly being reported to the Institution. These “ finds,” chiefly in swamp deposits of the Pleistocene, generally consist of a few isolated bones or teeth, but afford evidence of an abundance of these great creatures during the geological age just preceding the present. Com- pared, however,. with the great number of remains found, complete skeletons are rare, principally because the finds are generally brought to light by workmen who have little or no knowledge of the scien- tific value of the remains. The National Museum was therefore fortunate during the past year in the acquisition of a fine, nearly complete adult male mastodon skeleton from a swamp deposit in northwestern Indiana. A part of the skull, four limb bones, a few ribs and vertebrae were unearthed by a dredge crew while excavating a drainage canal and shipped to the Institution. Mr. J. W. Gidley, of the National Museum, later succeeded in finding the lower jaws, most of the re- maining vertebrae and ribs, parts of the pelvis, and a few more limb and foot bones, and on a second visit found the missing sections of the vertebral column, several more foot bones, and other important fragments. On assembling all the bones recovered it has been found that, with comparatively little artificial restoration, an unusually fine and complete specimen of the American mastodon can be prepared for exhibition. PALEONTOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES IN THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS. Dr. E. 0. Ulrich of the National Museum, was occupied for sev- eral months during the field season of 1915, under the auspices of the United States Geological Survey, in a study of the lower Paleozoic deposits of the Mississippi Valley. He was engaged chiefly in seeking evidence respecting the boundary line between the Cambrian and Ozarkian systems. For this purpose many of the outcrops of these rocks were visited, but the most important evidence was found in the upper Mississippi Valley and in the Missouri where the Upper Cambrian rocks are particularly well displayed, and the succeeding deposits of the Ozarkian system are more commonly fossiliferous than elsewhere. The relative abundance of fossils in these areas permitted the actual boundary between the two systems to be accurately determined after considerable study. This boun- dary was found to coincide with the uneven plane formed at the junction of the deposits laid down by the retreating Cambrian sea with those formed by the return of the waters in the succeeding Ozarkian time. During the progress of these stratigraphic studies 8 AirmrAL Mpom bmitbsonun iBsmvnoiT, me. numerous collections of fossils were secured for the museum series, and incidentally the inyestigations resulted in the proper placement of many fossils whose stratigraphic position had hitherto been un- certain. In the latter part of the season Dr. Ulrich worked out the field relations of some insufficiently located collections of Paleozoic fossils made in southwest Virginia at various times in the past. The most important result of these investigations is the proof that a large coral fauna, exceedingly like that which marks the horizon of the Onondaga limestone throughout the extent of this well known and widely distributed Middle Devonian formation, had already in- vaded the continental basins as far as southwest Virginia during the closing stages of the preceding Lower Devonian. This instance of recurring fossil faunas is regarded as one of the most important of the many similar instances that have been established through the field studies of Dr. Ulrich during the past 25 years. All have served in correcting erroneous correlations of formations that had arisen through the confusion of earlier or later appearances of faunas with the one recognized in the standardized sequence of stratigraphic units. Mr. E. D. Mesler, under the supervision of Dr. Ulrich, spent the summer of 1915 in making collections of Ordovician and Silurian fossils from formations and localities in the Appalachian and Missis- sippi Valleys which had hitherto been little represented in the museum collections. A large number of fossils resulted from his trip, particularly from the Middle Ordovician rocks of east Tennes- see, which will form the basis of a future monograph on the paleon- tology of that region. EXPLORATIONS IN SIBERIA. Through the liberality of the Telluride Association the Institution was enabled to send Mr. B. Alexander with the Koren Expedition to the Kolyma Kiver region of northern Siberia. The expedition left Seattle, Wash., in June, 1914, and returned in September, 1915. The immediate purpose of the trip was to obtain remains of large extinct animals, particularly of the mammoth for which the region is noted. The results were not all that were hoped for, but a considerable quan- tity of material was obtained, though no complete skeleton. A re- port, with photographs taken by the party, was published in the pamphlet on Smithsonian explorations and field work in 1915. -The collection of bones sent in by the expedition contains a few fine speci- mens, together with a considerable number of isolated bones, which valuable for study and comparison. They all indicate a late l^eistocene age, as the bones of many of the forms represented can with difficulty be distinguished from those of species still livmg in BEPOBT OP IHB SBOEETABY. 9 that region. The animals represented include the mammoth, bison, carabou, horse (two or more species), rhinoceros, musk-ox, wolverine, and wolf. The priae specimen is a finely preserved, almost complete skull of Elefhas frimigemua. It is of especial interest as being the only skull of the Siberian mammoth in any of our American museums. COLLECTING FOSSIL ECHINODERM8 IN THE OHIO VALLEY. Explorations for fossil echinoderms were conducted during the summer of 1915, under the supervision of Mr. Frank Springer, asso- ciate in paleontology in the United States National Museum. The work was limited to two areas of Silurian rocks in the Ohio Valley from each of which much valuable material was procured for the study of certain definite problems. In southern Indiana Mr. Her- rick E. Wilson, under Mr. Springer’s direction, spent a number of weeks quarrying for Niagaran echinoderms, particularly crinoids, in the vicinity of St. Paul where numerous outcrops of the Laurel lime- stone occur. The object of this work was to secure as many speci- mens as possible for comparisons of this peculiar fauna with those from European Silurian rocks. Not only was much material ob- tained by the quarrying operations, but all of the local collections of fossils were purchased for Mr. Springer, so that the Museum, which hitherto had practically no fossils from the Laurel limestone, is now in possession of a splendid general collection of fossils from this particular formation. The second area of exploration was in west Tennessee along the Tennessee Eiver, where Mr. W. F. Pate spent some weeks in search- ing for the peculiar crinoidal bulb, Camarocrinus, and the associ- ated crinoid, Scyphocrinus, both of which Mr. Springer has proved to belong to the same organism. Mr. Pate was successful in finding several localities where excellent specimens of the Camarocrinus and Scyphocrinus were associated. Much material was secured and the specimens will be used in the preparation of Mr. Springer’s mono- graph upon this group of crinoids. GEOLOGICAL WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA. By arrangement with the United States Geological Survey, Dr. Edgar T. Wherry, of the National Museum, continued his studies of the geology of the Reading quadrangle in eastern Pennsylvania for a month during the summer of 1915. He completed the areal mapping of the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks of the region, and has transmitted to the Survey the manuscript of a report upon his work. He also mapped Cambrian and Triassic formations on M AsriTOAL BBPOUT sifraHsosruK iJromrtriTOur, mi the Quakertown and Doylestown quadrangles, which lie to the east of the Beading. A brief visit was made to a newly discovered cave near Lurich, Va., where the cave marble was reported to be of economic im- portance. This view proved to be unjustified, but some unusual stalactitic formations were found, two specimens of which were obtained for the Museum collections. EXPEDITION TO BORNEO AND CELEBES. As the result of zoological explorations carried on by Mr. II. C. Eaven in Celebes, through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, the Museum has received 464 mammals, 870 birds, 50 reptiles, and some miscellaneous specimens. The mammals and birds are of great value as the first adequate representation of a fauna that has par- ticular interest in connection with previous work in other parts of the Malay Archipelago. Early in the summer of 1915 Mr. Raven returned to America and spent several months on vacation and in preparing for further explorations m Celebes and other paits of the East Indies. Dr. Abbott has offered his continued support to this work. Mr. Raven left Washington for the East by way of Japan and Singapore, about the middle of October. Two months later he reported from Buitenzorg, Java, that he was making good prog- ress toward the collecting ground. EXPLORATIONS IN CHINA AND MANCHURIA. Zoological explorations, mentioned in previous reports, have been continued in China and Manchuria by Mr. Sowerby through the generosity of a friend of the Institution who desires to remain un- known. During July, August, and September, he made an expedi- tion to the lower reaches of the Sungan River and the I-mien-po district in north Manchuria, where he succeeded in collecting some interesting specimens of mammals, birds, and fishes to be for- warded to the Institution. EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN SIBERIA. In the summer of 1915 Mr, Copley Amory, jr., returned from the ]9i<»iheast coast of Siberia, where for about a year he had been gathering zoological material in connection with a party under Caph John Koren. As his part of the results of the expedition Mr. Jutamy turned over to the National Museum 366 mammals, 264 birds, thd various miscellaneous specimens principally of plants, fish, and Most of this material was prepared by Mr, Amory him- ^ though various members of the expedition contributed to tho Sotwctlbns of both mammals and birds. Among the mammals, about BBUPOM* OF SECSBTAET. H Sfi wild species are represented and are of interest for comparing the Alaskan species with their nearest Asiatic relatives. EXPEDITION TO ST. THOMAS, DANISH WEST INDIES. Mr. C. K. Shoemaker, of the division of marine invertebrates in the National Museum, spent the two months from the middle of June to the middle of August, 1915, in the Danish West Indies, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C., securing collections of corals and other marine invertebrates. This expedition has enriched the collections of the National Museum by about 5,000 specimens, which it is hoped will throw considerable light on the correlation of these islands in the West Indian complex. The collecting was done in the open water, bays, and channels at St. Thomas, St. John, and St. James. The deeper waters were ex- plored by means of dredging from a motor boat, while native divers, working from the heavy West Indian row boats, were used for collecting in the shallow waters. In addition to this, much shore collecting was done. Owing to the very strong and constant trade wind, work on exposed reefs was in many cases made impossible by the heavy surf. Collecting in the protected bays, however, was most successful, as a great variety of bottom was to be found in many of them. While the chief aim of the expedition was to secure as complete a representation of the coral fauna as possible—and this aim met with considerable success—fine collections of other marine inverte- brates were also obtained, including protozoa, sponges, hydroids, medusae, alcyonarians, anemones, bryozoans, starfish, sea urchins, holo- thurians, annelids, crustaceans, mollusks, and ascidians. Collections were also made on land whenever opportunities offered, including insects, mollusks, reptiles, and batrachians. CACTUS INVESTIGATIONS IN BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA. Dr. J. N. Rose, associate in Botany, United States National Museum (at present connected with the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the preparation of a monograph of the Cactacese of America), accompanied by Mr. Paul G. Russell, of the United States National Museum, continued the botanical exploration of South America during the summer of 1915, spending over five months in travel and field work in Brazil and Argentina. In addition to the good-sized collections of cactuses, consisting of living, herbarium, and formalin specimens, moderately large collec- tions of insects, shells, diatoms, and other natural-history specimens were obtained. In all about 8,000 herbarium specimens were ob^ tained and over 90 cases, large and small, of living plants were s^fit life IfflPOBT SMITHSOKUN IN8«mTTIOir, 1916. back to the United States. The living collection is now on exhibition at the New York Botanical Garden. Bahia, Brazil, was the first place visited, which city served as a base for CollectlnjEi: trips into the interior of the State of Bahia. One of the^^e was to the town of Joazeiro, located about 300 miles north-northwest of Bahia, and lying In a typical cactus desert, although this region is traversed by the large Rio Sao Francisco. Notwithstanding the fact that this stream is full the entire year, little or no attempt is being made to use the water for irrigation purposes. The country Is of that type known as “ catlnga,” and resembles in a remarkable way the deserts of the West Indies ; indeed, the genera of plants are in many cases the same, though the species are distinct. Here was seen the “ carnuba,” or wax palm, from which is obtained the wax utilized in making records for phonographs. Near Joazeiro is the Horto Florestal, or “forest garden,” a Government exi)erlment station in charge of Dr. Leo Zehntner, who rendered great assistance in the study and collection of the cactuses of the region. After making short stops at various stations in returning to Bahia, a trip was made to Machado Portella, a small town about 175 miles west and a little south of Bahia, the terminus of a little narrow-gauge railway. This is also a semiarld region and proved exceedingly Interesting botanically. The next side trip was to Toca da Onca, still farther south, on the edge of a thick tropical forest and in a region much more humid than the northern part of the State. About six weeks were then spent in beautiful Rio de Janeiro and vicinity. Here, even in the city itself, a botanist finds a great deal to interest him, for the trees are covered with epiphytic cactuses, mostly of the genus Rhipsalis, and within the city itself rises the picturesque Corcovado, a thickly wooded mountain on whose slopes are found many rare ferns and tree-inhabiting cactuses. The Jardin Botanico in this city is one of the finest in the world. Over 200 species of palms from all parts of the tropics are here grown in the open, besides many other rare tropical plants. In another section of the city, in a fine large park called the Quinta Boa Vista, is the Museo Nacional, where a number of rare cactuses were found in the herbarium. From Rio de Janeiro an ascent of Itatlaya, the highest mountain in Brazil, was made, and on the very top, 10,000 feet above the sea, was found a small cactus with beautiful rose-colored flowers. Excursions were also made to Cabo Frio, to Ilha Grande, and to the islands in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. A few days were spent in the Organ Mountains, near Petropolls, the summer home Of the wealthiest classes of Rio de Janeiro. This range of mountains merits a more thorough biological exploration than has been hitherto undertaken. Proceeding southward, a day was spent at Santos, Brazil, the world’s greatest coffee center. Buenos Aires was visited next, although but little time was spent in the city. Several visits were made to the fine suburb of La Plata, where resides Dr. ‘Carlos Spegazzini, the leading authority on Argentine cactuses. From Buenos Aires a trip was taken across Argentina to Mendoza, a city altnnted near the foot of the Andes, in a region favorable to the growth of sue- «^lent plants. From there a short excursion was made to Portrerillos, Argen- tina, OB the railway which leads to Valparaiso, Chile. Many very Interesting fianta were found in both these places. In the dty of Cordova, Argentina, northwest of Buenos Aires, the cactus coh lientthn of I>r4 Frederick Kurtz was found to contain some rare types, which were Jtindly submitted for examination and study. In this vicinity, m well as in |he neighboring town of Cosquln, many cactuses were collected on the semi- V ^ BBPOET OF /tea 8BCBETABT. 1ft FOG-CLEARIKQ INVESTIGATIONS. Aided by a grant of $2,000 from the Smithsonian Institution and a grant from the Eesearch Corporation, a committee of electrical engi- neering experts, under the general direction of Mr. F. G. Cottrell, continued during 1915 the investigations begun at San Francisco by the University of California, in cooperation with the United States Lighthouse Service, relative to the clearing of fog by means of elec- trical precipitation. In a preliminary report read at the first meet- ing of the committee. Prof. Kyan, of Stanford University, says: Science has established the fact that all dust and fog particles in the open atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation. It is ap- parent, therefore, that a source of very high direct voltage, with facilities for control and application, may be of inestimable value in certain quarters and seasons for clearing fog away from a street, from along a passenger railway, from around the landing stages of a ferry, or, possibly, about or in advance of a ship under headway at sea. The clearing of fog differs from the treatment of smoke and fumes in several respects, principally in that the smoke particles must be actually deposited on the electrodes to bring about the desired effect, whereas in treating fog it is only necessary to cause coalescence of the minute particles into larger ones to give much greater transpar- ency, even disregarding the more rapid settling of the larger drops. However, other difficulties arc to be expected in the problem of clearing fog, such as the conditions arising from the continual immersion in the wet atmosphere. What is chiefly needed for an intelligent conception of the problem is actual first-hand experience in handling these and other unusual conditions. The most striking features of the apparatus used in these experi- ments are the Thordarson 350,000 to 1,000,000 volt transformers, which I saw while visiting the San Francisco Exposition. A great deal was learned during the year about the electrical technique of the problem, and although days of suitable fog condi- tions were extremely scarce, on the rare occasions of actual trial very perceptible clearing for a short distance around the high-tension wires was obtained as the fog swept past. EXPLORATIONS OF ANCIENT MAYA CUTES IN GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. Through the courtesy of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Smithsonian Institution has been enabled to participate in some very interesting explorations in Central America. Prof. W^ H# Holmes, head curator of anthropology in the National Museum, gives the following general account of his work in that country In February, 1916, owing to a generous graa^ of funds by the Smithsonian Institution, the writer had the good fortune to become a member of the Oai>i t4 annual mmtw£ Smithsonian iNsimmoN, me. uegie Iiistitutioii*s archeological expedition to Central America under the able direction of Sylvanus G. Morley. The work of exploring and studying in detail the remarkable remains of the ancient Mayan culture was vigorously carried forward. An especial object of the expedition was the discovery of additional inscriptions embodying glyphic dates, for it is the dates, now read with facility, which furnish tlie skeleton of Maya history. Among the ancient cities visited while the writer was associated with the expedition were Antigua, the ancient Spanish capital of the kingdom of Guatemala, built on the site of a prehistoric city ; the extensive ruins of the ancient city of Ixiiuache, near the site occupied to-day by the capital of Guatemala, Guatemala City ; the ruined city of Quirigua in eastern Guatemala, the subject of much scientific interest during recent years; and the ruins of Copan, in Honduras, perhaps the most remarkable of all the American monu- ments of antiquity. Especial attention was given by the writer to the collection of data and drawings to be utilized in preparing panoramic views of the several cities visited, and every effort was made to obtain information regarding the techni- cal methods employed by the ancient builders. The quarries from which the Stone was obtained were too deeply buried in tropical vegetation to yield up their story without extensive excavation and the methods employed in dressing and carving the stone remain in large part undetermined. Certain chipped and ground stone implements that could have served in dressing the stones used in building were found in numbers, but the story of the carving, especially of the very deep carving of the monuments of Copan, remains unrevealed. Although it Is thought that stone tools may have been equal to the great task, it is believed by some that without bronze the work could not have been done. There are, however, no traces of the use of bronze by the Central Americans. The monuments are on a grand scale and great skill and excellent taste are manifest in their embellishment, the whole giving evidence of a state of culture advancement unsurpassed In any other part of aboriginal America. STUDY OF NOCTURNAL RADIATION. Several grants from the Hodgkins fund have been made to Prof. Anders Angstrom during the past few years to enable him to carry on researches on the radiation of the atmosphere, particularly noc- turnal radiation. The results of observations made by him in Algeria in 1912 and in California in 1913 were embodied in a pamphlet published by the Institution in 1915. In this pamphlet he summarizes his work as follows The main results and conclusions that will be found in this paper are the fohowing. They relate to the radiation emitted by the atmosphere to a radiat- ing aurface at a lower altitude, and to the loss of heat of a surface by radiation toward space and toward the atmosphere at higher altitudes. I. The variations of the total temperature radiation of the atmosphere are at low altitudes (less than 4,500 m.) principally caused by variations in tem- |)0*rdtiire and humidity. ^ The total radiation received from the atmosphere is very nearly propor* ^<|(nal to the fourth power of the temperature at the place of observation. ' III The radiation is dependent on the humidity in such a way that an in- in the water-vapor content of the atmosphere will Increase Its radiation. |t#«»ndence of the radiation on the water content has been expressed hy H #i;panantial law. mPotT Of Tsm momTAm. 15 IV. An Increase in tlie water-vapor pressure will cause a decrease In the effective radiation from the earth to every point of the sky. The fractional decrease Is much larger for large zenith angles than for small ones. V. The total radiation which would be received from a perfectly dry atmos- cal. phere would be about a temperature of 20° C. at the place of observation. VI. The radiation of the upper, dry atmosphere would be about 50 per cent of that of a black body at the temperature of the place of observation. VII. There is no evidence of maxima or minima of atraosplieric radiation dur- ing the niglit that can not be explained by the influence of temperature and humidity conditions. VIII. There are indications that the radiation during the daytime is subject to the same laws that hold for the radiation during the nighttime. IX. An increase in altitude causes a decrease or an increase in the value of the effective radiation of a blackened body toward the sky, dependent upon the value of the temperature gradient and of the humidity gradient of the atmos- phere. At about 3,000 meters altitude of the radiating body the effective radia- tion generally has a maximum. An increase of the humidity or a decrease of the temperature gradient of the atmosphere tends to shift this maximum to higher altitudes. X. The effect of clouds is very variable. Low and dense cloud banks cut down the outgoing eftectne radiation of a blackened surface to about 0.015 calorie per cm,* per minute ; in the case of high and thin clouds the radiation is reduced by only 10 to 20 per cent. XI. The effect of haze upon the effective radiation to the sky is almost in- appreciable when no clouds or real fog are formed. Observations in Algeria in 1012 and in California in 1913 show that the great atmospheric disturbance caused by the eruption of Mount Katmai in Alaska, in the former year, can only have reduced the nocturnal radiation by less than 3.0 per cent. XII. Conclusions are drawn in regard to the radiation from large water sur- faces, and the probability is indicated that this radiation is almost constant at different temperatures, and consequently in different latitudes also. Another grant was made to Prof. Angstrom in October, 1915, for a study of nocturnal radiation in the far north during the long Arctic night. Concerning this study he wrote to the Institution on February 16, 1916, as follows: Through this grant I have been able to make observations on nocturnal radiation during the Arctic night in the north of Sweden, at a place named Abisko, at about 68° 30' latitude. The observations were extended during about a month (Jan. 1-26) and were obtained under various atmospheric con- ditions. One night observations were taken at a temperature of —30° C, (—20° F.), when consequently the absolute humidity must have been very low. In general, these observations confirm the views expressed in my paper ^ in regard to the influence of temperature and humidity upon the nocturnal radia- tion and the radiation of the atmosphere. In connection with the named measurements observations were also made oh the cooling of snow surfaces under the temperature of the surrounding nlr as 9 consequence of nocturnal radiation. As was to be expected, a linear relation wns found to exist between the radiation and the named temperature difference. 1 Smithsonian Mtoc. Coll.» Vol. 65, No. 3, 1916. 18 AmSTUAI, BBPOBT SMMHSOWlAJi: INSEmmON. 1919. I hope in the neai^ future to get an opportunity to extend these important observations on the connection existing betwe«i radiation and the cooling of various materials existing on the earth’s surface. The question Is one of scientific as well ns of practical agricultural Interest. HARRIMAN TRUST FUND. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate of the Institution, aided by the income of a trust fund established for the purpose by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, has continued his zoological investigations, par- ticularly the study of the big bears of North America. RESEARCH CORPORATION. The Research Corporation was established in 1912 under the New York State laws with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as one of the directors and a member of the executive committee. The primary object of the organization was to develop certain pat- ents described in previous reports which had been offered to the Institution by Dr. F. G. Cottrell but which could not be administered directly by the Institution. Other inventions and patents have since been acquired by the corporation, and through royalties from the installation and utilization of these patents a considerable fund has been created and the income therefium will be devoted to the ad- vancement of technical and scientific investigation and experimenta- tion through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution and such other scientific and educational institutions and societies as piay be selected by the directors. The Cottrell patents relate to the precipitation of dust, smoke, and chemical fumes by the use of electrical currents. Successful commercial installations have already been made on the following fumes (a) Silver fumes from electrolytic slimes of copper refinery; (&) tin fumes from detinning process residues; (c) hydrochloric acid fumes from cleaning vats in electrogalvanizing plant; (d) tin and zinc fumes from waste metal recovery plant; (e) ‘‘low bleach” from electroljdiic plant; (/) sulphuric acid mist from contact acid plant; (g) lead fumes from copper converters; (A) fumes from roasting of zinc ores ; and (i) dust from bufing wheels and from machines for powdering slate. NATIONAL. RESEARCH COUNCIL. At its annual meeting in Washington in April, 1916, the National A<5idemy of Sciences voted unanimously to offer its services to the President of the United States in the interest of national prepared- and it was suggested that the academy “ might advantageously MFOBT OF CTtl SBOBEl?ABy. 17 organize the scientific resources of educational and research institu- tions in the interest of national security and welfare.” The President accepted the offer and requested the academy to proceed with the ^organization. An organizing committee was accordingly appointed, and on June 19 the council of the academy, acting upon recommenda- tions of that committee, voted— That there be formed a National Resaarch Council whose purpose shall be to briH^ into cooperation existing governmental, educational, industrial, and other research organizations with the object of encouraging th« Investigation of natural phenomena, the increased use of scientific research in the development of American industries, the employment of scientific methods in strengthening the national defense, and such other applications of science as will promote the national security and welfare. That the council be composed of leading American Investigators and engineers, representing the Army, Navy, Smithsonian Institution, and various scientific bureaus of the Government ; educational institutions and research endowments and the research divisions of industrial and manufacturing establishments. After the close of the fiscal year the National Research Council was fully organized, the President of the United States appointing the representatives of the Government and authorizing the appoint- ment of other members by the president of the National Academy of Sciences. OFFICERS AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Chairman, George B. Halee; vice chairmen, Charles D. Walcott and Gano Dunn; secretary, Gary T. Hutchinson; executive committee, John J. Carty (chairman), William H. Welch (ex officio), George E. Hale (ex officio), Edwin G. Conklin, Gano Dunn, Arthur A. Noyes, Raymond Pearl, Michael I. Pupin, S. W. Stratton, V. C. Vaughan (others to be appointed). MEMBERS OF NATIONAB RESEARCH COUNCIL. Dr, L. H. Baekeland, Yonkers, N. Y. Dr. Marston T. Bogert, professor of organic chemistry, Columbia University, Dr. John A. Brashear, Allegheny, Pa. Dr. John J. Carty, chief engineer, American Telephone & Telegraph Co, Dr. Russell H. Chittenden, director, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale Uni- versity. Dr. Edwin G. Conklin, professor of aoology, Princeton University. Dr. John M. Coulter, professor of botany, University of Chicago. Brigadier General William Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, U. S. Army. Mr. Gano Dunn, president The J. G. White Engineering Corporation. Dr. Simon Plexner, director. Rockefeller Medical Institute. Major General William Crawford Gorgas, Surgeon General, U. S. Army. Dr. W. F. M. Goss, dean of engineering, University of Illinois, Dr, George E. Hale, director, Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. Mr. Clemens HerscRel, president American Society of Civil Engineers, Prof. William H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology. United States Na- tional Museum. Dr. W. W. Keen, president American Philosophical Society. Mr. Van H. Manning, Director U. S. Bureau of Mines. ,Prof. Charles F. Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau, 18 ANNUAL BffiPOB® 8MITH8UNUN INSTOTUTION, 1910. Prol A. A. Mlchelson, director, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago. Dr. Robert A. Millikan, professor of physics, University of Chicago. Dr. Arthur A. Noyes, director, research laboratory of physical chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. Raymond Pearl, director, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Prof. E. C. Pickering, director, Harv4ard College Observatory. Dr. Michael I. Pupin, professor of electro-mechanics, Columbia University. Mr. Charles F. Rand, president United Engineering Society. Prof. Theodore W. Richards, director of the Wolcott Gibbs Momoidal Labora- tory, Harvard University. Mr. C. E. Skinner, director, research laboratory, Westinghonse Electric & Manufacturing Co. Lieutenant Colonel George O. Squier, Chief of Aviation, U. S. Army. Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director U. S. Bureau of Standards. Mr. Ambrose Swasey, Cleveland, Ohio. Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, Chief Constructor U. S. Navy. Dr. Elihu Thomson, Swampscott, Mass. Dr. C. R. Van Hise, president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. Dr. Victor Clarence Vaughan, director, medical research laboratory. Uni- versity of Michigan. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. William H. Welch, president of the National Academy of Sciences. Dr. W. R. W’hitney, director of the research laboratory, General Electric Co. The council will be gradually enlarged by the addition of new members who are to serve as chairmen of important committees or who are otherwise to engage in some special work. To carry out the work of the council committees are being ap- pointed, including {a) committee on rules and procedure; (5) com- mittee on publication; (c) committee on research in educational institutions to consider general plans for the promotion of research in educational institutions and to arrange for local committees in each institution; (d) committee on promotion of industrial research with functions in the field somewhat similar to those of the preceding committee; (e) committee on a national census of research to pre- pare a national census of equipment for research, of the men engaged in it, and of lines of investigation pursued in cooperating Govern- ment bureaus, educational institutions, research foundations, and in- dustrial research laboratories. It has also been decided to form joint committees in various branches of science in cooperation with the corresponding national scientific societies. THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY. In view of the organization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, provided for by act of Congress . approved march 8, 1915, it has appeared unnecessary at present to proceed further toward the permanent establishment of the proposed Langley labora- BffiPOBT OF THE SEOEETAEY, 19 tory. As secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I was appointed a member of the National Advisory Committee and elected chairman of its executive committee, and in this connection I have been able to cooperate toward the solution of many important problems per- taining to the science and art of aviation. One of the chief advan- tages already being realized by the establishment of the advisory committee is a closer cooperation between the Army and Navy and other Federal departments and coordination of work in the general advancement of aviation. The Institution published during the year two pamphlets on aeronautics, one, a series of reports on wind tunnel experiments, and the other on “Dynamical stability of aero- planes,” both of them by J. C. Hunsaker and associates. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Institution proper include three series: Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge; Smithsonian Miscellan- eous Collections; and Smithsonian Annual Reports. Under the di- rection of the Institution there are also issued the Annual Reports, Proceedings, and Bulletins of the United States National Museum, including the Contributions fi^om the National Herbarium; Annual Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. All of these series except the “ Contributions ” and “ Collections ” are printed through annual Congressional allotments. In all of these series there was pub- lished during the year a total of 8,498 pages and 623 plates of illus- trations. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—This series is intended to show results of original research constituting important contribu- tions to knowledge. One memoir of the series was in press at the close of the year giving the results of an extended study on the com- parative histology of the femur. * Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—^Twenty-two papers, forming parts of five volumes of this series, were issued, among them three papers on Cambrian geology by your secretary. In this series the annual exploration pamphlet was issued, giving brief accounts of the explorations and field work of the Institution in geology, biology, and anthropology, covering every continent on the globe, and illustrated by 141 photographs taken in the field by the scien- tists themselves. The Smithsonian Physical Tables, which together with the Mathematical and Geographical Tables have become stand- ard works of reference in educational and research institutions, are published in this series. The sixth revised edition of the Physical Tables, issued during the preceding year, was quickly exhausted, making it necessary to print additional copies. Still another edition is now in press, indicating the constant demand for this work. AlsrKUAL KBPORT SMITHSOKUK IKSTITITTIOK, 191G. Smiths&mm report.^ complete volume of the 1914 report was received from the printer and distributed at the beginning of the year. Material for the 1915 report was sent to press in December, and was completed just before the fiscal year closed. In the general appendix are 22 papers showing recent progress in various branches of science, including “ The utilization of solar energy,” “ Evidences of primitive Jife,” by your secretary, “ Heredity,” “ Linguistic areas in Europe,” and “ Recent developments in telephony and telegraphy.” The custom of printing special editions in pamphlet form of papers in the general appendix has proved of great advantage; in several cases there has been a demand for a very large number of copies, which was especially noticeable in connection with an article on “ The value of birds to man ” in the 1913 report. Special pvhlications.—Opinion 67 of the Opinions of the Inter- national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was issued as a special publication. A special paper by Chester G. Gilbert of the National Museum, on “ Sources of nitrogen compounds in the United States” attracted considerable attention. Among other conclusions, he states: The evolution of a practicable process for the oxidation of by-product ammonia to render present resources available, with the development of an atmospheric nitrogen fixation output by the Cyanamide process carefully timed to meet growing demands following a reduction in the retail price of nitro- genous fertilizer, would appear to be the desirable governmental procedure as being the one least liable to disastrous consequences. National Mmeum pvhlicatiom.—The National Museum issued an annual report, 2 volumes of the proceedings, 52 separate papers form- ing parts of these and other volumes, and 4 bulletins. Bureau of Ethnology publications-—^The Bureau of American Ethnology published 2 annual reports, separates of 4 accompanying papers in these reports, and 2 bulletins. Reports of historical and patriotic societies-—The annual reports of the American Historical Association and the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution were submitted to the Institution and communicated to Congress in accordance with the charters of these organizations. Allotments for printing-—^Most of the allotment to the Institution aud its branches for printing was used during the year, though it was impracticable to complete a large amount of material in press at the close of the year in the National Museum and Bureau of .American Ethnology series. The allotments for the year ending June 30, 1917, are as follows: Por the Smithsonian Institution : For printing and binding the annual flirts of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the edi- tiidhs of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies ^10, 000 BEPOBT OF THE BBOBErABY. 21 For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen- dices, aiid for printing labels and blanks, and for the Bulletins and Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies, and binding, in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or acquired by the National Museum library $37, 500 For the annual reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau 21, 000 For miscellaneous printing and binding: International Exchanges 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature 100 National Zoological Park 200 Astrophysical Observatory 200 For the anmial report of the American Historical Association 7, 000 Total 76, 200 Committee on printing and pvklication .—All manuscripts submit- ted for publication by the Institution or its branches have, as usual, been referred to the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. During the year 18 meetings were held and 96 manu- scripts examined and passed upon. The personnel of the committee was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, Jfational Museum, acting chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory ; Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the National Zoological Park ; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Smith- sonian Institution, secretary of the committee; Mr. F. TT. Hodge, ethnologist in charge of the Bureau of American ethnology; and Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, United States National Museum. LIBRARY. The accumulation of a scientific library has always been an im- portant phase of the Institution’s work in the “ increase and diffusion of knowledge,” and the collection has increased in size from year to year until at present it numbers well over half a million titles. The accessions of the year aggregated about 15,000 books and pamphlets. The main Smithsonian library is assembled in the Library of Con- gress and is known as the Smithsonian deposit. In addition the Institution maintains the Smithsonian office library, the National Museum library, the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological Park library, besides some 85 specialized sectional libraries main- tained in various offices for the use of the scientific staff of the Insti- ttitidn and its branches. The Smithsonian office library contains a collection of books relating to art, the employees’ library, and an exten- sive aeronautical library. This collection of aeronautical works has been notably increased by additional gifts from Dr. Alexander 78830*’—BM 1916 3 22 ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Graham Bell, consisting of 83 books and 87 portfolios of periodicals, and by a number of reference works from the library of Major Baden-Powell, The National Museum library received 4,840 accessions, among them 207 titles contributed by Dr. William Healey Dali to his col- lection of works relating to mollusks; and the scientific library of Dr. Theodore Nicholas Gill, numbering about 3,000 volumes, pre- sented to the Institution by his brother, Mr. Herbert A. Gill, which is a valuable addition to the natural history series, especially in ichthyology. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES AND EXPOSITIONS. SKCOND PAN AMEKICAN SCIENTITIC CONGRESS. The Second Pan American Scientific Congress, which held its ses- sions in Washington from December 27, 1915, to January 8, 1916, was the fifth of a series of scientific congresses, the first three of which included only the Latin American countries. At the first strictly Pan American Congress, held in Peru in 1908, in which the United States was invited to participate, it was unanimously voted to hold the next meeting in Washington. The congress held its inaugural session at 10 a. m., December 27, at Memorial Continental Hall, and business sessions and social affairs were arranged for every day thereafter until January 8. The following are the sections into which the congress was divided; I. Authiopologv II Astronomy, Meteorology, and Seismology III Conservation of Natural Resources, Agriculture, Irrigation, and Forestry. IV. Education. V Engineering VI. International Law, Public Law, and Jurisprudence. VII. Mining and Metallurgy, Economic Geology, and Applied Chemistry. VIII. Public Health and Medical Science. IX. Transportation, Commerce, Finance, and Taxation. At the meetings of these sections a great number of papers of scientific and economic importance were read. The Institution proper was represented in the congress by your secretary and Prof. W. H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology, United States National Museum, as delegates. Of the branches of the Institution, the Bureau of American Ethnology was represented by the ethnologist in charge, Mr. F. W. Hodge, and Dr. J. W. Fewkes, delegates; and the Astrophysical Observatory by Dr. C. G. Abbot, delegate, and Mr. F. E. Fowle, alternate. A reception was held for the Latin American delegates by the Board of Begents and BEPOET OP THE SEOBETABY. 23 the Secretary of the Institution in the new building of the National Museum on the evening of December 29. This highly successful and important congress was attended by approximately 100 official delegates from the 21 American Eepublics. and 60 by special invitation, or representing societies Or universities. The United States was represented by approximately 1,000 unofficial delegates or members. NINETEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. The Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, which was to have been held at Washington on the invitation of the Smith- sonian Institution in October, 1914, was postponed on account of the war in Europe until a more favorable time for an international gathering. When it became evident that a fully attended meeting would be out of the question in the near future, it was decided to hold the congress in affiliation with the section of anthropology of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress and jointly with the American Anthropological Association, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Historical Association, and the Archaeologi- cal Institute of America. In consequence the date of the meeting was definitely fixed for December 27-31, 1915. Mr. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State, former minister to Mexico and Russia, ex-president of the Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute, etc., served as president of the congress. The honorary presidents were the Secretaiy of the Smithsonian In- stitution; Mr. Clarence B. Moore, of Philadelphia; and Prof. William H. Holmes, of the National Museum. Mr. Clarence F. Norment, of Washington, served as treasurer, and Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the National Museum, as secretary of the Congress. There was a long list of honoiary a ice presidents, a general (honorary) com- mittee, associate foreign secretaries, and an organizing committee (with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as chairman). Official representati\e& of foreign Governments were in attendance from Austria, Chile, Cuba, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Guate- mala, Nicaragua, Peru, Russia, Sweden, and Uruguay, and about 100 official delegates from various learned societies and universities in the United States and foreign countries. The headquarters of the congress were at the National Museum, and most of the sessions were held there. Nearly 100 papei's relating to the study of somatology, arche- ology, ethnology, folklore, history, and linguistics were read at the sessions of the congress, among them papers by several members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology and of the National Museum. 24 ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. PANAMA-PACmO INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION. Only s very small allotment was allowed the Smithsonian Institu- tion and its branches from the congressional appropriation for Gov- ernment exhibits at San Francisco in 1915. It was possible, how- ever, to make a small display showing in a general way the scope and activities of the Institution, and an ethnological exhibit illustrating the characteristics and culture status of typical primitive peoples. The exhibits were located in the Liberal Arts Palace, covering a floor space of about 6,000 square feet. The exhibit of the Institution proper consisted of a series of photo- graphs of its founder, James Smithson, the four secretaries, pictures of the building and departments, and a complete set of its publica- tions. There was also displayed an exact reproduction of the Langley experimental steam flying machine which performed the epoch-making flights over the Potomac Eiver, May 6, 1896, together with photographs taken at the time. T^angley’s success as a pioneer in aviation was commemorated on the Column of Progress at the exposition (pi. 1) by a tablet with the following inscription: To commemorate science’s ^ift of aviation to the world through Samuel Pler- pont Langley, an American. The princiiial exhibit by the National Museum dealt with eth- nology, or the scientific study of the races of men, their origin, distri- bution, relations, and culture. It included four family lay-figure groups, the Eskimo of Alaska, the Dyak of the East Indies, the Zulu-Kaffir of South Africa, and the Carib of South America; also village groups in miniature illustrating the houses and house life of various peoples, together with cases of specimens relating to the primitive arts and industries. The remaining departments or branches of the Institution, includ- ing the International Exchange Service, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Zoological Park, the Hodgkins fund, the Aerodynamical Laboratory, and the Kegional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, were represented by charts, photographs, maps, instruments, and publi- cations illustrative of their various functions. Mr. W. de C. Eavenel, administrative assistant of the United States National Museum and secretary to the exposition board, acted aii the representative of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches, with the assistance of Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, United States National Museum. The exhibits were enumerated in detail in a descriptive catalogue y 12I3 pa<5fes. B^IPOET OP THE SEOEBTAEY. 26 The family groups illustrated the most effective museum method of presenting ethnological material. The catalogue describes the groups as follows The Eskimo family group comprises seven life-size figures clad in the native costumes and colored according to life, engaged in the usual summer vocations and amusements. At the left a woman is cooking meat in a primitive pottery vessel, and another woman is putting dried fish in the storehouse. In the back- ground a man with a sinew-backed bow is watching a youth practicing with his sling. On the right another man is seated on the ground carving a wooden dish with a curved knife, and two little girls are playing with their native toys. The structure in the back of the case is a representation of the storehouse commonly used by the western Eskimo. The dwelling groups show the houses to be dome-shaped, made of earth piled over a cobwork of timbers erected in an excavation in the ground. In the summer a passageway gives entrance, but in the winter a tunnel is built. A bench on which the people sleep runs around the wall on the inside of the house. The cooking within the dwelling is done in a pottery vessel suspended over a lamp. The group representing the Znln-Kaffir and Bantu tribes, which live in the semiarid southern extremity of the African comment, depicts the natives as physically strong and energetic and not so dark as the true negro. This race is superior in military and social organizations and compares favorably in the arts and industries with other African families. The group shows a section of a house with a doorway, a fireplace on which a woman IkS cooking mush, a woman dipping beer from a large pottery jar, a woman from the field with a hoe, a water carrier with a jar on her head, a man playing a marimba or xylophone, and a boy driving a goat. The natives are represented as they existed some years ago, before they were affected by contact with the white man. Other cases include models of the native African dwellings and examples of the handiwork of these people, an Interesting feature of which is the primi- tive ironwork in which many African tribes were higlily skilled. The next group takes the exposition visitor from Africa across the Atlantic to northern South America, where dwells the Carib in the forested tropical interior of British Guiana. Some of the tribes of this great race have only recently been visited by white men. Here is to be seen a Carib warrior with his blowgun, a woman and a child squeezing cassava in a primitive lever press, another woman decorating a tree gourd with characteristic interlocking designs, and a child playing with a pet parrot. A hammock swung between two house posts represents the form of bed in general use in ancient as well as modern Latin America. Among the articles manufactured by these natives examples of ceremonial objects and articles of personal adornment are ex- hibited, Including headdresses, earrings, belts, arm bands, necklaces, and capes. A fourth family group represents the Dyaks of the island of Borneo. They are expert house and bout builders and skilled in the use of the blowgun. Bice, sago, tropical fruits, monkeys, wild pigs, and other game, yield them subsistence. The men are warlike, and are still, to some extent, head-hunters, their weapons being spears, short swords, and blowguns with poison-tipped darts. The Dyak family group is represented on the porch of a communal house, carrying on various occupations. A woman is pounding rice in a wooden niortar. while another Is represented as bringing in a basket of rice on her back, a third is making a basket, a man armed with a bayoneted bjowgan Is approaching with a freshly killed monkey, and two children are shown playing Cat’s cradle, a popular native game. 26 AN'lSrXTAL RBPOjaT SMITHSONtAK INSTITUTION, 1910, The museum exhibits also included a series of objects illustrating the development of six kinds of implements and appliances of the arts—apparatus for fire making, the jackknife, the saw, the spindle, the shuttle, and the ax. Pictures of othei* exhibits in biology, geol- ogy, and anthropology in the National Museum were shown by a ‘‘ stereomotorgraph ” machine. The Smithsonian Institution was awarded a grand prize, under the head of scientific investigation, for the collective exhibit by the Institution proper, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Museum, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the Bureau of International Catalogue of Scientific Literature; a grand prize for the balloon pyrheliometer designed and exhibited by the Astrophysical Observa- tory ; a gold medal for the Group of elk ” shown by the Museum and a silver medal for investigations for the betterment of social and economic conditions. The balloon pyrheliometer, as its name implies, is an instrument for measuring the heat of the sun. It is carried aloft by a pair of rubber balloons until one of them bursts, when it gradually descends to the earth, supported by the other. Records have thus been obtained at heights of over 9 miles. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION AT BAN DIEGO. Although no appropriation was made by Congress for exhibits at San Diego in 1915, it was possible for the Institution, through cooperation with the exposition authorities, to arrange an interesting exhibit of physical anthropology and one illustrating American aboriginal industries. These exhibits were described in my report of last year. At the close of the San Francisco Exposition a number of the Smithsonian exhibits were transferred to San Diego, this fair having been extended over another year. These exhibits were located in the Science of Man Building, and included four large cases containing the family groups of natives from different quarters of the globe, as described above, and some cases containing specimens of their arts and industries, together with several small family dwelling groups. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The report of Assistant Secretary Rathbun, appended hereto, re- views in detail the operations of the National Museum. The total number of new specimens acquired was 243,733; about one-half per- tained to the department of zoology, about one-third were botanical And paleontological, and the rest were additions to the anthropo^ logic0 and other collections. Among the ethnological additipm of special interest may be noted a series of costumes, weapons/ and utensils from British Guiana; many objects from Celebes, EEPOET OP' THE SEORETAEY. 27 Borneo, and the Philippines; and a large collection from aboriginal mounds and ruin sites in Ut?th* To the division of American his- tory the additions included china and glassware and other objects once the property of General and Martha Washington. The memor- ials of Gen. Sherman, which had long been in the custody of the Museum, have now been pre^nted by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh Sherman, and the Cromwell collection of 20/)00 domestic and for- eign postage stamps, deposited some years ago, became the absolute property of the Museum on the death of Mr. Cromwell in Septem- ber, 1915. To the interesting collection of historical costumes there have been added costumed figures representing four hostesses of the White House, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, Mrs. Abraham Lincoln, and Mrs. James It. McKee. By the will of Dr. Shepard there was bequeathed an important collection of meteorites which had been in the possession of the Museum for a number of years. In the department of biology the additions were representative of many parts of the world, including mammals, birds, and reptiles from Celebes and Borneo, collected through the long-continued gen- erosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott ; and like collections from Siam, Kash- mir, northern China, and Manchuria. Part of the results of the Smithsonian biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone wass a collection of about 18,000 fishes. The Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington deposited some 8,000 botanical specimens gathered by Dr. J. N. Pose in Brazil and Argentina. Mr. Kathbun enumerates many other interesting objects recently received, particularly those pertaining to the industrial arts, a depart- ment which has been very greatly developed since the removal of the natural history exhibits to the new building, yet the proper installa- tion of series illustrating the many branches of the arts and indus- tries is already seriously hindered through lack of space. It is in this department in particular that the Museum manifests one of its principal functions. The exhibits are so selected and so installed as to teach visitors how things are made and what they are made of, and not so much who makes the best articles or how they should be packed to meet the demands of trade. And yet while these collec- tions first of all educate the public they also teach the manufacturer and therefore are of decided economic importance. One of the lead- ing New England manufacturers not long since, 'while examining the exhibits in his own industrial line, remarked, “this helps business.” I can not too strongly urge the need of still greater advancement in this department of Smithsonian activities. The time is fast ap- AK2Sr0AL BEPORt SMITHSONIAN IN^TtTTIOK, 1916. proaching when there should be constructed in the Smithsonian reservation another new building, a Museum of Industrial Arts. The collections are here and in many respects they surpass similar collections in Europe or elsewhere. The splendid new building in which the natural history collections are now so adequately housed has offered opportunity for the development of that department beyond the highest expectations. Like progress could be made with a Museum of Industrial Arts. European countries have such struc- tures, one is needed hero in Washington. It is an economic question. Commercial museums have their place for developing trade and commerce, and are of much value for such purpose, but the develop- ment of the artistic taste of the public through an educational Museum of Industrial Arts is of even greater importance. It would stimulate inventive skill and advance eveiy art and every industry. The exhibits illustrating textile industry and mineral technologj^ in particular are very complete, consisting of specimens of raw mate- rials, machinery used in manufacture, and the finished products. To the National Gallery of Art there has been added a collection of 82 drawings in pencil, pen, etc., by contemporary French artists, a gift from citizens of France to the peo])le of tlie United States; also an oil i^ainting of Abraham Lincoln, by Story, the gift of Mrs. E. H. Harriman. The paintings in the National Gallery collection are bf much popular interest and of great artistic and intrinsic value, but they are crowded in temporary quarters in a building designed for purposes other than a gallery of art. During the last year Mr. Freer made 535 additions to his collection, including 23 paintings and sculptures by American artists, and over 500 oriental objects consisting of paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades. The entire collection now aggregates about 5,340 items. The auditorium in the new building has been the meeting place of a number of scientific bodies and of international congresses; and in the foyer opportunity was offered for several special exhibitions. In cooperating with schools and colleges there were distributed some 7,000 duplicate specimens of minerals, fossils, mollusks, and other objects, classified and labeled for teaching purposes. The number of visitors to the new building averaged 1,012 on week days and 1,240 on Sundays. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology is under the direct charge of Mr. F. W. Hodge, whose detailed report is appended hereto. The operat;ions of the bureau include field work and special researches pf|rtaining to the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii. With the cooperation of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the Nacoochee mound in Georgia was excavated and EEPOKT OF ME SEORETABY. 29 proved to have been used both for domicile and for burial purposes. In the mound were found a large number of smoking pipes and a great amount of broken pottery. In New Mexico, also in cooperation with the Museum of the American Indian, plans were made for excavating the historic pueblo of Ilawikuh in the Ziuli Valley south- west of Zufii pueblo. Among the most interesting iield operations during the year were those by Dr. Fewkes in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., where he unearthed a type of structure archi- tecturally different from any hitherto found in the Southwest. The excavation was carried on under the joint auspices of the bureau and the Department of the Interior, and the building, which Dr. Fevl^es has named the Sun Temple, is described in a pamphlet published by that department. The Sun Temple is a large D-shaped structure, the longest wall of which measures 131 feet 7 inches. The walls are 2 to 5 feet in thickness and show structural qualities that compare favorably with any building of this type north of Mexico. Dr. Fewkes is of tlie opinion that though the building was used pri- marily as a place of worship, it Avas intended also for a place of refuge in case of attack. In the Northwest, in\’estigations were continued b}^ Dr. Frach- tenberg on the languages, history, and traditions of the various Indian tribes of Oregon and Washington. In conneetion with^this Avork it is interesting to note that in revising some manuscript mate- rial Dr. Frachtenberg secured tlie assistance of the last surviving member of the Atfalati tribe of the Kalapiiya Indians. A number of special I’esearches have been in progress during the year, among them research work by Dr. Franz Boas in connection with the completion of part 2 of the Handbook of American Indian Languages. Through the liberality of Mr. Homer E, Sargent, of Chicago, work has been well advanced on an extended study of the Salish dialects, as well as on a study of Salish basketry, which it is intended to describe in an illustrated memoir. Part 1 of the Hand- book of American Antiquities by Prof. W. H. Holmes was in type at the close of the year, and the preparation of part 2 Avas well under way. The study of Indian music by Miss Frances Densmore, which has attracted considerable attention among musicians, has been continued during the year, chiefly among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians in North Dakota. A number of ceremonial and war songs were re- corded phonographically and a neAv phase of the work was under- taken, consisting of testing the pitch discrimination of the Indians by means of tuning forks. There was in press at the close of the year a bulletin by Miss Densmore entitled Teton Sioux music.” 30 ANKITAL KEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6. The publications of the bureau issued during the year comprise two annual reports with their accompanying pajoers, and two bulle-* tins. In press or in preparation at the close of the year were three annual reports and five bulletins. The bureau library was enriched by the addition of 1,078 volumes, among them 20 volumes of Bibles and portions of the Bible in American Indian languages. international exchanges. The total number of ]:>ackagcs of governmental and other docu- ments handled by the International Exchange Service during the year was 301,025, an increase of 25,809 over the previous year. This figure, however, still shows a decrease as compared with the total handled in 1914, owing to the suspension of shipments to 10 countries involved in the European war. Effoids have been made to resume shipments to certain of these countries, vhich liaA-e met ^\itll some degree of success in the case of Germany and Russia. The Exchange Sei’vice has continued its policy of international helpfulness by assisting governmental and scientific establishments to procure publications esi)ecially desired both in this country and abroad. One instance showing the value of this policy may be cited. The Pan American division of the American Association for Inter- national Conciliation, of New York, wished to assemble a collection of several thousand volumes of North American origin for presen- tation to the Museo Social Argentino at Buenos Aires. Through the Exchange Service the matter y\i\s brought to the attention of the proper establishments and several hundred governmental and other publications were received for the proposed collection. The number of sets of United States governmental documents sent through the Exchange Service to foreign countries has been reduced from 92 to 91, owing to the discontinuance of shipments to the gov- ernment of Bombay at the request of that government. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The National Zoological Park is becoming each year a greater and greater attraction to the public, and as its collections increase so does its value become of more importance as a source of information to the zoologist in his study of animal life. There is now in the park a total of 1,383 individual animals, rep- resenting 360 species, as shown by the detailed census in the report of the superintendent. Among the recent accessions may be mentioned a pair of young lions, a pair of Siberian tigers, a great red kangaroo, several mon- keys, and a number of interesting birds, but the newly acquired ani- EEPOET OF THE SECEETARY. 31 mal that seems most popular is a male chimpanzee, about 4^ years old, from the forests of French Congo. The number of visitors during the past year was 1,157,110, as com- pared with 794,530 in the year preceding. This included 161 schools, classes, etc., niiinbering 8,679 individuals. Eecent improvements include the construction of a hospital and laboratory building and the grading of some ridges and gullies to secure additional building sites and paddocks for the deer and other large animals. As mentioned in previous reports an appropriation was made in 1913 for the purchase of several acres as an extension to the western boundary of the park, but legal proceedings and complications inci- dent to adjustment of values and benefit assessments caused such delay that the appropriation, not being a continuing one, lapsed on June 30, 1915, and Congress has failed to renew the allotment for this much desired improvement. Many important needs are urged by the superintendent, some of which I have mentioned year after year. One of these is an aviary building for the birds now being housed in temporary quarters greatly deleterious to their health. Other needs are a building for the elephants, hippopotami, and similar animals; an ape house; a reptile house; a pheasantry; an ostrich house; an aquarium; and an insect- ary ; also a gatehouse and a permanent boundary fence. THE ASTEOPHYSICAL OBSEEVATOEY. Observations of the solar constant were continued at Mount Wil- son, Cal., from July to October, 1915, and were begun again in 1916. During the year there was published the results of solar-constant observations made under Prpf. Pickering’s direction at Arequipa, Peru, since August, 1912, with a silver-disk pyrheliometer lent by the Smithsonian Institution. These observations confirm the vari- ations of the sun observed at Mount Wilson. An interesting feature of the Arequipa observations was the fact that the volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai in 1912, which produced a great deal of dust over the northern hemisphere, apparently had no effect on the atmosphere south of the equator. The results of observations at Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914 on the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the sun’s disk were published during the year. It is thus shown that the average distribution over the disk varies from year to year as well as from day to day.:;; Observations have been continued on the transmission of rays of great wave length through long columns of air, which it is expected will be of much interest in studying the earth’s temperature as dependent on radiation toward space. n ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. After several years of experimenting the Astropliysical Observa- tory has constructed an instrument called the pyranometer, designed for measuring the intensity of sky light by day and of radiation outward toward the sky by night. A full account of this instrument has been published in pamphlet form. The pyranoinoter may prove of advantage in botanical im estigations in forests and greenhouses, since it can measure radiation in deep shade as \^ell as in the full sun. The Institution has made an allotment from the Hodgkins fund for carrying on solar-constant work at some suit.ible place in South America. Thioughout the year, for several years, it is intended to continue observations at Mount Wilson in California and at the South American station with a view to determine the dependence of the earth’s climatic conditions on the sun’s variation of radiation. In addition to his solar-constant work the director of the observatory has given considerable attention to expeiiments at IVIount Wilson with solar cooking apparatus ^‘compiising o^ens heated by oil under gravity circulation maintained by heat collected by a concave cylin- dric mirror of about 100 scjuare feet surface.” These experiments were not concluded at the close of the year. INTEENATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITEKATUEE. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, the United States bureau of which is administered by the Smithsonian Institu- tion, was organized in 1901, and since that date 17 volumes of refer- ences to scientific literature, one for each of 17 branches of science, have been published each year. Dining the past year 24,1G0 classi- fied references to American scientific literature were prepared by the United States bureau, biinging the total number of references to the literature of this country since the inception of the catalogue up to 369,509. As stated in last year’s report, the war in Europe caused consid- erable financial embarrassment to the publication of the catalogue owing to the impossibility of collecting subscriptions from several of the countries involved. The generosity of the Eoyal Society of Lon- don in making up this loss of income made possible the publication of the thirteenth annual issue, and this year a request was made for assistance from the United States. Your secretary succeeded in in- teresting the Carnegie Corporation, of New York, in the project and through the generous assistance of that establishment it was made possible to publish the fourteenth annual issue. The value to science of this catalogue is universally recognized, and it is the opinion of scientists everywhere that any lapse in its publi- caption would be a real calamity, as shown by the action of the Inter- BEPOET OP THE SECRETARY, 33 national Council of the Catalogue in voting to extend the work to at least 1920. NECROLOGY. James Burrill Angell, doctor of laws, died April 1, 1916. He had been a regent of the Institution for a quarter of a century, from Janu* ary 19, 1887, to January 15, 1912, when he resigned on account of age and inability longer to attend meetings of the board. He was born at Scitiiate, R. I., January 7, 1829, and through Ivis long life as a journalist, an educator, and a diplomat he served his country faith- fully in many positions of honor and trust. He began his career as a professor of modern languages at Brown University, was a journalist during the period of the Civil War, president of the University of Vermont 18()f)~1871, president of the University of Michigan 1871-1909, United States minister to China 1880-1882, and minister to Turkey 1897-98, and served on several important treaty commissions. In accepting his resignation as a regent in 1912 the board recorded its appreciation of his long and faithful servi(‘e to the Smithsonian Institution. Respectfully submitted. Chakles D. Walcott, Secretary. Appeistdix 1. REPORT ON THP] UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1916 INTRODUCTORY. Seventy years ago Congress first definitely recognized the national collections and directed their segregatioi^ and preservation under the custody and supervision of the Smithsonian Institution in the building to be erected for that establishment. By 1850 arrange- ments had been sufficiently perfected to justify the appointment of an assistant in charge of museum matters and to begin the acquisition of natural -history specimens, but it was not until 1858 that the extensive collections which had previously accumulated at the Patent Office could be accepted. With an influx of material rela- tively as phenomenal as in more recent years, the Museum rapidly spread beyond the boundaries originally assigned to it and by 1875 was practically in possession of all parts of the Smithsonian building not required for the offices of the parent institution. But even so, there was a condition of great congestion from which relief was only obtained in 1881, the year of the completion of the second building. Though specially designed for displaying the many im- portant donations in numerous branches of the industrial arts from the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, the latter had also to serve for the overflow in natural history, a combination which fully taxed its capacity in less than three years. Then followed nearly three decades during which about as much material was assembled in outside storage as found lodgement within the two structures. The problem as regards the departments of natural history was solved when the new large granite building was made ready for occupancy in 1911, except that it lacked accommodations for the division of plants, or National Herbarium. As the depository for the Department of Agriculture and other establishments conducting extensive botanical explorations, this branch of the Museum has about outgrown its provisional quarters in the Smithsonian building, and its future requirements should not long go unheeded. 35 36 AKKUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WW. The most serious phase of the situation now confronting the Mu- seum, however, results from the wholly inadequate facilities for sys- tematically developing the collections illustrative of the industrial arts. Comprehended under the fundamental act, partly organized in 1880, greatly enriched from the Philadelphia exhibition of 18Y6, and with a steady growth through* all subsequent years, this important department, whose principal aim is popular education on technical lines by means of exhibits visualizing conditions and processes as well as products, is filling to such an extent every foot of Available space that the halls present rather the appearance of gross storage than of orderly and classified arrangement. Public sentiment, ex- pressed through many channels, demands better progress than here- tofore in carrying out the purposes of this department, but the difficulties in the way are by no means confined to limitations of space, since the more immediate embarrassments arise from an insujficiency of funds for employing the necessary skilled assistants required for Avorking up and preparing the exhibits, which includes the construction of many models. The department of the fine arts is even more poorly provided for than any of the other Museum branches, as it is occupying borrowed space which is already so crowded as seemingly to forbid further contributions, and while this condition lasts there can be little hope for advancement. There is, however, one bright feature to mention in this connection—the decision to immediately begin the erection of the building for the Charles L. Freer collections of American and oriental art, the plans showing a beautiful granite structure, tlie completion of which will bring to the Institution rniicli the largest donation it has ever had, one of the most notable gifts of its character in the Avorld’s history. Put to no expense for either building or collections, it is hoped that the example set by Mr. Freer will lead to more liberal consideration on the part of the Govern- ment of the needs of the National Gallery of Art, for which no ap- propriations of any kind liave^ver yet been made. During the past year many valuable additions were made to the collections generally, new and instructive features were incorporated in the exhibition halls, and a wider public interest was stimulated through an exceptional number of meetings and of special exposi- tions of scientific and art objects held at frequent intervals in the convenient quarters provided for such purposes. COLLECTIONS. The total number of specimens acquired during the year was ap* jpl?0ximately 243,733. Eeceived in 1,526 separate accessions, they were classified and assigned as follows: Department of anthropology, 29,498; zoology, 120,303; botany, 40,631; geology and mineralogy^ EEPOKT OF THE 8ECBETAEY. I,700; paleontology, 48,403; textiles, woods, and other animal and vegetable products, 2,304; mineral technology, 280; and the National Gallery of Art, 619. As loans for exhibition, 1,960 articles were also obtained, mainly for the Gallery of Art and the divisions of history and ethnology. Material for examination and report, consisting chiefly of rocks, ores, fossils, and recent animals and plants, was received to the extent of 1,036 lots. Anthropology ,—One of the most desirable ethnological additions Avas a series of costumes, Aveapons, and utensils—excellent illustra- tions of the arts and industries of recently discovered tribes in the interior of British Guiana, collected by Mr. John Ogilvie. The aborigines of Celebes and Borneo were represented by many import- ant objects assembled bj’' Mr. II. C. Kaven and presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott; and those (^f the Philippine Islands by extensive and varied contributions, including weapons, musical instruments, baskets, costumes, etc., receiA^ed from Mrs. Caroline E. Bates, Mr. E. II. Hammond, and the folloAving officers of the United States Army, namely, Maj. Edgar Russel, Maj. W. T. Johnston, and Capt. J. R. Harris, Baskets, ornaments, and other articles of various Indian tribes of North America, were also given by Mrs. Bates; a number of rare and valuable objects from the Osage Indians were deposited by the Bureau of American Ethnology; interesting ex- amples of art and ethnologica from various parts of the world Avere presented by Miss Louise Salter Codwise; and costumes and imple- ments from the Blackfeet Indians and the Greenland Eskimo were likewise obtained. An exten^i\e collection of archeological material from mounds and ruin sites in Utah, resulting from explorations by Mr. Neil M. Judd for the Bureau of Ethnology, is of particular value in aiding to determine the distribution of Pueblo culture toAvard the north. Other accessions from America consisted mainly of artifacts, includ- ing many rare specimens, from several of the States, and of woven fabrics and pottery from Peru. A gift of Old World antiquities from Miss CodAvise Avas composed principally of Egyptian scarabs, necklaces, and figurines, and Palestinian amulets, Avhile a collection of prehistoric stone implements from Great Britain contained some choice specimens. The division of physical anthropology received many skeletons and skulls, in A^ery complete condition, from Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who obtained them at ^^The Indian Knoll,” on the Green River, Ky.; and a similar collection from Mr. George G. Heye, secured during an exploration of old burial sites in Georgia and Tennessee. Es- pecially noteworthy was an excellent series of sltulls and numerous other bones belonging to the period before the advent of the whites, procured in old burial caves in Hawaii by Mr, August Busck, 73889“—SM 1916- 4 AKKtJAL BEPOBT 8MITHSOHUK INSTITUTION, 1918, The more notable accessions in mechanical technology bore upon the subjects of the telephone and firearms. The American Tele- phone & Telegraph Co. contributed a set of instruments and of load- ing coils, with examples of line wire and glass insulators, used at the opening of the first telephone line between New York and San Fran- cisco on January 25, 1915, and also a duplicate of the first instrument through which speech was transmitted electrically in Boston in 1875 while Dr. Alexander Graham Bell deposited his diplomas, certificates of award, and announcements of election to scientific societies, an interesting series of documents indicative of the many honors which have been conferred upon him. A gift from Mrs. Bates of much historical value included old military guns of European and Ameri- can manufacture, pistols and revolvers, a gun made in the Philip- pine Islands, two very fine bronze swivel cannon, and several Toledo blades and other swords. Mr. Hugo Worch added three old American pianos to his munifi- cent donation of the previous year, and made a provisional deposit of four other instruments, three American and one of London make. The permanent acquisitions in ceramics consisted mainly of examples from some of the prominent potteries of the United States, but among the loans were specimens of porcelains from abroad and also of glassware, bronze, and brass, which are now exhibited in the ceramic gallery. Among the accessions in graphic arts were experimental apparatus and pictures illustrating progress and the several steps in the elec- trical transmission of photographs from one place to another, as also the development of the engraving machine called the akro- graph; a Wells printing press; examples of the art of overlay in printing ; samples of poster stamps and lithographs ; and a number of fourteenth and fifteenth century manuscripts. The additions in photography included daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes; a sepia print of a painting on carved wood by Rosselimo ; and a series of prints of astronomical subjects from the Yerkes Observatory. American history ,—The historical collections were increased to an exceptional extent by both gifts and deposits. Most prominent was a loan by Mr. Walter G. Peter, a descendant of Martha Washington, of many objects of artistic and domestic interest once the property of General and Mrs. Washington at Mount Vernon, which richly supplement the Lewis collection long in the possession of the Museum. Mention can here be made of only a few of the articles, among which were a china portrait plaque of Washington designed by Richard Champion; a water-color portrait of him by William Thornton; two gold lockets containing locks of his hair; a gold watch of Mrs. Washington, the cover engraved with the Washington ooat of arms; a child’s French dressing table of exquisite workman- EEPOBT OP THE SEOBETABY. 39 ship presented by Lafayette to the granddaughter of Mrs. Washing- ton, Martha Custis, who became Mrs. Thomas Peter ; letters written to Mrs. Washington on the death of her husband ; documents relat- ing to the settlement of her estate; and a number of fine examples of eighteenth century china and glassware. It is pleasing to note that the valuable loan collection of memorials of Gen. William Tccumseh Sherman, United States Army, with some additions, was given into the permanent keeping of the Museum during the year by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh Sherman. From the widow and children of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Lawton, United States Volunteers, there was acquired as a gift an extensive series of objects, including a medal of honor from Congress, forming a significant reminder of the distinguished career of this oflicer in the Civil War, several Indian wars, and the Philippines. Important relics of Capt. Edward Trenchard, United States Navy (1784—1824), and of his son, Rear Admiral Stephen Decatur Trenchard, United States Navy, including two presents awarded to the former by acts of Congress, were received on deposit. There were also many other gifts and loans of notable personal and period relics, and the national societies of the Colonial Dames of America and the Daughters of the Ameri- can Revolution made interesting additions to their already extensive loan collections. By the death of Mr. David W. Cromwell, of New York, on Sep- tember 11, 1915, the splendid collection of nearly 20,000 domestic and foreign postage stamps, which he placed on permanent deposit in 1908, became the absolute property of the Museum. Among other additions in philately, including stamps, stamped envelopes, and post cards, were 1,565 new foreign and 269 new domestic issues, received from the Post Office Department. The collection of historical costumes was enriched to the extent of 562 articles, nearly all of which were loans. To the series of cos- tumed figures representing hostesses of the White House four were added, namely, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. eTohn Quincy Adams, Mrs. Abraham Lincoln, and Mrs. James R. McKee. Biology .—In the accessions of vertebrate animals the Asiatic region was especially well represented, and many genera and species new to the collection were obtained. The name of Dr. W. L. Abbott remains conspicuous in this connection through three contributions. The first, composed of material gathered under his direction and at his expense in Celebes and Borneo by Mr. H. C. Raven, consisted of 465 mammals, 869 birds, and a number of reptiles and batrachians. The second, presented jointly with Mr. C. B. Kloss, contained 197 mammals and 133 birds, besides reptiles and batrachians from Siam; while the third was a series of 183 mammals from Kashmir, British India. The Celebes and Siam specimens are especially important. 40 ANKtJAL MPpET SMITHSONIAK IKStlTXmOK, im. both as coming from localities not hitherto represented in the Mu- seum and as supplementing the existing large collections from the related faunal regions of the Malay Peninsula, the Philippine Islands, and Borneo. From northern China and Manchuria was re- ceived a valuable series of mammals, birds, and reptiles, the results of further field work by Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby. Obtained by Mr. Copley Amory, jr., during a collecting trip to the little-known Kolyma River region of northeastern Siberia and presented by him, were 3G5 mammals and 243 birds, besides a number of nests and eggs of the latter. Additional mammals were received fro'm Baluchistan through ex- change with the McMahon Museum at Quetta and from East Africa as a gift from Mr. Elton Clark. The most important accessions of reptiles, batrachians, and fishes consisted of the specimens obtained in connection with the Smithsonian biological survey of the Canal Zone by Mr. S. F. Hildebrand, Prof. S. E. Meek, and Mr. E. A. Gold- man, the number of fishes amounting to about 18,000. An extensive collection of Peruvian fishes made by Dr. E. E. Coker in 1907 and 1908 was presented by the Government of Peru, and another from South American localities was received from Indiana University in exchange. The Bureau of Fisheries deposited 1,242 specimens from Albatross explorations in the Pacific Ocean. The receipts by the division of marine invertebrates were excep- tionally extensive. Twenty-seven separate collections were trans- ferred by the Bureau of Fisheries, a part of which had been worked up and described. They represented investigations by the steamer Albatross in the Pacific Ocean, by the steamers Fish Ilawh and Bache and the schooner Grampus in the Atlantic Ocean and con- tiguous waters, and certain other inquiries. Of crustaceans there were about 15,000 specimens, of annelids about 1,000 specimens, of pteropod mollusks about 3,200 specimens, of starfishes nearly 150 types, and of fresh-water mollusks about 1,000 specimens from the Mississippi River, besides very many unassorted lots of crustaceans, salpa, pyrosoma, and other groups. A very large number of miscellaneous invertebrates from the Dan- ish West Indies and about 5,000 specimens of land and marine mol- lusks from the Florida Keys were deposited by the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington, while over 3,000 miscellaneous specimens from dredgings off the coast of Florida and about 7,000 land and fresh- water shells from Cuba were presented by Mr, John B. Henderson. An accumulation of samples of ocean bottom, filling nearly 11,000 battles, obtained by vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey dur- ing hydrographic investigations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans the Gulf of Mexico, were transferred to the custody of the *Muaeuin. KBSPOET OF THE SEOBETAET. 41 The principal accessions of insects consisted of Lepidoptera and Diptera deposited by the Bureau of Entomology, of named species of beetles and Hymenoptera from Australia, and of types of new species presented by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell. The division of plants received several large and important col- lections. The Department of Agriculture transferred over 6,600 specimens, of which a considerable proportion were grasses. Some 8,000 specimens, representing the field work of Dr. J. N. Kose in connection with his cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina during the summer of 1915, were deposited by the Carnegie Institution of Washington; and about 2,000 specimens secured by the Peruvian expedition of 1914-15 were presented by the National Ceographic So- ciety and Yale University. Among other important accessions were specimens from the Philippines, Amboina, China, and Panama, Geology explorations in the Rocky Mountain region in the summer of 1915, Dr. Charles D. Walcott procured for the Museum in the Yellowstone National Park a large and well-selected series of the siliceous and calcareous sinters, including some masses of excep- tional size, native sulphur, silicified wood, sundry mineral specimens, and an extensive representation of volcanic rocks, intended in part for an exhibition of the geological features of that park. Among other important acquisitions were illustrations of the geology and mineral associations of the pegmatite deposits of southern California, and of the emerald mines at Muzo, Colombia ; a number of scheelite specimens of more than ordinary interest from Utah ; and an unusu- ally fine large specimen of secondary copper sulphate from the Sil- ^ver Bow Mine, Mont. The Geological Survey transferred examples of the nitrate deposits in Idaho and Oregon, and of potash-bearing salts and associated rocks from the vicinity of Tonopah, Nev. ; and Dr. Joseph P. Iddings presented some fine specimens of the peculiar problematic bodies known as obsidianites and Darwin glass from Borneo and Tasmania, and an important series of phosphate rocks from Ocean and Makatea Islands. By the will of Dr. Charles Upham Shepard, who died early in July, 1915, the very important collection of meteorites belonging to him, which has been on deposit for a number of years, was bequeathed to the Museum ; while from several other sources material represent- ing 32 distinct falls of meteorites in many different parts of the world was also acquired. The mineral collection received many additions, including excep- tionally fine specimens, examples of recent finds and several rare species, the largest accession, a deposit from the Geological Survey, consisting of about 300 specimens mostly illustrative of a report by Dn W. T. Schaller on the gem minerals of the pegmatites of Oali- fonna. From the same Survey was also transferred a large amount m ASnVAL BBPOBT SMITHSOKIAIST IKfiraTUTION, 1916. of petrological material, mainly rocks illustrating the geology and ore deposits of several districts and localities, described in recent papers. Of fossil invertebrates the Geological Survey made extensive con- tributions from the Tertiary of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain, the Cretaceous of New Mexico, and other formations and localities. Other important accessions were several thousand specimens of bryozoa and ostracoda from various parts of the world, a collection of Upper Cretaceous forms of special interest as containing types described long ago by Prof. T. A. Conrad, insects from the Floris- sant beds of Colorado, and types of new species of crabs. Most prominent of the additions in vertebrate paleontology was a nearly complete skeleton of a large mastodon found near Winamac, Ind., which has already been mounted and placed in the exhibition hall. From the Koren expedition to the Kolyma River region of northeastern Siberia were received nearly 200 specimens, of which* the most valuable is a fine skull of the Siberian mammoth, the only one of this northern form now in any American museum. Two col- lections of fossil plants, recently described, including the type and figured specimens, were transferred by the Geological Survey. One was from the San Juan Basin, N. Mex., the other from the Fox Hills formation, Colo. Textiles ,—In the division of textiles excellent progress was made in the acquisition and installation of new exhibits. Probably the most important was an extensive series of specimens, and of models, sections, and photographs of machinery from the American Thread Co., showing the manufacture of cotton thread in all its details. Other noteworthy accessions were two additional Jacquard machines for decorating textiles; further illustrations of the operation and work of the embroidery automats, of the manufacture of silk fabrics, and of the designing, weaving, and printing of silk upholstery and drapery materials; examples of Javanese batik work on cotton and silk, and of various patterns of moire silks; a demonstration of the successive stages in the production of painted cut velvet, called “Yuzen Birodo” by the Japanese; and samples of silk skein-dyeing and silk piece-dyeing and printing. The Japanese Commission to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition contributed 100 commercial fabrics, including many kinds not produced in this country. The representation of American up- holstery and drapery fabrics and allied textiles of various materials and character of decoration was greatly increased and improved, and miMtinfacturers continued to keep the collection supplied with novel- ties and new types and designs of dress fabrics as soon as they were hl^onght out. Numerous excellent examples of the handicraft work in the schools of the Philippine Islands were also obtained. BEPOET OP THE SEOKETAEY. 43 Wood technology,—In the recently organized section of wood technology there were many accessions of samples of important com- mercial woods and of illustrations of wood utilization, the public installation of which was about to be taken up at the close of the year. While the wood specimens, mostly in the form of large boards, were intended primarily for practical educational purposes, a large proportion had been determined botanically, insuring for them a proper technical designation. The principal collection of wood samples, from the Philippine Islands, consisted of 110 pieces, representing 85 species, the dupli- cates showing different characteristics as to gi'ain and figure. In addition there were IG pieces and 15 species from Argentina; 32 specimens of various foreign woods highly prized for veneers and for cabinet and furniture work, including the several important varieties which are imported into this country under the trade name of mahogany ; 38 specimens of redwood from the Pacific coast, repre- senting a large range of patterns produced by the manufacturers and some of their better grades of plain lumber; and also examples of koa and ohia woods from Hawaii, Honduran mahogany, red. gum, yellow poplar, white oak, and black cherry. Material received as part of an exhibit of the turpentine industry included three butt sections of longleaf pine from a commercial tur- pentine orchard, illustrating the manner in which gum for the dis- tillation of turpentine is obtained by the box, the cup and gutter, and the Forest Service methods, clearly showing the progressive improve- ment from the former wasteful to the modern economical processes. These were accompanied by samples of the gum, scrape, turpentine, and resin, and examples of the tools used, and, in addition, there was a model of a turpentine still of a pattern common to the long- leaf pine belt, in a setting typical of the region, some of the trees being boxed and others provided with cups and gutters. The utiliza- tion of wood was also illustrated by samples of dyewoods in the log, and a series of extracts from them, including logwood, Brazil wood, fustic, and quebracho; and by several series of specimens showing the materials and successive stages in the manufacture of a number of articles of common use, such as matches, tool handles, brushes, and sporting goods. Of subjects other than textiles and woods, while no special efforts were made in their behalf, much desirable material was received, in^ eluding agricultural products generally, foods, medicines, resins, models of fishing methods and boats, fishery products, etc. Mineral technology.—A very realistic model of Trinidad Asphalt Lake and its environs, a series of colored transparencies and photo^ graphic enlargements, and a complement of specimens typifying the 44 Al^KXTAL HEPORT SMITHSOKIAK INSmUTIOK, 1916. different forms of asphalt occurrence as well as the useful products prepared therefrom, constituted the most striking addition to the exhibits in the division of mineral technology. Next may be men- tioned a complete ore stope removed bodily, ore faces, timbering, chute, manway, and all accessories, from the Copper Queen Mine at Bisbee, Ariz. Among other important acquisitions were a model representing the layout of a Portland cement plant and the sequence of operations connected with the manufacture of cement; an industrial series of specimens covering the occurrence and uses of natural graphite, in- cluding a remarkable block of pure graphite weighing 250 pounds; a model reproducing the unique method of mining placer gravel for gold in the frozen north by a system of underground drifting or tunneling bedrock, with the ground thawed out in immediate advance of the tunnel by means of steam ; and a model of a cyanide leaching plant showing admirably the method commonly employed in the extraction of gold from its ores where the metal does not lend itself to simpler and more direct processes for its segregation. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. It is very gratifying to note that early in the year Mr. Charles L. Freer waived the condition attending his munificent gift of American and oriental art to the effect that the collection remain in his pos- session during his life, and expressed a desire that the erection of the building be taken up at the earliest possible moment. The sum required for this purpose, $1,000,000, also a donation from Mr. Freer, was turned over to the Institution in December, and the site and preliminary plans, both satisfactory to the benefactor, received later the approval of the Board of Regents of the Institution, and of the Federal Commission of Fine Arts. The site is the southwestern part of the Smithsonian reservation, at the corner of Twelfth and B Streets, S. W., and approximately two years will be required for the completion of the building, at the end of which time the transfer of the many precious objects to Washington may be expected to take place. The fact that the planning and the execution of the work of construction is in the hands of Mr. Charles A. Platt, pf New York, insures their being carried out in an eminently satisfactory manner. Since the last report Mr. Freer has increased the extent of his collection to about 5,346 items by 535 additions, of which 23 are paintings and sculptures by the American artists Tryon, Thayer, Metcalf, Murphy, and Saint-Gaudens ; while the oriental objects, ^umbering 512, consist mainly of paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea, and Japan. Mr. Freer announces con- iideirable headway in the preparation of the final catalogues, on which a number of experts of wide repute are at work. BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 46 The National Gallery of Art also received during the year from the Department of State a most interesting collection of 82 draw- ings in pencil, pen, charcoal, chalk, crayon, and water color, executed by eminent contemporary French artists and presented to the people of the United States^by the citizens of the French Eepublic as a token of their appreciation of the sympathetic efforts of American citizens toward relieving the distress occasioned by the European war. There should likewise be mentioned an oil portrait of Abraham Lincoln, by George H. Story, presented by Mrs. 1^. IT. Ilarriman. MEETINGS AND CONGRESSES. The auditorium and committee rooms in the new building were utilized to a much greater extent than in any previous year for scientific and art meetings, lectures, and other functions. Three of the local societies made the Museum their regular meeting place, among these being the Washington Society of the Fine Arts, which presented its customary three courses of lectures. Annual or special meetings were held by the National Academy of Sciences, the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, the Society of American Foresters, the American Oriental Society, and the American Surgical Association. Lectures, singly or in short series, were given under the auspices of 10 of the science and art societies, and 6 receptions were held in connection with large gatherings of national and inter- national bodies. Among the special meetings there were several which merit dis- tinctive mention. The most important of these was the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists which met from December 27 to 31, in affiliation with Section I of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress, then also in session in Washington, the American Anthropological Association, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Historical Association, and the Archaeological Institute of America. On the afternoon of February 9 a bronze tablet in memory of Prof. S. F. Baird as the instigator of the Federal fishery service, a contribution to the Bureau of Fisheries by 47 subscribers, was dedicated in the auditorium with appropriate ceremonies in the presence of a large assemblage. During the week of the safety-first exhibition, February 21-28, the auditorium was occupied on five days for lectures and discourses on the subjects comprehended by this notable display, nearly all of them being profusely illustrated, both motion pictures and lantern slides being used. The speakers, besides the Secretary of Labor and several assistant secretaries of departments, were all experts in the several bureaus represented. The exercises attending the centenary celebration of the organization of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 46 Al^NUAL SMITHSOKIAK INSTItlTTlOK, 1916* held in the auditorium on April 5 and 6, consisted of an exposition of the work of this, the first scientific service of the Government, by eminent authorities who had been invited to speak upon those phases of the Survey’s activities with which they are best acquainted. The American Association of Museums held its eleventh annual meeting in Washington from May 15 to 18, and the American Federa- tion of Arts its seventh annual convention from the 17th to the 19th of the same month. IVhile only one session of the former and none of the latter was held in the Museum, a reception was tendered to both on the evening of May 17, ^\hen an important loan exhibition of the industrial arts was opened with a special view. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS. The educational effoi-ts of the Museum were most notably served by several large and important special exhibitions. Supplementing the arrangements for the meetings of the Congress of Americanists and affiliated societies during convocation week, an interesting installation was made of material relating to pertinent subjects. During the w^eek of February 21-27 the foyer, with three of its communicating rooms, was occupied by one of the most remarkable and interesting Government exhibitions that has ever been assembled. Having as its theme the safety-first ” idea, it was participated in by 20 bureaus, the American National Red Cross Society, and the Metro- politan police department, the activities of all of which are primarily for or comprehend in a marked degree the safeguarding of life and property, as well as the prevention and care of disease. Although the available area was restricted the display proved most effective and satisfactory, as it was also comprehensive, probably nothing in the Government service relating to safety first ” having escaped some representation. Attention was widely called to the exhibition in ad- vance. The governors of States were notified of the nation-wide aspect of the exposition, one of the results of which was to bring about a meeting of State mine inspectors in the Museum, and manu- facturers and operators from all over the country were invited to be present. The total attendance of visitors during the week was 35,447. The exercises commemorating the centenary of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, held on April 5 and 6, were supplemented by an exhibition in the foyer, the purpose of which was to illustrate the appliances and methods used and the results obtained in both its marine and geodetic work during the 100 years of its existence. The material was admirably selected and arranged, constituting 6ne of the most complete and instructive special displays ever installed in the Museum. BEPOBT OF THE SEOEETAEY. 47 The models and drawings submitted in competition for the monu- ment at Fort McHenry, Baltimore, in memory of Francis Scott Key, author of the ‘‘ Star-Spangled Banner,” and the soldiers and sailors who participated in the battle of North Point and the attack on Fort McHenry in the War of 1812, were arranged in the rotunda of the new building, where, after having been passed upon by the jury of awards, they were exhibited to the public from May 17 to June 17. The exhibition of American industrial art, held during the spring and summer of 1915 under the auspices of the American Federation of Arts, was repeated as a feature of the seventh convention of this association, being opened on May 17, lOlG, and continuing for one month. The foyer and five of its communicating rooms were occu- pied. The exposition was designed to bring together examples of art on industrial lines, both hand and machine made, to show what is being produced in this country, and though not exhaustive in any particular, some of the best-known art workers of the country par- ticipated, and it was felt that a fairly high standard had been maintained. Following the close of the Panama-Pacific International Exposi- tion on December 4, and in accordance wuth an act of Congress, a large part of the Museum’s ethnological exhibit was transferred from San Francisco to the Panama-California International Exposition at San Diego, to be shown there until the end of the calendar .year 1916. The selection made for this purpose consisted of four large family groups of Eskimo, Zulu-Kaffirs, Caribs, and Dyaks; miniature dwelling groups of aboriginal peoples in many parts of the world; four cases of artifacts; and a set of lithographs from Gatlin’s North American Indian paintings. MISCELLANEOUS. Duplicate material to the extent of over 7,000 specimens, classified and labeled for teaching purposes and arranged in 96 sets, was dis- tributed to schools and colleges, the subjects principally represented being rocks, minerals, ores, fossils, and recent mollusks. For obtain- ing additions to the collections through the medium of exchange, about 9,400 duplicates, chiefly from the natural-history divisions, were utilized. A large number of specimens were sent for study to collaborators of the Museum and other specialists. They consisted mainly of plants, recent animals, and fossils, and were contained in 114 lots. The attendance of visitors at the new building aggregated 316,707 for week days and 64,521 for Sundays, being a daily average of 1,012 for the former and of 1,240 for the latter. For the older Museum building, which is only open on week days, the total was 146,956 and wrWAt BBmT sMirasosiAJir tUi- ihk daily average 469. The halls in the Smithsonian building, which were closed for renovation during about five months, received 48,517 visitors. The publications of the year comprised 2 volumes of Proceedings and 4 Bulletins, besides the amiiial report and 52 separate papers belonging to the series of Pi'ocecdings and Contributions from the National Herbarium. The total distribution of Museum publications aggregated 73,798 copies. Through the addition of 1,895 volumes, 72 parts of volumes, and 2,873 pamphlets, the numlier of volumes in the Museum library was increased to 47,713, and of pamphlets and unbound papers to 79,241. Eespectfully submitted, Kichard Eathbun, Assistant Se<retary in, Charge, United States National Musevm, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. October 30, 1916. Appendix 2. EEPOET ON THE BTJEEAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY* Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1916, conducted in accordance with the provision of the act of Congress appro^cd March 3, 1015, making appropriations for the sundry ci^ il expenses of the Go^ eminent, and with a plan of operations submitted by the ethnologist in charge and approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The provision of the act authorizing the researches of the bureau is as follows: American ethnology For continuing ethnological researches among the Amer- ican Indians and the n iti\es ot ITaw iii, including the e\ca^ation and preserva- tion of arclueologic ronmins und(i the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessai j ornplo>ees and the pin chase of necessai\ books and periodi- cals, $42,000 Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge, de\ oted most of his ener- gies, as usual, to administiatne affaiis. Ilowe^ei, in pursuance of a plan for coopeiative aichcological reseaich by the Bureau of Amer- ican Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian (Heye Foundation) of New York, Mr. Hodge early in July joined Mr* George G. Heye, of the museum mentioned, in the excavation of the Nacoochee mound in White Count}, northeastern Georgia, permis- sion to investigate which vas accoided by the owner, Dr. L. G. Hardman. The Nacoochee mound is an earthwork occupied by the Cherokee Indians until early in the nineteenth century. The name “ Nacoo- chee,” howe\er, is not of Cherokee origin; at least, it is not identifi- able by the Cherokee as belonging to their language, and by no means does the word signify “ the evening star ” in any Indian tongue, one writer has claimed. The summit of the mound, which had been leveled for cultivation about 80 years ago, measured 83 feet in maximum and about 67 feet in minimum diameter; the height of the mound above the adjacent field was 17 feet 8 inches, and the circumference of the base 410 feet# These measurements are doubtless less than they were at the time the mound was abandoned by the Cherokee, as all the dimenaoni AmvAt immt mitm<mu.n wm* have Been more or less reduced by cultivation, the slop© at the base particularly having been plowed away for several feet. The mound was reared both for domicile and for cemetery purposes and was composed of rich alluvial soil from the surrounding field. Excava- tion determined that the mound was not built at one time, but evi- dently at different periods, as circumstances demanded. This was shown plainly by the stratification of the mound soil, the occurrence of graves at different depths with undisturbed earth above them, the presence of fire pits or of evidences of fires throughout the mound at varying levels, and by the finding of a few objects derived from the white man in the upper part and in the slopes of the mound, but not in the lower levels. From this last observation it is evident that the occupancy of the mound extended well into the historical period, a fact supported by the memory of the grandparents of present resi- dents of the Nacoochee Valley, who recalled the mound when the Cherokee Indians still occupied it and the surrounding area. The fact that the mound was used for burial purposes is attested by the finding of the remains of 75 individuals during the course of the excavations, the graves occurring from slightly beneath the summit to a dex)th of about 19 feet, or below the original base of the mound. These graves, with few exceptions, were unmarked, and in most instances were not accompanied with objects of ceremony or utility. The exceptions were those remains with which were buried stone implements, shells or shell ornaments, a smoking pipe, a pot- tery vessel, or the like. The skeletons were found usually with the head pointed in an eastwardly direction, and were all so greatly de- composed that it was imix)ssible to preserve any of them for measure- ment and study, the bones in most cases consisting of only a pasty mass. As mentioned above, most of the burials were unmarked. The exceptions consisted of two graves incased and covered with slabs of stone, both unearthed near the very base of the mound. On© of these stone graves contained a skeleton the bones of which were largely of the consistency of com meal, owing to the ravages of insects, but what was lacking in the remains themselves was more than compensated by the finding near the skull of a beautiful effigy vase of painted pottery, the only piece of painted ware, whole 6r fra^gmentary, found in the entire mound. The occurrence of this |type of vessel and the presence of the stone graves at the bottom of |h^ mound suggest the possible original occupancy of the site by other than the Cherokee. |U|5ariiaps the most remarkable feature of the mound was the latge of' smoking pipes of pottery, mostly broken, but in many of varying degrees of workmanship. Some of the pipe^ OXOellelft texture and are highly ornamented with convem bufoet of *mE sboeexaey- R1 tionalized figures of birds, etc., or marked with incised designs. Sm- other feature of the mound was the presence of a great amount of broken pottery, especially in the refuse at the base and covering the slopes. This pottery is chiefly of fine texture, although some of the cooking vessels are of coarse ware. With the exception of the painted vessel above noted, the only ornamentation applied by the makers of the pottery consists of incised and impressed designs, the latter made usually Avith a paddle of clay or wood, or worked out in the moist ware before firing by means of a pointed tool, a spatula, a piece of cane, or a shell. In pursuance of another plan of cooperatiA^e a rrheological research, Mr. Hodge, in October, visited Zuni, N. Mex., Avnth Mr. Heye, for the purpose of examining the ruins of the histone pueblo of Hawikuh, in the Zufii Valley southwest of Zuhi pueblo, and of making the nec- essary arrangements Avith the Indians for its excavation. This site is of great archeological and historical interest, as the pueblo was in- habited AAhen first seen by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539, and when visited and stormed by Coronado in the folloAving year. It became the site of an important Franciscan mission in 1629, and Avas finally abandoned in 1670 on account of depredations bv hostile Indians. By reason of the fact that Hawikuh Avas inhabited continuously from prehistoric times until 130 years after the opening of the historical period, it is expected that a thorough study of its rums aauII shed important information on the effect of the eailiest Spanish contact with the Zuni people and will supplement archeological A\ork con- ducted in other a illage sites of that tribe. Oaa mg to unforeseen cir- cumstances, actiAe work was not commenced before the close of the fiscal year, but it is hoped that its initiation will not be long delayed. A permit therefor has been granted by the Secretar}^ of the Interior. ^ By provisional agreement with the School of American Archae- ology at Santa Fe, N. Mex., and the Koyal Ontario Museum of Archaeology at Toronto, plans were perfected whereby the Smith- sonian Institution, in conjunction with those establishments, was to conduct archeological researches of an intensive character in the Chaco Canyon of northern New Mexico, one of the most important culture areas noith of Mexico. Although every effort was made to obtain from Congress the necessary appropriation for meeting the Institution’s share of the expense (a permit for the excavations hav- ing been issued by the Secretary of the Interior), the project was presented too late for action, hence the work, so far as the Smith- sonian Institution is concerned, has been necessarily postponed. As opportunity offered, the preparation of the bibliography of the I^Ueblo Indians was continued by Mr, Hodge, who also represented the Smithsonian Institution as a member of the United Stat^ graphic Board, and the Bureau of American Ethnolo^ at the meet* 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. ings of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publi- cation. Dr. J. Walter Fewkos, ethnologist, having been detailed to con- tinue the excavation and repair of prehistoric ruins in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., under the joint auspices of this Bureau and the Department <jf the Interioi*, left Washington for that locality in August, lf)ir>, and remained in tlie park continuously until the close of October. Dr. Fewkes devoted his atiention mainly to a large mound of stones and earth situated near the point of a promontory opposite CJKF Pahnay across Clilf Canyon, tlie excavation of which revealed a type of stiucture liitherto niiknovni in the Mesa Verde National Ikirk, and architecturally ditrerent from any tliat had been previously excavated in the Sontliwest. Tlie rooms of this building, whicli l)i‘. Fewkes designates as KSun Temple,” were thoroughly cleared out, the debris removed, and the walls were repaired in such manner that they will not be likely to deteriorate for many years. A report on tlie work of excavation and on the structural features of this interesting building forms the subject of an illustrated ])ami>hlet published by the De[)artnieut of tlie Interior in rlune, 191(), under the title Excavation and repaii* of Sun Tenijde. Mesa \'ei-dc National Park.” Sti'ueturally the Sun T(uni)le consists of two ])arts—an original building, to which an annex is so united as to give the two a D- shaj)e ground ])laii, tlie sontliern or straight wall of wliicli extends almost exactly east-wi-st. This wall measures l‘U feet 7 Indies in length; the highest wall of the siruduro is 11 feet 7 indies, the lowest 5 feet. The walls :ne massivia varying in thickness from 2 to 5 feet, and arc composed of a (‘ore of rubble faced on both sides, the exposed stones ha\ing Dhui carefully fashioned by hand and accurately fitted, allhongh, as in the case of ])ueb]o masonry gen- erally, the stones are usually neitiier ‘^liroken” at the joints nor bonded at the corners. Nevertheless tlie walls of the Sun Temple display excellent structural (jualities that will compare favorably wdth any of its class north of JNhcxico. Ardiitectually the annex re- sembles certain toverdike structuiTS in the ancient pueblo region, and in plan tlie whole ruin bears resemblance also to Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Oanyon, N. Mex. The building contains three circular rooms resembling kivas, or ceremonial chambei s, still used by some of the Pueblo Indians, and many other rooms of unusual sliape and doubtful significance. There was no indication that the Sun Temple had been roofed; indeed, there is sti'ong evidence that the construction of the buildings was never finished. Dr. Fewkes was not able to determine the age of the Sun Temple, but he is of the opinion that it was built later EEPOET OP THE SECEETAEY. 63 than Cliff Palace. One evidence of its antiquity, however, was observed, namely, a cedar tree growing from the top of the highest walls was found to have BGO annual rings of growth, indicating that it sprouted a few years after Coronado led his expedition into the Southwest in 1540. The builders of the Sun Temple are supposed by Dr. Fewkes to have been the former clilF dwellers of the neighboring canyons. As to its purpose, he is of the opinion tliat the building was used pri- marily for worship, but that like other tcm])les among primitive l^eoples it was intended secondarily as a place of refuge in case of attack, and for the storage of provisions. The iTn])ression of a fossil palm leaf on tlie corner stone at the southwestern angle is believed to mark a shrine where rites to the sky or sun god were ])erformed long before the tcjiiple was built. It is this supposed shrine that sug- gested the name for the edifice. On the completion of the excavation and repair of the Sun Temple, Dr. Fewkes similarly treated Oak-tree House, a cliff dwelling in the precipice of Fewkes Canyon above which stands the Sun Temple. A collection of artifacts found in this dwelling was gathered in the course of the excavation and later deposited in the National Museum. Ell route to Washington, Dr. I\*wkes visited the so-called ‘‘ Buried City of the Panhandle,-' on Wolf Creek in Ochiltree County, Tex., which had been reported to the bureau l)y residents of the neighbor- hood and had become locally celebrated. The remaijis examined hai’dly justify the name giA^en to the site, which in foi’iner days was used as an encainpmeiit by wandering Indians ratlier than by sed- entary peo])le. Dr. Fewkes’s attention was drawn also to a supposed artificial Avail which gave name to Pockwall, not far from Dallas, Tex., but on examination this was found to be a natural sandstone formation. Dr. Fewkes returned to Washington in November and immedi- ately prepared a report on his summer's work in the Mesa Verde National Park for the use of the Department of the Interior, an advance summary of Avhich, issued by the department, Avas Avidely published in the ncAA^spapers. An account of the excavation and repair of Oak-tree House and Painted House, the largest cliff ruins in Fewkes Canyon, was also piTpared for publication. On the com- pletion of these tasks Dr. FeAvkes devoted the remainder of his lim- ited time to the preparation of the extended memoir on The Abo- rigines of the West Indies for publication in a report of the bureau. In June he again departed for the field with the vieAV of initiating, before the close of the fiscal year, an inquiry into the archseological evidences bearing on Hopi legends that ancestors of the clans of the ancient pueblo of Sikyatki lived at Tebungki, or Beshbito,#an oval ruin 15 miles cast of Kearns Canyon, Ariz. Dr. Fewkes visited and 1910 0 64 AITNUAL UEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITXr:^ON, 1916 . surveyed the ruin and made photographs and notes tliereof. He likewise investigated certain largo ruins east of Tehungki, on the ancient trail of migration from Chaco Canyon, and traced for some distance the prehistoric trail running from San Juan Valley south- ward past the great ruins, as yet undescribed, near Crownpoint, N. Mex. During the months of July to December, 1915, Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, continued to devote most of his attention to the prepar- ation for publication of the Cherokee Sacred Formulas, including transliteration, translation, and explanation of each formula, with complete glossary and botanic index. These formulas, collected by Mr. Mooney on the East Cherokee Reservation in North Carolina, are written in the Cherokee language and alphabet and held for their own secret use by priests of the tribe, most of them long since dead. They consist of prayers, songs, and prescriptions, dealing with medicine, love, hunting, fishing, agriculture, war, the ball play, self-protection, etc. They number in all between 500 and 560, con- tained in several manuscripts, as follows; 1 . Qadiywanasti ("Bolt,” died 1888).—186 in a large blank book of foolscap size, aiul 1)4 others on separate slieets of the same size, closely written; 280 In all. Obtained from Ids son. 2. A'yufiini (“ ^riWiuimer," died 1899).—Written in an unpaged blank book of 242 pages, 3i by 12 inches, only partially filled ; 137 in all. Obtained from him» self and transliterated and translated with full explanation from his distution in 1888. 3. A'waniia (“Young Deer/' died about 1892).—24 written on separate sheets and obtained from iiim in 1888, Tiainscribed later into No 4. 4. Tslskwa (“ Dird,” died 1889).—22, dictated from deathbcMl and with other formulas written out in regular fashion, witli ind(‘x, in a ]>lank book of 2tK) pages, 8 by 1,0 inches, by Iiis nephew, W. W. Long ( Will west!), in 1889. 5. DaywafiJti (“Catawba Killer,” died about 181K). Written out from his dictation by W. W. Long, in No. 4, in 1889 ; 11 in all. G. Gahuni (died 18G6).—30 in all, together with a Cherokee-English vocabu- lary in Cherokee characters and other miscellany, contained in an unpaged blank book, G by 14 inches. Obtained in 1889 from his widow, Ayflsta, mother of W. W. X.ong. 7. Other formulas originally written by Inkli (“Black Fox,” died about 1880), YanOgftlegi (“Climbing Bear,” died 1904, Ddninaii (“Tracker,” still living), Ayksta (“Spoiler,” died 1916), Aganstata (“Groundhog Meat,” still living), and others; mostly transcribed into No. 4. 8. A large number of dance songs, ceremonial addresses, Civil War letters from Cherokee in the Confederate service, council records, etc., all in the Cherokee language and characters, contained in various original blank book manuscripts and letter sheets. Some of these have been transcribed into No. 4, and many of them might properly appear with the Sacred Formulas. Of all this material, about 150 formulas, including the entire Swimiper book, No. 2, were transliterated, translated, and anno- tated and glossarized, with Swimmer’s assistance, in 1888-89. Of BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 these, 28 specimen formulas were published in 1891 in Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” in the Seventh Annual Report of the bureau. The manuscript glossary for the whole 150 formulas num- bers about 2,000 words. All the other formulas, together with the more important miscel- lany noted under No. 8, were transliterated and translated with inter- linear translation in tlie summers of 1911-14, together with such additional explanation as might be furnished by surviving experts. Also some 500 or GOO plants noted in the medical |)rescriptions have been collected in field, with their Cherokee names and uses, and the botanic identilication made hy assistance (>f tlie botanists of the National Museum. This entire body, exclusive of No. 2 completed, is now in process of final transcription and elaboration, with explana- tion, botanic appendix, and glossary. Most of the work at present is being devoted to the Gadigwanasti manuscript, but the interdepend- ence of the formulas necessitates fi*eqiient shifting from one to another. The glossary proceeds incidentally with the final transla- tion, but more slowlv^ as the full import of tlie words becomes mani- fest, Many of the words and expressions are technical, symbolic, and in arcliaic and unusual dialectic forms, with corresponding difliculty of interpndution. The conijilete glossary will probably comprise at least 4,000 words. The botanic section will consist of a list of all the plants used in the formulas, as stated, and of some others of special importance, with their Indian names and meanings, botanic identification, and Cherokee uses as deduced from the vai-ious formulas and from direct information. An explanation of the method and significance of the ceremony, the preparation of the medicine and the manner of its application will accompany each formula, but this work is deferred to the end, to insure symmetrical treatment without unnecessary repetition. It is planned to have one or more introductory chapters explana- tory of the Cherokee mythology, beliefs relating to the spiritual and occult world, ceremonial observances, initiation of hunters, and other matters illustrative of the formulas, together with parallels from other tribal systems, and also a chapter explanatory of the peculiar linguistic forms. More than 200 formulas have received final form. The finished work will fill at least one large report volume and I'equire a year for completion. In July and August, 1915, Mr. Mooney gave considerable time to furnishing information and suggestions for the proposed Sequoya statue intended to constitute Oklahoma’s contribution to the Capitol gallery. The usual number of letter requests for miscellaneous in- formation also received attention. AKKUAL REPORT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. On May 27 Mr. Mooney proceeded to western North Carolina for the purpose of continuing his Cherokee studies, and at the close of the fiscal year was still in the field. Dr. Jolin R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted the greater j^art of the year to his memoirs pertaining to the Creek and associated tribes, to which reference ivas made in the last reporL The first of these, dealing with the habitat and classification of the former Southeastern Indians, their history and population, is nearly completed; it consists of u])waid of 750 typewritten pages, e\^'lusi\e of the ])i])liography, all of vhich lias been put in order and annotated. Some new" manu- script sources of information ha\e recenth becui discovered whicli will make further additions necessarv, I)ut with this exception the text is now^ complete. Six maps are to lie used in illustration; tw'o of these, wdiich are entirety newy are now being made, and the others are to be reproductions. The second paper, to co\ er the social oi'gani- nation and social customs of the Cieeks and tlieir neighbors, has likewise been arranged and annotated, but it is being hehl in order to incorporate tlu^ results of further field research. From the end of September until the latter paid of Noveunber, 1915, Dr. Swanton was in Oklahoma, wher(‘ he collected 1 ])ages of Natchez text from one of the three sur^i^iIIg sjiealcers of the lan- guage; lie also spent about three weeks among the Crc'clc Indians, where about 80 pages of myths in English wxnv })ioeured. Further ethnological mateiial was also obtained from the Cieelvs and fi*om the Chickasaw, to whom a ])relimijiary \)sit was made. While w’ith the former jieople Dr. Swanton perfe(‘te<l arrangements w i(b a }ouiig man to fnrni'-h texts in the nati\e language, which he is able to W’rite fluently, and in this way 173 ])ages lia\e been submitted, not including translation. From Judge (1. AV. (Iraysou, (»f Eufaula, Okla., to whom the luircau has biMui core taiitly imkhied in jnauy ways, wuis obtained in Creek and English, and aEo in the foim of a dictaphone ipcorj, a speech of the kind forrnei’ly delivered at tlie annual poslcifa^ or busk, ceremony of tlie Creeks. From an Alibamn correspondent, referred to in pre\ious reports, some additions to the Alibamu vocabulary and a fiwv pages of Alibamu text w^cre procured. At the beginning of the ii^cal year Mr. J. N. B. IIcAviti, ethnolo- gist, transcribed and edited the Seneca text Dooa’dane'goy’ and Hotkwisdadege'''’a; making 15 pages, to w"hich he added a literal interlinear translation that i^equired more than twice as many Eng- lish words as Indian, the whole being equivalent to about 130 pages. This text is a part of the Seneca material now in press for the Thirty-second Annual Report of the bureau. Mr. Ilewdtt aho read for correction, emendation, and expansion, the galley proofs of Cur- tin’s Seneca material, and prepared more than 50 pages of notes and additions for the introduction and also for the text; he also has r(?ady REPORT OP THE SEORETAEt. 67 notes and corrections for the proofs still to come. From unedited text Mr. Hewitt completed a free translation of 32 pages of the Onon^ (Inga version of the reqnickening address” of the Eitiial of Con- dolence of the League of the Iroquois, being a part of the material for his projected memoir on the Iroquois League. After the material of the Seneca legends had been submitted for printing, Mr. Curtin’s held records and notes, made while recording this material, cnme into possession of the bureau. Mr. Hewitt de- voted much time to reading and examining tliis undigested material, some 1,000 pages, for the pur})ose of ascertaining whether part of it should be utilized for printing or for illustrative purposes in wdiat wuis already in type. This examination yielded some good material for notes and interpi'ctations, but only small retui-n as to new ma- terial for printing. In the early autumn Mr. Hewitt made special ])reparations for the prosecution of held w ork on his ])roj(‘cted memoir on the League of the li‘0 (iu()ls, by tentative editing and co])yIng of a number of Mohawdv and Onondaga texts recoi-ded liastily in tlie field in pre- vious years, 'Fhe following paiLs of the Ritual (vf the Condolence Council were thus typewritten: The fore ])art of the Ceremony of Condolence, called Leside-The- Forest,” or 'CI)eside-The-Thicket,” in IMolnnvk; tlie so-calhal '' Re(juickening Address,” in the Onondaga version, and also the explanatoiy ‘Ontrodudion ” and the ^Ocply” in Onondaga to the ^MJeside-The-Forest ” address already noted; and the installation address in Onondaga, made by Dekanawida to the last tw o Seneca leaders to join the ricague, wais likewise edited and typewritten. Mi*. Hewitt also devoted much study to other parts of the League material, for tlie purpose of being aide to dis- cuss it intelligently and crilically with native informants. Some of the most striking results of this year's field wTirk are due to this preparatory study of the matei’ial already in hand. Mr. Hewhtt spent many days in the ollice in searching out and {)re])aring data for replies to con;es])ondeTds of the buicau. On April 17, Mr. Hewitt left IVasliington for the Six Nations reserve neai* Lrantford, Ontario, for the ])urpose of resuming field w^ork, having in view primarily the putting into final form of the Onondaga and Molunvk texts pertaining to the League of the Iro- quois, jccorded in former ye^ii's. These texts cover a wvidc rapge of subjects and repi'csent the first serious attempt to record in these languages very technical and highly figurative language from per- sons unaccustomed to dictate connected texts for recording. These text embody laws, decisions, rituals, ceremonies, and constitutional principles; hence it is essential that correct verbal and grammatic forms bo given. 58 BVTOM &M1THSOSIAN INSTITUTIOK, WIO. One of the most important results of Mr. Hewitt’s held studies is the demonstration that, contrary to all available various printed accounts, there were never mo e than id h-deral civil chiMs of the League of the Iroquois, and that the nunjer aO, due to misconception of the meaning of ordinary terms by Thoma. Webster of the New York Onondaga, who died about SO years ago, is modern and nnhistorical. This false leaching has gamed credence because it arose only after the dissolution of the integrity of t o League of tlie Iroquois in the years following its wars with the United States, when most of the tribes became dividei , some remov- ing to Canada and some, remaining in New York State, a condition which naturally fostered new interpretations and newer versions ot older legends and traditions. Mr. Hewitt also recorded a Cayuga version of the so-called Dekan- awida tradition, comprising h‘]0 pages of text, dictated- by Chief John H. Gibson, which purports to relate the events that led to the founding of the League or Confederation of the 1^ ive Iroi^uois tiibes and the part taken therein by the prlnc/ipal actors. Tu this inter- esting version Dekanawida is known only by the epiihet ^‘The Fatlierless,’- or literally “He AVho is Fathei’less,” wliich empliasizes the prophecy that he would he born of a \’irgin. In this \eisioil “The Fatherless'’ is reiiresented as (establishing among the Cayuga tribesmen the exnet loi’m ol g()\'(*rimient that later he foun(le<l among the Five Tr(K|iiois ti*ibes. It is said Unit tlie Cayuga selfishly limited the sco]>e of that form of goveimnieiit, and t herefore its benefits, to the Cayuga, people alone, for the Cayuga statesmen did not conceive of its apj)licahility to tlie athiirs and welfare of all men. And so, this tradition alllrms, it became needful that “ llie bather- less” return to the neighboi* tribi!S of the Cayuga to estublisli among them the League of the Five Tribes of the Iroquois, which was de- signed to be shared by all the tribes of riKui. This event is men- tioned in the other Dekanawida vei^sions. This C'ayuga version also purports to ox])lain the origin of the dualism lying at tlie foundation of all public institutions of Iroquois peoples, by attributing the first such organization among the Cayuga to two persons who were related to each other as “ I ather and Son,” or “Mother and Daughter,” and who agreed to conduct public affairs jointly. This statement of course is somewhat wide of the mark," because it does not explain the existence of similar dualisms among other tribes such dualisms resting commonly, in the social organization, on the dramatization of the relation of the male and female principles in nature. Mr. Hewitt was also able to confirm another radical exegesis of a part of the installation ceremony of the League of the Iroquois as first proposed by himself. This deals with the significance and KEPOllT OF THE SECKETAKY. 59 the correct translation of the words of the famous “Six Songs” of this ceremony. All other interpreters who have attempted to trans- late these words have assumed that these songs are “ songs of greeting and welcome,” but Mr*. Hewitt, solely on grammatic grounds and the position of these songs,* regards them rather as “ songs of parting,” or “ songs of farewell,” whicli are dramatically sung by an imperson- ator for tlie dead chief or chiefs. Mr. Hewitt also recorded, in the Onondaga dialect, a sliort legend descriptive of tire tJiree Air or Wind Beings or (iods, the so-called IIo]1du'’i, the patrons of the Wooden-mask or “False- face” Society, whose chief function is the exorcism of disease; out of the community and out of the bodies of ill persons; another on the Medicine Flute; another on the Husk-mask Society; and another on the moccasin game used at the wake for a dead chief: in all moi'e than 100 pages of text not related to the material dealing witli the lro(|uois Ixargiie. While in the field Mr. Ibiwitt purcliased a number of fine specimens illustrating Iroquois culture, exhibiting art of a bigli order: these consist of a wooden mask, colored blruik; a husk-mask; two small drums; a “ medicine tiute; a moccasin game used at a chiefs wake; a pair of deer-hoof j*atlles; a horn rattle*; and a sejuash rattle. During the time lie was in the lield, until the close of the fiscal year, Mr. Hewitt read, studied, corrected, and annotated about 8,000 lines of text other than that mentioned above, and also made a number of photographs of Indians. Mr. 1^^ rancis La Idesclie,ellinologist, was engaged in assembling his notes on the rites of the Osage tribe. V\> to the mouth of February, 280 pages of the ritual of the Fasting degree of the war rites were finished, completing that degree, wliicli comprises 4.02 pages. The (^kithadse, or Rush-mat degree, was next taken up and completed; this degree covers 104: pages. The Child-naming ritual was then coimncnced, and 21 })ages ha ve been finished. In September, while on leave of absence, Mr. La Flesche was visited on the Omaha reservation by Xutha Wato'd" of the Tsizhu Wano” gens, who gave a description of the Washabe Athi"^, or war ceremony, as he remembered it. With this description he ga\e o wigie and 14 songs. The wigie and the words of the songs liave been tran- scribed from the dictaphone but are not yet typewritten, and the music of the songs has not yet l>ceu transcribed. A number of stories also were obtained from Xutlui Wato'd”, among them that of the Osage traditional story of the separation of the Omaha and Osage tribes. Xiithii Wato^i*^ died soon after his return home, liis death being regarded by many as confirming the old-time belief that anyone who recites informally the rituals associahHl with these cere- monies will inevitably suffer dire punishment. The death of this old 60 annual BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. man shortly after giving the rituals has therefore added to the diffi- culties attending the task of recording these ancient rites. iSFotwithstanding these obstacles, Mr. La Hesche succeeded, during his visit to the Osage Eeservation in April and May, in securing from old Slio"'genio''i" the version of the Fasting ritual belonging to the Tsizhu Peace gens, of v;^hich he is a member. The wigic and the words of the songs have been transcribed from the dictaphone, but are not yet typewritten, and the music of the songs is also to be transcribed. Sho”'gemo"i” likewise gave the Child-naming ritual belonging to his gens, in which there are two wigie, one containing 227 lines and the other 94. In addition to these rituals, Sho'"'- gemo^i", after considerable hesitancy, recounted the “ Seven and Six” (13) coups he is always called on to recount when any No'^'hC'zhi^ga of the Ilo'''ga division ])erforms the ceremonies of some of the war rites. For this service he is paid a horse and goods amounting in value fj*om $125 to $150. Mr. La Flesche also se(‘iired from IVhixthizhi information concem- ing the duties of the two hereditary chiefs of the Osage tribe, the geiites from which they were chosen, and how their orders were enforced. lie also obtained from Watsemo“i’^ two wigie, one recited by him at the ceremonies of the war rites, and the other by the N()''ho"zhi"ga of the H6"ga Ahiuto" gens. In these studies Mr. La Flesche was materially assisted by Washoshe and liis wife, who have both overc^ome their aversion to telling of the rites. Washoshe resigned from the ]SF(V‘ho"zhi"ga order because of the injustice of its members toward a woman whom he selected to weave ceT’emonially the rush-mat shrine for a waxobe when he w^as taking the (^athadse degree. This man presented to Mr. La Flesche a mnemonic stick owned by liis father and gave the titles of the groups of lines marked on the stick, each of which represents a group of songs. This mnemonic stick will be placed in the National Museum with the Osage collection. Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the entire fiscal year in making an exhaustive study of the Indians of the Chumashan lin- guistic stock of southern California. Three different bases have been established for* working with informants and elaborating the notes. The period from July to October, inclusive, was spent at San Diego, Cal, where every facility for the work was granted by the courtesy of the Panama-California Exposition; November to March, inclusive, at the Southwest Museum, Los Angeles; and April to June, inclusive, at Santa Ynez. The month of January, 1916, was spent at Berkeley, Cal., where, through the courtesy of the Ban- croft Library of the University of California, various linguistic manuscripts and historical archives pertaining to the Chumashan stock were studies and copied. During the period named more thsm BEPOET OP THE SECEETAET. 61 300,000 words of manuscript material were obtained and elab- orated. In addition to the grammatical and ethnological material an exhaustive dictionary of the Ventureho is well under way, which comprises some 8,000 cards. This is to be followed by similar dic- tionaries for the other dialects. The most satisfactory feature of the work was tlie colle(*tion of material on the supposedly extinct dialects of San Luis Obispo and La Purisima. The Purisimefio material consists mainly of words and corrected vocabularies, wliile on the Obispeho important grammatical material was also obtained. A large part of the material which still remains to be obtained de- pends on the life of two \'ery old informants, consexpieiitly it is most important that Mr. Harrington continue his work in this immediate field until the opportunities are exhausted. The beginning of the fiscal year found Dr. Truman Michelson, eth- nologist, at Tama, Iowa, (uigaged in continuing his researches among the Fox Indians, which consisted mainly of recording sociological data and ritualistic origin myths. In August, Dr. Michelson pro- ceeded to Oklahoma for the puri)ose of investigating the sociology and phonetics of the Sauk Indians, as well as of obtaining transla- tions of Fox texts |>ertaining especially to ritualistic origin myths. After successfully concluding this work, Dr. Michelson returned to Washington in October, when he commenced the translation of the textual material gathered in the field. Advantage Avas taken of the presence in Washington of a deputation of Piegan in obtaining a de- tailed knoAvledge of Piegan terms of relationship. From these studies Dr. Michelson deimmined that the lists of relationship terms recorded Lewis II. Morgan, as well as by other investigators, re- quire revision. He also commenced to arrange the material gathered by the late Dr. William Jones i)ertaining to the ethnology of the Ojibwa Tribe, with a view of its puhlicalion as a bulletin of the bureau. Toward the close of the year Dr. JMichelson undertook to restore phonetically the text of the White Buffalo dance of the Fox Indians, which likewise is intended for bulletin publication. It is believed that the results of this task will be ready for the printer before the (‘lose of the calendar year. Dr. Leo J. Fraehtenberg, spe(‘ial ethnologist, di\dde(l his time, as in previous years, bdween field research and office Avork. On July 8 he left his Avinter heachjuarters at the TTnited States training schcK)l at ChemaA\ a, Oreg., and proceeded to the Yakima Reservation, Wash., where he revised, Avith the aid of the last Atfalati Indian, the Kalapuya manuscript material collected in 1877 by the late Dr. A. S. Gatsebet of the bureau. This material, comprising 421 manuscript pages, consists of vocables, stems, grammatical forms, and ethno- logical and historical narratives, and its revision marked the comple- 6^ AHKUAL llEPOKT SMITHSOKIAK INSTTXUTIOK, 1016. tion of the work on the Kalapnya linguistic family commenced two summers ago. This work lasted until the latter part of July. In conjunction with this particular phase of field work, Dr. Frachten- berg corrected the second revision of the galley proofs of his Siuslaw grammatical sketch to appear in the second part of Bulletin 40. On returning to Chcmawa, Dr. Frachteiiberg took up the editing and typewriting of his grammatical sketch of the Alsea language, the compilation of which was completed during the previous winter; this was finished in the early part of October, and the complete sketch, consisting of 158 sections and 421 typewnfitten pages, was submitted for publication in the second part of the Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bulletin 40). Dr. Fi’achtenberg interrupted this work on August 22 and took a short trip to the Siletz Reservation, wdiere he collected 52 Athapascan and Sliastan songs, which were transmitted to the bureau for future, analysis. On October 7 he proceeded to the Quileute Reservation, where he enlisted the services of a Quileute informant, with whom he returned to Chemawui and brought to a successful coni])letion the stmly of the grammar and mythology of the Quileute Tribe. This investigation extended from October until th(‘ lattei* ])art of March. The material collected by Dr. Fi*a(*htenl)erg diu'ing this period (‘onsists of 30 native myths and traditions fully li auslated, a large body of notes to these texts, voluminous grammatical forms, and vocables. In Janu- ary Dr. Fi’aclitenbeig left (diemawa foi* a short trij) to tlie Grand Ronde Reservation, Oreg., where he recorded ID Kalapuya songs on the dictapliono. As Dr. Frachtenberg’s allotment for fudd work among the Quileute was then exhausteih be was obliged to remain at Cliemawui until the close of the fiscal year. He thei'efore undertook the correction of the page proofs of bis grammatical sketch of the Siuslaw language (pp. 431--G2D), and on its completion engaged in translating, editing, and typewriting the Alsea texts collected in 1910. The editing of these texts involved much labor, since it was deemed advisable to present in the introduction a complete discussion of Alsea mythology, and a concordance beween the folklore of this tribe and the myths of the other tribes of the Pticific coast. For that purpose all the pub- lished works on the folklore of the tribes of the northwestern area were consulted, including that of the Maidu, Shasta, Yana, Klamath, Takelma, Coos, Lower Umpqua, Tillamook, Chinook, Kathlamet, Wishram, Quinault, Chilcotiii, Shuswap, Thompson River, Lillooet, Haida, Tlingit, Kwakiut],Tsimshian,Bellae(>ola, and the Athapascan Tribes of the north. This work was practically completed by the close of the fiscal year. The collection consists of 8 creation myths, 13 miscellaneous tales, 3 ethnological and historical narratives, 4 statements as to religious beliefs, and 3 tales collected in English (31 EEPOET OP THE SECEETAEY. 65 traditions in all). It comprises, in addition to the introdution, 392 typewritten pages, and will be submitted for publication as a bulletin of the bureau. SPECIAL TIESEAHCHKS. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, continued liis researches con- nected with the preparation of tbe remainder of pait 2 of tlie Hand- book of Arnei’ican Indian Languages, assisted by Dr. Hermann K. ITaeberlin, Miss H. A. Andrews, and Miss Mildred Downs, and also devoted attention to the completion of the report on Tsimshian mythology. The bulletin on Kutenai Tales,” forwhi(di galleys were received in July, 1915, has been revised twice and is nearing completion. The page proof is being extracted preparatory to the accompanying grammatical sketch and vocabulary. Through the liberality of IMr. Homer F. Sargent, of Chicago, it has been possible to do much work on the pre\)aratl(m of an extended paper on the Salish dialects, now comprising about 500 pages of manuscript. The mat(‘rial has been collecded since 1880, partly by Dr. Boas himself and partly by Mr. James Teit, tlie considerable oxpejise of the field work of Mr. Teit liaving been generously met by Mr, Sargent. In the course of the last 30 years it has l)een pos- .sible to collect vocabularies of all the Salish dialects, sufiicient to afford a clear insight into the fundamental I’clations of these dialects, a preliminary work mn‘essai*y to a moi'e thoi’oiigiii study of the lan- guage. At the same time l\Ir, Teit gathered ethnological notes which are to be included in this work. The preparation of tlie vocabularies and of the detailed coni]>arison that had been begun in previous years by Dr. Boas has been continued by Dr. Haebcrlin, the basis of this study being their manuseri|)t material and the published sources. Also through the liberality of ilr. Sargent and in cooperation with Cohiinbia ITiiiversit}^ in the citv of 2^ew York, Dr. Haeberlin will be able to supplement his material by an investigation of one of the tribes of Puget Sound. The interest of Mr. Sai'gent has also made possible a detailed study of the Salish basketry of the interior [ilatean and the preparation of the illustrations for a memoir on this subject. For the latter purpose there have been utilized the collections of tlie United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural HisHx)ry, the University Museum of Philadelphia, the Museum of the American Indian (Heyo Foundation), and the private collections of Mr. Sargent and otheTs. The preparation of a manuscript on the Ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians has been well advanced. The material for the first volume, which is to contain, data collected by Mr. George Hunt, has been completed, excluding a iiumber of translations which remain to be 64 AlsTKlTAL KEl^OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910- elaborated. According to the plan, the work is to consist of two parts, the first a collection of data furnished by Mr, Hunt in ansAver to specific questions asked by Dr. Boas; the second a discussion of them, and other data collected on previous journeys to Bintish Colum- bia. This volume is to consist of an account of the material culture, social organization, religion, and kindred subjects. Most of tlie illustrations for this volume have been completed, and about 1,000 pages of manuscript been pre[>ared. Miss Downs has made detailed extracts from Kwakiutl myths recpiired for a discussion of this subject. Miss Downs has also compared the proofs of Dr. hh'achtenberg’s Siuslaw grammar with j)ul dished texts, aud these ])r()ofs havi*. been compared and passed on by Dr. Fiau'litenborg. This W(»rk completes the revision of the Hinslaw grammar, the juddicatiou of wliieh lias been delayed OAving to various reasons. No progress has been made toward the final puhlicaition of the Chukchee grammar, as it has been inqiossible to comnninicjite with the anther, Mr. W. Bogoras, who is in Bussia, Some progress has been made with the contributions to Mexican archeology and ethnology, to be edited by I^rof. Alfred M. Tozzer, of Harvard ITniATrsity, Avitli a vicAv of tlieir pulilication by the bureau as a bulletin. Dr. Paul Badiii has furnished a manuscript on HuaA^e; Dr. Ilaeberlin has nearly completed the study of modern Mexican tales, collected by Dix r>oas and by Miss Isabel Iiamirez Castaneda; and Di*. Boas has Ix'cn engaged in the preparation of material on certain types of Mexican pottciy and on an account of a journey to Teul, Zacatecas. Prof. W. II. Holmes, of the National Museum, eomjileted for the bureau the preparation of part 1 of the Ilaiuliiook of Ameudean Antiquities (Bulletin GO), and at^the close of (lie yetir galley proofs of the entire Avork had been received and Avere in ]>rocess of revision. On account of the pressure of more urgent work in connection with his official duties, cmly limited jirogiuss Avas made in the [ireparation. of part 2. On April 21 Mr. Holmes made a brief visit to tlie museums of Philadelphia and Ncav York for the purpose of conduct- ing studies required in the preparation of this handbook. Miss Frances Densmore’s field trip dm^ing tin' summer of 1915 for the purpose of continuing her studios of Tiulian music, comprised visits to three reservations and occiqded (wo and one-half months. Most of the time was spent among (he Mandan and ITidatsa, at Fort Berthold, N. Dak., and during part of liei* sojourn Miss Densmore camped near what is recognized as the last Mandan settlement, where she was enabled to record many interesting data that could not have been obtained in any other Avay. The Indians felt more fi^ee to sing there than at the agency, and Miss Densmore also had an EEPOBT OP THE SECEETARY. 65 opportunity to observe and photograph native customs, notably those of tanning a hide and preparing corn. The study of music on the Fort Berthold Keservation included that pertaining to the ccFemony connected Avitli eagle catcliing. An old eagle trap was visited and photogra plied, and the songs of the leader in the eagle camp were recorded by the only illandan who liad the hereditary riglit to sing them. The songs of the (lOOse Women Society and the Creek AVomen Society were also sung b}' those who inherited them and were re- corded phonographically. Among these are the ceremonial songs sung by the “corn priest’’ in the spring to fructify the seed corn. Songs of war and of the various men’s societies were also recorded. The total number of songs from this reservation now transcribed exceeds IbO. A new phase of tlie work was that of ascertaining the pitch dis- crimination of tlu‘ Indians by means of tuning forks. This was be- gun at Fort Fertliold and continued for compai*ative purposes at the Standing liock and AVhite Earth lieservatioiis. Data from four tribes are now availa])le on this subject of research. Miss Densunu’e road all the galley and part of the page proofs of the bulletin on Tidon Sioux Miisica important additions were made to this ])oo]v in tlie form of gra[)]ilc representations, original plots of 210 songs and 18 diagrams having been made to exhibit the results obtained thiougb mathematical analyses. Of these graphic reprt^senlations iVo will apipear in the bulletin. One hundred and fifty {lagcs of manuscript were submitled during the year, in addition to the descriptive analyses of the songs. In the preparation of tiie Handbook of Aboriginal Eemains East of the iMississippi, Air. 1). 1. Bushiiell, jr., added much new material. Many letters ^\inv sent to county oflicials in New England requesting information regarding tlic location of ajiclent village sites, burial places, and other traces of aboriginal occupancy in their respective areas. Many of the replies contained valuable and interesting infor- mation. lA'tters of like nature were addressed to officials in the Southern Stat(‘s, and the replies were equally satisfactory. Numer- ous photograi)hs have been received from various sources, which will serve as illustrations for the handbook, but it is desired to increase the number if possible. The manuscript of the handbook will prob- ably be completed during the next fiscal year. Dr. AValter Hough, of tlu^ National Museum, was detailed to the bureau in June for the purpose of conducting archeological investi- gations in western central New Mexico, [h’oceeding to Luna, So- corro County. Dr. Hough commenced the excavation of a niin pre- viously located by him, as described in Bulletin 35 of the bureau (p. 69). This site was thought to contain evidence of pit dwellings exclusively, but excavations showed that an area of about 40 acres 66 ANXITAL report SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. contained circular, semisubterranean houses in which no stone was used for construction. Seven of the pits were cleared, and it was ascertained tliat many more existed beneath the surface, dug in the sandy substratum of the region. Burnt sections of roofing clay showed that these houses were roofed with beams, poles, brush, and mud, as in present pueblo construction. The roof was supported by wooden posts, charred remains of which were found. Nothing was ascertained respecting the construction of tlie sides of the dwell- ings or in regard to the Iieight of tlie roofs. On the floor of each of the pits uncovered were a rude metate, grinding stones, slabs of stone, and the outline of an otherwise undefiruHl firejdace not quite in the center of the chamber. A bench about a foot high and a few feet in length was cut in the wall of some of the pits, and in one of the pits, against the wall, was a fire])lace with raised sides of clay. Another type of structures adjoined the pits; these were rectan- gular, open-air houses with mud roofs, in which mealing and culinary work was carried on. Here were numerous metates, manos, rubbing stones, pottery, etc.; some of the metates were sc‘t up on three round stones. Near the pit was a cemetery in which infants were buried, the burials being associated with clay hearths and much charcoal, and near the bodies were placed small ])ottery vessels. Scrapers of flint and bones of deer were also found among the burials. So far as as- certained, flic people who used the circular semisubterranean houses had a limited range. Traces of their culture have not been found below an elevation of 7,000 feet in the mountain valley, and it appears probable that their culture was associated with an envirfronient of lakes which once existed in these valleys. It is evident in some cases that the pit dwellings were displaced by houses of stone. In most instances artifacts arc different from those of the stone-house Ijuild- ers, and the hitter have more points of resemblance to, than of differ- ence from, the ancient inhabitants of Blue River. It is })robable that the range of the pit-house people would be found to be more exten- sive b}^ excavation Jiroimd the sides of stone houses in other locali- ties, the remains of pit structures being easily obliterated by natural filling. At this time the pit-dweller culture can be affiliated only with uncertainty with that of the ancient Pueblos. At the present stage of the investigation the lack of skeletal material is severely felt, but further work may overcome this difficulty. In continuation of his preliminary examination of archeological remains in western Utah, summarized in the last annual report of the bureau (pp. 51-53), Mr. Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum, returned to Utah in June, 1916, and excavated one of the large mounds near Paragonah, in Iron County. Limited in time and handicapped by unfavorable weather, the results obtained were less than those anticipated ; nevertheless they show the similarity existing BEPOKT OF THE SECEETARY. 67 between the ancient Paragonah dwellings and those near Beaver City and neighboring settlements, and warrant the belief that the builders of these structures were more closely related to the house- building peoples of Arizona and New Mexico than has been suspected. In the report following his reconnoissance of last year, Mr. Judd drew attention to the fact that the mounds still existing near Para- gonah comprise a mere remnant of tlie large group formerly at that place and predicted the early razing of those remaining. The hurried investigation of this year was undertaken for the purpose of gaining information regarding these ruins before their destruction. One of the largest and, at the same time, one of the least disturbed mounds was selected as a type for excavation. Its dimensions were approximately 100 by 300 feet; its average height was Id feet. Two great gashes had been made through the o|)posite ends of the mound by diggings of many years ago, each cut partially exposing the walls of a single long room. Including these two dwellings, which were rcexcavated only with considerable difiiculty, Mr. Judd suc- cessfully revealed and measured the walls of 14 rectangular houses, 11 of which are entirely cleared of fallen diT)ris and earth accumula- tion. The walls of these ancient habitations, like those previouslj" examined near Beaver City, had been constructed entirely of adobe mud; in their present condition they exhibited no e\idence of the use of angular bricks or blocks similar to those employed in Pueblo structures subsequent to the Si)anish conquest. On the contrary, close examination showed that the \valls were invariably formed by the union of innumerable masses of [)lastic clay, forcial togetlier by the hands of the builders and surfaced inside and out during the process of construction. Careful inspection of the ruins showed that the dwellings w^re originally roofed in the manner typical of cliff houses and of modern Pueblo stj-uctures througliout the Southwest. No certain evidence could be found that doors or other wall openings were utilized by the primitive artisans—eacli house invariably con- sisted of a single room that apparently had been entered from the roof. One of the most important discoveries made during the course of the Paragonah excavations was that of a circular, semi- subterranean room which, with similar wuill fragments previously discovered in the Beaver City mounds, tends to establish the use of the kiva, or ceremonial chamber, by the ancient house-building peoples of w^estern Utah. On the conclusion of his studies at Paragonah, Mr. Judd proceeded to Fillmore, Willard County, for the purpose of investigating cer- tain mounds reported in that neighborhood. These and similar ele- vations near the villages of Meadow, Deseret, and Hinckley, 'were all superficially identified as of the same type and representing the same 68 akkital report Smithsonian institution, 1016. degree of culture is those above described. In all a collection of more than 500 objects was gathered during the course of the season’s work* A pleasing coincidence resulting from Mr. fTiiclcVs Fillmore investi- .gation was tlie fact that the guide he engaged had been employed in the same capacitj^ by Dr. Edward Palmer, one of the National Museum’s most indefatigable collectors, during the latter’s expedi- tion of 1872. The archeological data collected by Mr. Judd during his two brief expeditions to western XTali are sullicicnt to Avarraiit tlie extension of the northern limits of the area known to lun e been occupied by the ancient Pueblo peoples. Further work, however, is urgent, since that already accomplished has not only contributed certain valuable facts to Southwestern arclicology, but it has shown also the j)roba“ bility of finding, in the iinkjiown desert regions of tliat section, a solu- tion of some of the vital questions with which American anthropology has labored for many years. By reason of the fact that Mr. James 11. IMuric has been engaged by the American Museum of Natural Ilislory, New York City, in connection with its ethnologic researches pertaining to the Plains Indians, his work of recording (he rites and ceremonies of the Pawnee Tril>e came to a close, and tentative aiTangements lane been made whereby the American Museum will complete the investigation and the results published by the hiireaii. Dr. Clark Wissler, curator of anthropology of the Arnei'ican Mnsenm, has iindeilakcn this task. Dr A. L. Kroeber, of the ITniversity of California, continued the preparation of the Handbook of the Indians of California for pub- lication by the bui’cau, and at this writing it is believed that the manuscript, with the accompanying maps and illustrations, will be submitted for publication before tlie close of the calendar year. MANUSCRIPTS. The large collection of maniisci'ipts in |)()ssession of the bureau was augmented by the following principal items, which do not in- clude manuscripts in process of preparation by members of the bureairs staff for publication: Miami-French dictionary; photostat copy of the original in the John Carter Brown Library at Providence, R. I. A number of notebooks from Dr. A. L. Kroeber, on Gros Venti'e and Cheyenne-Arapaho linguistics and texts, These consist of: (a) Gros Ventre, 41-47, 49; (?;) Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1-14, 21-22, 24-28, and also a catalogue of this material recorded on 3,500 cards; (o) 110 pages of manuscript on the same subjects. First draft of Gatschet’s Klamath Dictionary, 177 pages, BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 69 Copies of the following manuscripts, made by photostat in the bureau by the courtesy of Rev. George Worpenberg, S. J., librarian of St. Mary’s College, St. Marys, Ivans. Catechism dans la lan^ne Potowjitdmi, A. D. 1847. Petit Catecliism on Taui^,aio Potewiitemi, A. D. ISIS. Evangel ia Dorn, and Evangelia in Festis, and portions of the Gospels read on Sundays and certain Festivals of the Saints. PITRLICATIONS. The task of editing the publications of the bureau has continued in charge of JMr. »!. G. Gurley, editor, assisted from time to time b}^ Mrs, FrancevS S. Nichols. Following is a summary for the year: 1* T J B I.K ’ A r loN S I S S IT KI). Twenty-ninth Annual Report (l.dU7-0.S). Accompanying paper: Tlie Ethno- geography of the Town Indians, hy .John Poahody Harrington. Tlurtieth Annual Kev>ort (19()S-()0). Acconu>anyiug ptipors : Ethnohotany of the Ziiui Indians tSloviMisou) ; An Iiapiiry into the Auiinisui and Folk-lore of the Guiana Indians (Uolh). Bulletin 57. An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs (Mor- U>y). BulU'tiii 02. Physicid Anthropology (»f (In' LenaiH' or DeJawares, and of the Eastern Indians in (h'lieral (Ilrdlicka). VCliLlCATIONS JN PKKSS OH t.N PUHl’ AHATION Thirty-tirst Annual Report (19()9--I0). Ar(‘oinpanying ]>aper: Tsiinshian Mythology (Boas). Thirty-second Annual Report (1910-11). Accompanying paper : Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths (collected by Jeremiah Giirtin and J. N. B. Hewitt; edited by J. H. B. Hewitt). Thirty-third Annual Report (1911-12). Accompanying papers : Designs on Pre- historic Hopi Pottery (Ftnvkes) ; Preliminary Aceount of the Antiquities of the Region between the Maiieos and La Plata Rivers in Soutliwestern Colorado (Morris) ; T^ses of Plants hy the Indians of the Nebraska Ttegion (Cilinoro) ; Mound Excavation in the Eastern Maya Area, with an Introduction dealing with the General Ouitiire of tlie Natives (Gann). Bulletin 40. Handbook of American Indian Laiiguagtvs (Bo,as). Part 2. Bulletin 55. Etlinobotany of tlie UVwa Indians (Robbins, Harrington, Freire- Marreco). Bulletin 59. Kntenai Tales (Boas). Bulletin C)0. Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities, Part 1. Intro- ductory. Tlie Litldc Industries: Mining, (Quarrying, Manufacture (Holmes). Bulletin Cl. Teton Sioux Music ( Densinorc ) The distribution of the publications of the bureau has continued in immediate chtirge of Miss Helen Munroe, of the Smithsonian Institution, and at times by Mr. E. L. Springer, assisted from the beginning of the fiscal year until his resignation on April 15 by Mr. W. A. Humphrey, and subsetpiently by Miss Lana V. Schelski. Not- withstanding conditions in Europe and tlie impossibility of sending publications abroad except to a very limited extent, 2,235 more pub- 73839”—SM 1910 *6 w AWNTJAL RiiPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. lications were distributed than during the previous fiscal year. This distribution may be classified as follows: Series. Copies. Annual rt^iorts and separates 2, 036 'Bulletins and Kseiiaratos 9,990 Oontrilnitions to Nortli Anieriean Klhnoloji^y—volume.s and separates 18 Introductions 9 Miscellaneous publications 3(57 12, 420 ILLUSTUATTONS. Mr. DeLancey Gill, illustrator, has continued in charge of the preparation oi the illustrations for the publications of the bureau and of photographing the meunbers of visiting Indian deputations to Wash in gt on, in which work he has lieen assisted by Mr. Albert E, Sweeney. The results accomplished in this direction are as follows: Number. Photographic prints for disiribiition and oflice nse 1,137 Negativi's of etlinologic imd arcbeologi<* subjects 126 Nogativi' lilins devcloyied from field ex]K)snres___ 188 Photostat prints from liooks and manuscrijits . .. 1,125 IMoiiuls used . - . - 78 Proofs examined 251 Phetographs retouclKMl . .. 43 Drawings made 187 Portrait: m'gatives of visiting delegations (Pawnee, Sauk ami Fox, Winnebago, P>lackfoot, (.dieyenne, Cbippmva) 25 The (‘.omplete editions of three colored plait's, aggregating 20,000 prints, were examined at the Government Printing Oflice. Illustra- tive material for three bulletins was completed for reproduction, and progress wms made on similar work for tlie Thirty-third Annual Report. LIBRARY. The library of the bureau continued in charge of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Charles B. Newman, messenger boy. During the year 1,078 ^()lumes were accessioned; of these 214 were pur- chased, 135 were acquired by gift and exchange, and 729 are vol- umes of serials which were entered after having been bound for the first time. The library also procured 272 pamphlets, chiefly by gift. The periodicals currently i-eceived number about 750, of which 12 are acquired by subscription and 738 by exchange. Among the more noteworthy accessions of books are 20 volumes of Bibles, Testa- ments, and portions of the Bible in American Indian languages. The library now contains about 21,315 volumes, 13,460 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals. There were sent to the Government Printing Office for binding, 1,338 books, pamphlets, and REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. 71 serial publications, and of these all but 20 bad been returned to the bureau before the close of the year. In addition to the cataloguing of current accessions the efforts of the librarian were devoted to making a subject, author, and analyti- cal catalogue of the books represented in the old catalogue by an imperfect author catalogue alone. In this connection special atten- tion was given to linguistic works. From time to time Mrs. F. S. Nichols has assisted in this work, and satisfactory i)rogress has been made. Although maintained primarily foi- the use of the staff, the library is consulted more and more by students not members of the bureau, as well as by officials of the Library of Congress and of the Govern- ment departments. (COLLECTIONS. The following collections were acquired l)y the lauream by members of its staff, or l)y those detailed in connection with its researches, and have been transferi'cd to the National Museum: 704 archeological objects gathered in Utah and Wyoming by IMr. Neil I\I. Judd. (HSToT.) Colhiction of potsherds showing types of ornamentation, from the Naeooehoe Mound, White (Nmnty, Ceorgia, being a part of the ot)je(*ts gathered by the Joint exi)odition of the 1‘urean of AnK'riean Lihnology and Museum of the American Jndiaii (Heye l^'(Uindation). irKSSlU.) 170 arclie(»logical s]>eciineris coll<‘cl(‘d by Mr. Cerard Lowin' at tlu' Hint (piarry shop site’s at th'escent, St. Lonis (’ounty, Missouri. (otKUr).) Collection of nonhuinan bones from tho Nacoochee Mound, Ceorgia. (.71)017.) A small colI(‘(‘tion of praye'r-sticks fnmi a Tuehlo shrine on the summit of lanigley Teak, west of the Tlio Crande and south of the Kio Chama, New Mexk'O, presented by I\Ir. Robert 11. ('hapman. (50112.) 5J Indian potsherds and arrow i)oint.s pia'sented by ]Mr. Artliur Ti. Norman, Troup, T('xas. (50252.) Stone “collar” fi-om Porto Uico, received by ])urchase from Mr. K. A. Beline, San Cerinaii, Porto Rico. (50280. A point and taeLU' of a salmon spear; a halibut hook, and live small fish- hooks, the gift of Mr. Robert IT. (Uiaiiman. (50288. Set of car perforators formerly owned by WAthuxage of the Tsfzlm Wash- tage gens of the Osage, presented through Mr. Pramus La Plesc'he by Mrs. Fri'd Lookout. (59782.) Sacred hawk bundle, or waxohe, of the RiilTahoface Ih'oiilo of the Osage tribe, collected by Mr. Francis La Flesche. (50702.) Osage war shield, collected by Mr. Frainas La Flesche. (50034.) PROPERTY. In regard to the property of the bureau tliere is nothing to add to the statements presented in recent reports. The cost of necessary furnitTiro, typewriters, and photographic and other ap})aratiis ac- quired during the fiscal year was $288.54. 72 AKISriJAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. MISCELLANEOUS. Quarters ,—One of the rooms in the north tower occupied by the bureau force was repaired and painted, a new electric fixture in- stalled, and the wooden casing under the exi)osed stairway removed and fireproofing substituted. Personnel ,—The only change in the personnel of tlie bureau was the resignation of Mr. William A. rium])lirey, stenographer and typewriter, on A]:)ril 15, 191(), and tlie appointment of Miss Lana V. Schelski on May 15 to fill the vacancy. The correspondence and other cleiacal work of the oifice, in addition to that above mentioned, has been condiKied by Miss Florence M. Poast, clerk to the ethnologist in charge; Miss May S. Clark, who particularly aided Mr. Bushnell in corres[)ondence cf)nnected with the preparation of the Handbook of Aboriginal Kemains; and Mrs. F. S. Nichols, who has aided the editor. Kespectfully submitted. F. AV. Iloix.K, Kfhnolofjist i)i ( '/umje. Dr. Chaklus D. AA^atuott, tieci^etary of the fSinithsonian InsIttutJon,, Washington,^ D, C, Appendix 3. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Sir: I have the lionor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ending June ^10, 191 G. The congressional a])propriation for the support of the service during the year, including the allotment for printing and binding, was $32,200 (the same amount as appro])riated for the past eight years), and the repayments from dejmrtmental and other establish- ments aggregated $3,078.25, making the total available resources for carrying on tlie system of exchanges $35,878.25. During the year 1910 the total number of packages handled was 301,025, an increase of 25,809, as compared with the preceding year. The weight of these packages was 399,095 pounds, an increase of 31,811 pounds. Although these figures show an increase in the amount of work carried on by the service over that for last year, both the number and wxnght of the packages handled are lower than for the year 1914. This reduction, however, is accounted for by the suspension of ship- ments to a number of countries, owing to the European war, as ex- plained in the last report. The number and weight of the packages of dilferent classes are indicated in the following table United States parllamoiitary documonts sent abroad Publications rocoi\"od in rotum for parliamontary documonts. . United States departmental documents sent abroad Publications received in return for departmental documents . , Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad . Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States Total...... Qrand total Packages. Weight. Sent. Received. Sent. Received. 1 <11,265 Pounds. 93,458 Pounds. 8,073 16,9;i8 72, 706 142,415 4,352 8,911 ‘!2, 862 84,196 17,307 63,777 270,893 1 24, 732 320,069 79,626 301,625 399,696 73 74 ANKXJAL BEPOET SMITHBONIAN INSTITUTIOK, 1^16. In connection witii the above statistics, attention should be called to the fact that many returns for publications sent abroad reach their destinations direct by mail and not through the Exchange Service. Of tlie 1,758 boxes used in forwarding exclianges to foreign agencies for distribution, 319 contained full sets of United States official documents for authorized depositoi'ies, and 1,439 were filled with departmental and other publications for depositories of partial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents. The total number of boxes sent abroad during 1916 was 105 more than the preceding year. As referred to last year, the interruption to transportation facili- ties caused by the European war made it necessary for the Inter- national Exchange Service in August, 1911, to suspend the shipment of consignments to Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Ivoumania, Russia, Serbia, and Turkey. With the ex- ception of Germany, exchange relations with tliese countries ai’e still suspended. It has been possible to arrange for the sending of several consignments to Germany through the American consul general at Rotterdam, but the Institution has not yet undertaken the regular transmission of boxes to that country. One shipment has been re- ceived from GJermany, and the Institution, through the Department of State, has arranged with the British Government for the sending of consignments from (iermany to this country at bimonthly in- tervals. In May, 1915, as mentioned in the last report, the Institution en- deavored to arrange with the Commission of International Exchanges at Petrograd for the resumption of shipments to Russia by way of Archangel, but the commission then expressed a desire to postpone the renewal of operations until after the close of the war. The commission now writes tluit it has been found possible to resume the forwarding of consignments either by way of Vladivostok, Rus- sia, or Bergen, Norway. The Institution has signified its preference for the latter route, at the same time asking if shipments can be forwarded to Russia through the same port. Through the burning at sea of the steamship Mount Kagle^ box 125, containing publications from various governmental and scien- tific establishments in this country for distribution in Korea, was destroyed. Owing to a similar accident to the steamship Athenai^ box 231, for Greece, was lost. In almost every instance the Insti- tution was able to procure from the senders duplicate copies of the lost publications, which were duly forwarded to their destinations. In this connection it should be stated that the destruction of the above-mentioned vessels was not due to the war. Thus far only two exchange packages—each containing 12 publications—have been lost EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 75 through the sinking of steamers by war vessels, reference to which was made in the last report. In continuation of a policy of international helpfulness, the Insti- tution has rendered aid to govci’iimental and scientific establish- ments, both in this and foreign countries, in procuring especially desired publications. One instance in particular in which the Insti- tution extended aid during the year in pi’ocuring publications may be referred to in this connection. The Pan American Division of the American Association for International Conciliation in New York City, which Avas assembling a library to consist of some seven or eight thousand volumes of Avorks of North American origin for presentation to the Museo Social Argcntino at Buenos Aires, applied, through the Department of State, for a selection of publications of the United States Government and of certain scientific institutions in this country. The matter Avas brought to the allention of the proper establishments, and several hundred ])ublications Avere re- ceived for the })roposed library. The Department of State, in bringing this matter to tlie attention of the Institution, stated that the department attaclied considerable imi)ortance to the request as a potent means of furtliering the best ideals of Pan Americanism. It may be stated in this connection that it is the custom of the GoA’crnment of India to refer any requests fi*om establishments in this country for Indian official documents to the Excliange Service for indorsement before acting thereon. In such instances statistics and other information relative to the society or establisliment making the request is furnished, and a proper recommendation is made in regard to the application. The number of boxes sent to each foreign country and the dates of transmission are shown in the folloAving table: of i'jTChaiKjrs for foreign i‘oinitrics. Country. Number of boxes. Diito of transmission. Argentina 51 July 21, Aug. li», Sept. 30, Oct. 21. Nov. 20, 1915; Jail. 17, Feb. 18, Apr. 25, May 20, 1910. Bolivia i G July 10, Oct. 2, Nov, 12, Dec. 1’1, 1915; Fob. 3, A{>r. 6, 1916. Brazii 37 July 21, Aug. 19, Sept. 30. Oct. 21, Nov. 26, 1915; Jan. 17, Fob. 18, Mar. 25, May 26, 1916. British Colonies 23 July 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, Aug. 7, 11, 21. 28, Sept. 1, 11, 18, 25, Oct. 9, 16, 23, 30, Nov. 0, 13, 20. 30, Dec. 4, 11, 18, 1915; Jan. 28, Feb. 8, 16, 25, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 1, 10, 18, May 2, Juno 5, 10, 1916. British Guiana 7 July 20, Aug. 20, Nov. 19, 1915; Feb. 5, Mar. 24, 1916. Canada 21 Aug. 10, Oct. 23, Dec. 10. 1915; Feb. 25, Mar. 28, June 2, 1916. Chile 23 July 21, Aug. 20, Oct. 4, Nov. 1, Deo. 3, 1915; Feb. 1, Mar. 2, Apr, 4, May 4, 1916. China 53 July 14, Aug. 12, Sept. 24, Oct. 19, Nov. 27, Dec. 15, 1915; Jaii. 8, 31, Fob. 23, Mar. 8, 24, Apr. 4, 7, 13, May 6, 1916. 76 ANNUAL REI’OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Consiffnmentu of exchanges for foreign countries—Continued. Country. Date of transmis.'iion. Colombia COHTA Rh;.\ Cuba ' Denmark ' Ecuador j Egypt I i France Germanv - Great liiiiTviN and Ireland. Greece ! Guatemala ! IIaiti I Honduras i India Italy Jamaica Japan Korea Liberia Lourenuo Marquez Mexico Nethkrlani»s Kew South AVales New Zealand Nicaragua Norway rARAOUAV Peru Portugal Queensland Salvador Siam South Austr.vi.ia 11 July U), Get. 1, Nov, 12, Dee. 13, 1915. 12 July 16, Get. 2, Nov. 12, Dee. 13, 1915; 1 eb. 2, Mar. 3, Apr. 5, 1916. 6 Auj;;. 10, Get. 23, Doe. 10, 1915; Feb. 25, Mar. 2S, Juno 2,;9ir,. 33 July 2, Auk. 3, Sept. 9. Get. 9. 2S, Nov. li;, 30, 1915; Jan. 16, Mar 17, .luui 10, 1916. « : July 16, Aug. 17, Get. 2, Nov. 12, Dot'. M, 1915; Mur. A, Aiir. 7 1916. 10 July 28, Aug. 24. Get. 6, Nov. 9, Dee. 8. 1915; Feb. 5, May 26 1916. 151 I July 14, 29, Aug. 16, 25, Sept. 25, Get. 14, Nov. 2, 19, Dee. 4, 1915 ; J;m. 28, I'eb. 12. Mur. 11, Apr. 11, May 25. 1916. 137 I Aug. It, 1915; .Ian. 19, June 9, 1916. 392 1 July 3, 10. 17, 21, 31, Aug. 7, 11, 21, 28, Sept. 4, U, 18, 25, ( )et. <’ I 16, 23, No\ . 6, 13, 20, 30, Dee. 4,11, IS, I'il.V, Jau. 20, 28, Feb. 8 16, 25, Mar. 8. 20, Apr. 1, 10, 17, May 2, June 5, 1916. 9 July 28, Aug. 28. Get. 6, Nov. 12, Dee. 11, 191.5; Jan. 25, 1916. 6 July 20, Get. 6, Nov. UI, Doc. 11, 1915; Mar. 4, Apr. 6, 1016. 6 Aug. 10, Get. 23, Dee. 10, 1915; Feb. 25, Mar. 28, June 2, 1910. 4 Jul\ 20, Gel. 6, 1915; Feb. 3, Aj<r. i), 1916. 54 July 10, 17. 21, 31, Aug. 7, 11, 21, 28, Sept. 4, 11. 25, Ort. 9, 16, 23 30, Nov. 6, 13. 20, .30, Dee. 1,11,18, 1915; Jan. 28, I'eb. 8. 16. 25 Mar. K, 20, Apr. J, 10, 17, May 2, June 6, 16. 1916. 94 July 13. Aug. 25. Sopt. 2.5, Get. 13, Nov. 2, IH, Gee. 6, 1915; Jau 21, Fob. 12, Mar. 14, A])r. 12, May 25, 1916. 6 July 29, Soj)t. 28, Nov. 5, 1 'ee. 15, 1915; J ob. 4, Apr. 7, 1916. 5u July 5, Aug. 3, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 9, Dee. 9, 1915; Jan. 2t' Fob. 29. Mar. 29, Apr. 29, 1916. 3 July 28, Sept. 2s, Get. 2.3, 1915. 3 July 29, Sei»t. 2<s, Doe. 1.5, 3915. I July 2.S, 1915. 6 Aug. 10, Gel. 2;F Goe. 10. 1915; Fol). 2,5, Mar. 28, Juno 2, 1916. 4*; July 15. 27, Aug. 14. 17, 25, Sept. 28. Get. 13, Nov. 3. Gee. 2. 191,’' Jau. 21, Feb. 21, Apr. 1, May 2. 1916. 34 Julj 8, ,Yug. 10, Sopl. 23, Get. 20, Nov. Zi, 1915; .Ian. 14, Feb. F' Mar. 15, Apr. 20. 1916. 28 July 13, Aug. 12, Sopt. 21, Get. 20. Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. F. Mar. 15, Ajir. 21, 1916. 4 July 20, Get. 6, Nov. 16. 1915; Apr. 6, 1916. 26 July 2, Aug. 3, Sopt. 9, Get. 9, Nov. 9, Goe. 8, 1915; Jan. 21 Mar. 7, Apr. 17, 1916. 7 July 29, Get. 2, Nov. 16, Dee. 14, 1915; I'eb. 3, A])r. 7, 1916. 30 July 21, Aug. 20, Get. 4, Goe. 3, 1915; Fob. 1, Mar. 2, Apr. ' May 4, 1916. 20 July 2, Aug. 3, Sopt. 9, Get. 9, Nov. 9, 1 'ee. 8, 1915; .lari. 25, Mar. ‘ Apr. 11, Jiuio 16, 1916. 16 July 2, Aug. 12, Sopt. 24. Get. 20, Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. F Mar. 15, Apr. 21, 1916. 6 July 20. Get. 6, Nov. 16, Gee. 14, 1915; Mar. 4, Apr. 6, 1916. 5 July 28, Sept. 28, Dee. 7, 1915; Apr. 7, Fob. 4, 1910. 24 July 8, Aug. 10, Sept. 23, Get. 20, Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 14, Feb. 1- Mar. 15, Ajir. 20, 1916. 40 July 7,Aug. 10, Sept. 22, Oct. 19, Dee. 2, 1915; Jan. 21, Fob. 2 Mar. 29, Apr, 28, June 10, 1916. Spain REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 77 Comignmcmts of exchcmyes for foreign countries—Continued. Country. Number of boxes. Date of transmission. Sweden 49 July 27, Aug. 21, Sept. 15, Oct. 18, Nov. 24, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. 17, ! Mar. 17, Apr. 22, 1910. Switzerland 50 Sept. 21, Oct. 13, Nov. 3, Dec. 3, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. 18, Mar. 24, Apr. 24, June 8, 1910. Tasmania 20 July 3, 1(1, 17, 24, 31, Aug. 7, 14, 21, 2S, Sept. 4, 11, 18, 25, Oct. 9, Ki, 30, Nov. (•>, 13. 20, 30, Dec. 4. 11,18 1915; Jan. 28, Fob. 8, 10, 2.5, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 1, lo, IS, May 2, June 5, 10, 1910. Trinidad 3 July 29, Sept. 28, Dec. 15, 1915. Union of South ArnirA 34 July 27, Aug. 2.5, Nov. 5, Dec. 0, 1915; Feb. 5, Mar. 8, Apr. 1 1 , 1910, Uruguav 17 1 July 21, ,\ug. 20, Oct. 4. Nov. 12, Doc. 13. 1915; Feb. 2, Mar. 3. A pi. 5, 1910. Vknezukia 13 July n-. Oct. 2. Nov. 12, D(H'. 13. 1935; Feb. 2. Mar. 8, Apr. 5, 1910. Victoria 1 3.7 July S, Aug. 10, 19, Se].t. Z!, Oct. 2o, Nov, 2.3, 1915; Jan. 14, Fol). 11, Mar. 15, Api. 20, 1910. W KHTE RN A USTli A l.I \ 20 July 3, 10. 1 r. 21, 31, Aug. 7, M, 21, 28, So])t. 4, 11, 18, 2.5, Oct. 9, 10, '23, 30. Xov. 0. 13, 20. 30, Dec. 4,11,18, 1915; Jaii. 28, Feb. 8, 10, 25, M ir. S, 20, Aj>r. 1, 10, 18, May 2, June 5, 10, 1910. Windward avd J.eewauu Islands. July 29. Sci.t. 28, 1915, FOKKIG.N LdCPOsri'oUlFS • ): ‘^NiTKD STATES (;( ) VEIEWMENTAL DOCU- ME.vrs. Hie number of sets of iiie United States ollicial publications regu- larly forwarded to foi-eign counti'ies in :iecordance with treaty stipu- lations and under the authority of the congressional resolutions of March Lb 1S(>7, and IMandi L, 1001, has been reduced from 92 to 91 the sei'ies sent to the (Jovei-iiinent of llombay having been discon- tinued at tlie hitter's recjuest. In asking that these shipments be dis- continue(h the secretary to the (kivernmenl of Bombay stated that it would ill no way affect the transmission of the reports of his Government for dejiosit in the Library of Uongress. The recipients of the oo full and 3G j)artial sets are as follows: DEPOSJTOKIKS OF FULL SKI’S. Augk^itiis'A : Miiiislerio <](‘ nc'laeioiies E.xteriores, liiiouo.s Aires. Australia: Library of liie rU)imiionwt*altb Parlianieni, Melbourne. Austria: K. K. Statislisebe Zenlral-Keiumissitiu, Vieuna. Baden: UniversiUlts-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the Grand Duchy of Baden.) Bavaria: Kbiiigliebe Hof- uud Staats-lUbliothek, IMunidi. Belgium: lUbliolbeaue Koyaie. Brussels. Brazil: BU^liotlieca Nacioiial, Uio de Janeiro. Buenos Aires: Biblioteca de la Universidail Nadonal de La Plata. (Deposi- tory of the Province of Buenos Aiia^s.) Canada: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 78 ANNUAL BEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Chile: Blblioteca del Oongreso Nadonal, Santiago. China; American-Chincse Publication Exchange Departiiuuit, Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs, Shangliai. Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Kica: Oficina de Dep6sito y Canje Internacional do I’ublicnclones, San Jos6. Cuba: Seoretaria de Estado (Asuntos Genoralos y Canje Internacional), ITabana. Denmabk; Kongelige Bi])liollieke(, CojKaihagen. Engla^id: British IMuseum, I.ondon. Fbance: Bibliothdiuo Nalionalo, Paris. Geemany: Deutsche Beichstags-ltibliothok, Berlin. Glasgow: City Librarian, Mitclu'll Tiihrary, Glasgow. Greece: Biblioth^que Rationale, Athens. Haiti: Secr^daire d’Ktat des Relations Exterieures, Port an Prince. Hungary : Ilnngarian House of Delegat(‘s, Budapest. India: Department of Education (Books), Government of India, Calcutta. Ireland: National Library of Indaml, Dublin. Italy: Biblioteca Nazioiiale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome. Japan: Imperial Library of .Tapan, Tokyo. London: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Dei)ository of the London (bounty Coumal.) Manitoba: ProviiK'ial Library, \Vlnnip(‘g. Mexico: Institute Bil)iiogra(ico, Bjl)li()leca Nacional, IVIexic'o. Netherlands: la’brary of the States General, Tlie Hague. New South Wales: Public Lilu'ury of New South Wales, Sydney. New Zealand: Gem'ral Assonildy Lil)rary, Wellington. Norway: Storthiiigets Bihliothek, Ohri.stiaiiia. Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. Paris: PrfTecture de la Sein(}. Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. Portugal: Bibliotheca NL(*ional, Lisbon. Prussia : Kbnigliche Blldiotliek, Berlin. Quebec^ : Library of the Legislatun* of th(‘ Province of Quebec, Quebec. Queensland: Parliamentary Ial>rary, Brisbane. Russia: Imperial Public Library, Petrograd. Saxony; Kbnigliche Oeffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden. Serbia: Section Administrative du Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Belgrade. South Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide. Spain: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Ciierpo Facultative de Archlveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueblogos, Madrid. Sweden : Kungliga Blblioteket, Stockholm. Switzerland: Blbliothdiue FdRa’ale, Berne. Tasmania: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Turkey : Department of Public Instruction, Constantinople. Union of South Africa : State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Uruguay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne. Western Austratja: Public Tnbrary of AVestern Australia, Perth. WteTTEMBERG: Kbnigliche Landesblbliothek, Stuttgart. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79 DEPOSITORIEH OF PARTIAL SETS. Alberta : Provincial Library, Edmonton. Alsace-Lorraine: K. Ministerium fiir Elsnss-Lothriu^^im, Strassbiirg. Bolivia: Ministerio cle Colonizacion y Agriculturu, La Paz. P>REMEN : Senatskommission fiir Rciclis- iind Auswllrti.cio An^^olcj^cnheiten. British Columbia: Loi^islativc Library, Victoria. British Guiana: Goviaannent Secretary’s Otlice, Geoi*^;etown, Deinerara. Bulgaria: Minister of Fon'if^n Affairs, Sofia. (Uoylon: Colonial Secretary’s C>trH*e (Record Department of tlie Library), (Jo- lombo. Ecuador: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. EGYFr: BibliotluViue ]vIUHlivial<\ Cairo. F'inland: C^Uiancery of Governor, Ilelsinj^fors. Guatemala: Secretary of t.h(^ Gov('rninent, CUiatcmala. Hamburg: Senatskonnnission ftir die lieichs- und Auswilrtigen Ainrelcj^eiilieiten. Hesse: Grosslierzoglidie Hof-l»ibliotbck, Darmstadt. Honduras : Secretary of the Government, TcKoei^alpa. Jamaica: Colonial S('cret{iry, Kingston. Liberia: Department of State, Monrovia. L0UREN90 Marquez: Governm(*nt Library, Loiirejjco Marquez. Lubeck: Presid(‘nt of the Senate. Madras, Province of: Chief Secretary t(< the (hA'eiaimeiit of Madras, Public Department, Madras. Malta: Lieutenant Governor, Valet ta. Montenegro: Alinistcre des Affaires Etran^Caa's, (k'linje. New Brunswick : liehoslative Lil)rary, Fredericton. Newfoundland: Colonial Si'crctary, St. Johns. Nicaragua: Superlntoiahaite do Arcluvos Nacionales, IManaf^nia. Northwest Territories: Government Library, Ue,t:ina. Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. Panama: Secretaria de Uelaciones Exteriores, Panama. Paraguay: Gticina (jcneral de Inmigracion, Asuncion. Prince Edward Island: Legislative Library, Charlottetown. Roumania: Academia Romana, Bucharest. Salvador: Minksterio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvadt>r. Siam: Department of Foreign Affairs, Ihingkok. Straits Settlejuents : Colonial Secretary, Singapore. United Provinces of Agra and Oudh : Under Secretary to Government, Alla- habad. Vienna: P>Urgermeister der Haiipt- und Residenz-Stadt. INTERPARLl AIM ENTRY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNALS. The GoverniHents of Bolivia, Peru, and Venezuela were added to those countries Avith which the iiiiinediate exchange of official parlia- mentary journals is carried on. Following is a coinplete list of the Governments to which the Congressional Kecord is now sent: Argentine Republic. Australia. Austria. Baden. Belgium. Bolivia. Brazil. Buenos Aires, P: Canada. Costa Rica. •ovlnce of. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. 80 Cuba. Denmark. Prance. Great Britain. Greece. Guatemala. Ilonduras. Hungary. Italy. Liberia. New South Wales. New Zealand. Peru. It will therefore be seen that which this exchange is conducted copies of the Congressional Kecor one to the Lower House of Par mitted being 11. Portugal. Prussia. Queensland. Bouinania. lUi.ssia. Serbia. S])ain. Switzerland. Transvaal. Uiiidn of South Africa. Ihaiguay. VenoziK'hi, Western Australia. tliere are now »>(> countries with To some of 11u‘S(‘ countries two (1 are sent—one to the Upper and liainent—the total numljer trans- LIST OP BUREAUS OR ACEXCll^S TIIROT (OJ WllKUl EXCHANGES ARE TRANSMITTED. The following is a list <»r the huri-aiis or agonrit's through which exchanges are transmitted : Algeria, via I'rance. Angola, r/u Portugal. Argentina: Comisiori Protectora de Biblioteras Poj)u]ares, Santa Fe 880, Buenos Aires. Austria : K. K. Statistisclie Zeiitral-Kommission, Vitama. Azores, via I'urtugal. Belgium: Service Beige des Ediaiiges luternathaiaux, Ru(‘ des LongsAlhariots 4G, Brussels. Bolivia: Olicina Nacional de Estadistica, Ua Ihiz. Brazil: Servigu dc* IhTaiiulames Intcrnacionaos, lUbiiothcca Nadonal, Rio de Janeiro. British Colonies: (3rown Agents for tin* (Colonies, London. Briti.sii Guiana : Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown. British Honduras : Cf)lonial Secretary, Belize. Bulgaria: Institutions Scientitiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Soda. Canary Islands, via Spain. Chide: Servicio de Canjes Internacionaic.s, Biblioleca Nacional, Santiago. China: American-Chines<'. l*ublication Exchange iHqiartnient, Sh.anghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai. Colombia: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteea Nacional, Bogottl. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depbsito y Canje Internacional de Publlcaciones, San Jos^. Denmark: Kongelige Dariske Yidenskabernos Selskab, Copenhagen. Dutch Guiana: Siirinaamsche Koloniale Bihliotheek, Paramaribo. Ecuador: Mlnlsterio do Relaciones Exterlores, Quito. Egypt: Government Publications Otiice, Printing Department, Cairo. France: Service Prancais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Qrenelle, Paris. BEPOET OF THE SECEETAEY, 81 Germany: Araerika-Tnstitut, Berlin, N. W. 7. Great Britain and Ireland: Messrs. Wllliruii Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London. Greece: BihliothOquo Nn1ionnl(\ Athens. Greenland, via Dennis rlc. Guadeloupe, via France. Guatemala: Instiiiito Nacionnl de Yarones, Guatemala. Guinea, via Portii.aal, Haiti: Secrel.air(‘ d'totat des Ih'lalions hAirnaenrc's, Fort an Prince, Honduras: Bibliot('ca Na^aonal, Tei^iiciii’alpa. Hungary: Dr. Jnlins Pikler, Municipal ()frK‘<^ of Statistics, Yaci-ntca 80, Buda- pest. Iceland, via Ixannark. India: India Store Department, India Oflice. London. Italy: Uflicio dcLdi Scainbi liiterna/Jonali, Pdblioteca Nazionah^ Vittorio Eman- uel e, Rorao. Jamaica: Tnslitiite of Jamaica, Kinudon. Japan: Iinpoidal Lilirary <d Jajum, Tokyo. Java, via Netheiiands. Korea: Government General, Kiajo, Lireiua : Biirt'an of ExciiaiiLces, I )ei)artment, of State, Monrovia. Lourenco Maiop’ez: (tovta-irnKmi Library, Loureiico IM.aiaiiiez. LuxEAiiruRG, via Germany. Madagascar, via FramH'. Madeira, via Pialiumk Montenegro: Ministert' d(‘s Affain's L'tran^ert's, Getin.jo. Mozamhique, vl(f Poidupd. Netuehi.ands : Buri'au Sciimtitiqiie Centra! Ntk'rlandiiis, Bibliotlieipie de PUni- versitd, I^eyden. Nj[-:w Guinea, via Nidlierlands. New South Wales: Public Library of New Sontli AVah\s, Sydney. New Zeai^and: Dominion IMusenm, Wellington. Nicaragua: I\liiiisterio de Relaciones Exteriores. IMampuia. Norwax' : Konymli^e Norskii I^nMha’iks l^niversltti Bibrnttliekot, Cbristiania. Panama: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. Paraguax" : S(‘rvicio de Canje lnt(‘rnacional de Pu)>licaciones, Seecion Consular y (le Coniercio, IMinisterio de IL'laeiones Exteriores, Asuncion. Persia: Board t)f Foi'eign IMissitms of ilir Presbyterian Cburch, N('w York City. Peru: Ofieirm de Rej)arto, Deposito y Canje lidta nacional de Publioaciones, Mlnisterio de Foment o, Lima. Portugal: Servico de Penrnitaebes Iiiternacion.aes, Inspec(;.ao Geral das Biblio- thecas e Archives Pnhlieos, Lisbon. Queensland: Bureau of Ex<*hanges of International Pii])lications, Chief Sec- retary’s Otlice, Brisbane. Roumania : Academia Romana, Bucharest. Russia: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, BiblioUit'que Iim periale Publiqne, Petrograd. Salvador: Mlnisterio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. Serbia: Section Administrative du MinistOre des Affaires Etrangeres, Belgrade. Siam : Department of Foreign Adairs, Bangkok. South Australia: Public liibrary of South Australia, Adelaide. Spain: Servicio del Cambio Intcrnacioiial de Publicaciones, Ciierpo Facultative de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y ArqueOlogos, Madrid. 82 AKKITAL REPOJiT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. SxjMATEA, via Netherlands. Sweden : Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm. Switzerland: Service dos l^chaivaes Interna tionaux, Bibiioth^que FM6rale Centrale, Berne. Syria : Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Chnrch, New York. Tasmania : Secretary to llio Premier, Hobart. Trinidad : Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain. Tunis, via Prance. Turkey: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign ^lissions, Boston. Union of South Africa: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal. Uruguay: Oficina de Canje Internacional, IMontiordeo. Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, i^leli)Oiirnc. Western Australia: Public Library of We^lqrn Australia, Perth. Windward and Leeward Islands: Imperial Department of Agriculture, Bridge- town, Barbados. Respectfully submitted. C. W. Shoemaker, Chief Clerh^ International Exchange Service. Dr, Chariji:s D. Walcott, Secrefary of the Smithsonian Institution. August 23 , 1916 . Appendix 4. REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Sir: I have the honor to present below a report concerning the operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending June 30, lOK). There Avas allowed by Congress the sum of $100,000 for all pur- poses, except printing, for Avhich $200 additional was granted. The European Avar has had a marked eft’oet upon tlie cost of living animals. Not only are the prices higher, but transportation is more difficult and therefore more expensive. Many of the regular dealers have been obliged to AvithdraAv from the business. XotAvithstanding these difficulties the National Zoological Park has maintained its col- lection fairly Avell, and remains at about the same level in numbers as last year. There are, indeed, some 15 species in the })ark not pre- viously exhibited here. A careful estimate of the value of the ani- mals in the collection shoAvs that it must be at least $90,000, at the prevailing market prices. The value of the buildings is estimated at $210,000. A(^riOSSlONS. Births^ 101 in number, included 5 American bison, deer of 11 species, a yak, a South American tapir, a Pactrian camel, 2 monkeys, some other mammals, and a feAv birds. Gifts.—The most important of these Avas four elands and four Kashmir deer received from the Duke of Ledford at Woburn Abbey, England. Three favAuis were born from the deer during their transit. The complete list of the donors and gifts is as follows: Mr. Edward Anderson, jr., Tucson, Ariz., n desert lynx. Miss Maude Anderson, Washin^tton, I). 0„ a common canary. Miss Marian Ashby, AVashlngton, D. O., a barred owl. Mr. O. E. Baynard, Clearwater, Fla., two barred owls. The Duke of Bedford, AVoburn Abbey, Enjtland, four elands and four Kash- mir deer. Bureau of Biolo^^dcal Survey, an American marten. Mr. Robert Burrows, AVashirn^ton, D. C., two alligatorvS. Miss Argine Carusi, AVashlngton, D. C., an alligator. Mr. Austin M. Cooper, AA^asbington, I). C., a tarantula. Mr. E. .1. Court, Washington, D. C., a great horned owl. Mr. Blaine Elkins, AAUishington, D. C., two raccoons. Mr. W. 0. Emery, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake. 83 84 ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Mr. Victor J. Evans, Washington, D. G., three marmosettes. Mr. George Field, Washington, D. C., a Texan armadillo. Mr. Marcus A. Hanna, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake. Mr. G. M. Haynes, Washington, D. 0., an alligator. Mr. Boss Hazeltine, United States Consular Service, an ocelot. Mrs. Mary F. Henderson, Washington, D. C., two grass parrakeets and a canary. Mrs. Robert Hitt, Washington, D. C., a bare-eyed cockatoo. Mr. G. C. Hogan, Coinorn, Ta., a gray fox. Mr. George Howell, Washington, D. C., two alligators. Mr. R. C. Huey, Hot Springs, Ark., a dusky wolf. Miss Juergens, Washington, 1). C., an alligator. Miss Annie Lee Knight, Washington, D. C., a gray fox. Mr, J. C. Lamon, Knoxville, Tenn., a black snake. Mr. T. P. Levering, Washington, D. C., a king snake. Mr. S. Lyons, Washington, IX C., two alligators. Mr. Vinson Mi'Lean, Washington, I). (\, a gra.v jairrot, a macaw, and a great red-crested cockatoo. Mr. Lee S. Page, Washington, I). G., an alligator. Hon. Frank Park, M. (X, S>lvester, Ga.. at recpii'M of hit(‘ Senator Bacon, three fox squirrels. Mr. Robert Portner, Wasbinglon, LX C., an alligator. Mr. C, S. Rockvvood, Washington, D. 0., an alligator. Mr. Baynard Schintlel, Washington, D. CX, an alligator. Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, Washington, D. C., a black snake. Mr. J. H. Stoig, Wasbington, ix C., a black snake. Dr. J. R. Stewart, Washington, D. C., a woodchuck. Mrs. F. H. Talkes, Washington, D. C., a parrot. Mrs. R. B. Tingsloy, Washington D. G., an alligator. Mr. C. V, U. Townsend, Muni sing, Mich., a coyote Hon. Woodrow Wilson, Wasiiington, D G., tw'o bald eagles. Unknown donor, an alligator. Unknown donor, two cardinals, one (‘oinnion mocking bird, one brown thrasher. Exchanges ,—Tlie iiossession of a considerable luiniber of surplus animals made it possible for the park to profit by 187 exchanfjes. Among the important acquisitions were a pair of young lions from the Department of Parks, New York City, a male guanaco from the Philadelphia Zoological Garden, a chimpanzee, a fine pair of Siberian tigers, a nilgai, a pair of mule deer, a pair of Columbian black-tailed deer, a great red kangaroo, several monkeys and other mammals, a secretary vulture, and a considerable number of other birds. The chimpanzee was new to the collection and is a very intelligent and interesting male about 4^ years old, from the forests of French Congo. He is an object of great interest to the public and attracts much attention every day, especially when at his meals, as he has been taught to sit in a chair at a table, eat with a fork and drink out of a glass. As there was no conveniently available cage for him in the monkey house, special quarters have been provided in the lion house, in a corner where he is shielded from drafts of air. In KEPOBT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 order to prevent feeding by visitors a glass screen was erected be- tween this cage and the public space. Pure air is provided by a duct leading from the outside of the building suitably warmed by a heat- ing coil. He has made himself entirely at home there, appears happy, contented, and quite healthy. A larger, more spacious cage will be constructed for occupation during hot weather, where he can be more satisfactorily seen. From Yellowstone National Parle,—Two black timber wolves, in- teresting from their rarity, were transferred from the Yellowstone Park. Captured,—A raccoon, possibly a wild one, but more probably one that had escaped, was caught in a trap. Loaned.—3 mink and 7 martens were temporarily loaned, also 1 monkey and a parrot. LOSSES. Among the most important losvses was that of the young male African elephant. Jumbo II. a beautiful, active animal that was bought from the Government Zoological Garden at Giza, Egypt, in 1913. lie was then about 4 years old. The death of this valuable animal was entirely unexpected, as he had always seemed in ex- cellent health. A post-mortem examination, made by veterinarians fi’om the Bureau of Animal Industry, revealed a rupture of the stomach, a tear 7 inches in length occurring along the great curvature. Escape of the stomach contents had caused an acute peritonitis. The cause of this rupture is quite obscure. The diet of the animal had not been changed either in quantity or quality, and the stomach had not been overdistended by food. Nor did an ex- amination of the discharged material reveal any substances that might have occasioned an active fermentation with considerable evolu- tion of gas. The other viscera showed no gross pathologic changes. Other losses were a male lion, from softening of the brain, a fur seal, a male California sea lion, a black leopard, from old age, a male American bison, from pneumonia, a male and female nilgai, from generalized tuberculosis; 38 animals were lost from attacks by cage mates, by dogs (directly or indirectly), or through other accidents. Amebic dysentery attacked some spider monkeys, recently received, and caused the death of six of these animals. Post-mortem examina- tions were made, as usual, by the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture.^ ^ The causes of death were reported to be as follows : Enteritis, 24 ; ga8troenter|t|«, 4 amebic dysentery, 6 ; fermentation colic, 1 ; Intestinal coccldiosis, 1 ; cercomonlasiSi 1 pneumonia, 15 ; tuberculosis, 14 ; congestion of lungs, 3 ; pulmonary edema, 1 ; a^thrn^, 1 ; aspergillosis, 4 ; pyemia, 3 ; septicemia, 1 ; toxemia, 1 ; pericarditis, 1 : hepa^tJs, 3 fatty degeneration of kidneys, 1 : gangrene of cecum, 1 ; necrosis of rectum, 1 ; softening of brain, i ; hematoma of liver, 1 ; tumor, 1 ; anemia, 2 ; rupture of stomach* 1 ; no suHI- dent cause found, 17 ; not fit for examination, 8. 73839“—SM 1916 7 86 ANNUAL KEPOEI SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1916. MAMMALS. Clilmpanzoc {Pan troolodytes) 1 Mona inonkoy (CfTcapithecus mnna)^ 8 Patas inonkoy (CercopifhertHi patati)^ 2 3?>lana monkey {CcrcopithvcuH fh’ana)_ 1 Bonnet monkey {Aldcacus .^iiiicus) 1 Macaque monkey {Mararvs cijnnmol- Pig-tailed monkey (Marnctifi ncmes- trinufi) 8 Rhesus monkey {Afnrdrus rhesus) 20 Brown maomiue (Afacanni an^loidrfi) ^ 2 Japanese Tnonk<*y (Mocacu'^ fvxcntn.s)^ 8 Moor riiaejupie (Maracii.'t induni.:) j Chacma (Pdpio itorcarhin) 1 Guim^a baboon {Pdpio papio) 4 Yellow baboon {Papin rynnff’piialuH) ^ t Ilamadryas bal)oon {l*di‘in l.ama- drya.^) 2 Mandrill {Papin f;phinir) 1 White-throated capuchin (Tebjos* hp- polrucus) 2 Brown capuchin {(U'hus faturilas) 1 Gray spider-monkey (AtelcH ipof- frnyi) r> Marmosette {Hapolo 2. Mongoose lemur {Lemur inmii/cei) t Black lemur {Lemur maearn) 1 Polar bear {Thalarcfos warifinni'n— 2 European brown bear {('rsu^ orr/o.s)_ 2 Kadiak bear (t/r.s-w.s iniddendorfji) 1 Yakutat bear {Urt^ufi dalli) — 1 Alaskan brown bear (/'r.s'w.v ppas) 2 Kidder’s liear (f/r-sas Iridde}-}) , _ 2 Hybrid bear {Ursu<i kidderi-arctoff) 2 Himalayan boar {IJr'^us fin'hrtanui<}^^ 1 Japanese bear {TJrsuu japouieuH) 1 Grizzly bear ilJrKus' horrihUis) 8 Black bear {TJrsus nm^eriennu^^) !> Cinnamon bear (C/r.^t/.s ameriranus) ^ 2 Rloth bear (AL'JurfiUs un<tiui/y) 1 Klnkajoii {Ccrrnlepte,^ enudirfd npuf;) „ 1 Cacomlstle { liassarifieus a.<ditld) 1 Gray coatlmundi {\<iy.u.a nariea) 4 Raccoon {Prnrynn lotor)..^ 18 American badger {TaJ-idca taxiifi) 2 European badger {Mrlcfi ta;cu.'<) 2 Common skunk {Meplnlin putidn) 2 Ta y ra ( al w tis h ar bnra) 1 American marten (Musicla amni- cana) 0 Flaher {Muf^tela pcnvantil) 1 Mink {Putorivs vison) 8 Common ferret {Putnriuf^ pufnriu><') , 1 North American otter ilAitra co-m/- denm-ft) 5 Eskimo dog (Conis famiHariK) 4 Dingo {Cnnift dirif/n).,^. 1 Gray wolf {Canis orcidrufalis) (> Dusky wolf {Pani^ nuhihis) 1 Coyote {Caniu Inttnuf!) 8 Woodhonse’s coyote (Cf/in'.s' frt/.sfror) _ 2 Red fox {Vulpe>^ penusylvaniruft) 4 Swift fox {Vulncft velnx) 1 Arctic fox {Vudpes lagopity). 1 Gray fox (TJrneyon riiuTCO-arpentruy) ^ 5 Spotted hyena {Hyama crocutn) 1 African civet {Vivrrra civ^lld.) 1 Common genet {OeMettn nenrtta) 1 Cheetah (OynaPuru^ juhaLif^) 2 Sudan lion {Felin len) 5 Bengal tiger {Felis iiprls) 2 Siberian tiger {Felis tiffrifi lonyipilla) 2 Puma {Fells oregonenMs hippolostes) - 4 Jaguar {Fells onoa) 1 Leopard {Fells pardus) 8 Ocelot {Fells pardaUs) 1 Canada lynx (Lynw oanadmsis) 3 Bay lynx (LynoB rufus) 7 Spotted lynx (Lyn(s rufus tewensis)^- 2 C^ifornla lynx (Lynw rufus oaliforfiA- eus) 1 Florida lynx {Lynx rufus floridanus)^ 1 Steller’s sea lion {Eumelopias stel- Icrt) 1 California sea lion {Zalophus caUfor- nianus) 1 Harbor seal {Phora vilulinu) 1 Fox squirrel {^ciiirus uitjer) 0 W(‘sterii f(»x squirrel {i<ciifrus ludn- ririuntiH) 11 tJrny squirrel {Sfduriiy rai olinerisis) ^ ^ 40 Blaek squirrel {S(diu tis ( <n'iilin<'UH}s) ^ 20 Albino s(jiiirrel {l!<riuni.y rdrolitieuuis) „ 1 Tiiirl«M'n liiu'd sixM iiiopbile (.Sy>cr- mnp/iihis trideeitnliueafus) 2 Prairh' dog {Pyotujn^ iudovieianus) 0 IVoodeliuck {Maiiuofd 'Uiouax) 1 American iu'aver {('uKlnr nniademis) ^ 2 Coypu (Myoinyior rnypus) 2 Guroj)ean ponuipine {IIy.^trix emstaia) 3 Imlian poreupine {flj/yfrix Irucurd)^ . 1 Viscnclia {Ld<jostomu-‘i i rich addd pins) ^ 1 Mf'xieaii agouti (Ddsyprncla 'tnrxP Cdtld) 1 Azara’s agouti {Dasi/pme/a dzanv) 1 ‘.'rested agouti { Ddsypracia rriyiata) .. 2 llairy-nimped agouti {J)dsjiprij(‘ta prymudlnphd) . . ! 4 Faca {Ccrloyriiyu pava) 2 Guinea pig {('arid cuilni) 13 Patagonian cuvy (Dolichol'tS }>at(i- (/(tnica) __ 2 Cottontail rai>bit {Lrpus ejfirdticie-!) ... 2 Domestic rabbit {hrpus euuU'uluy) 15 Afrb’jiu eb>i)hMnt (Llcplidy n.riinii.s) . . 1 iTidinu c1(])hnnt (Flephds uidxnnu-'^) . - 1 Brazilian tapir {Tapirus amrrieanuM) ^ 4 Mongolian horse {Fquus przriOdJ'Skii) 1 c.revy’.s zebra {Lipni.s t/reryi) 2 Z('bra bor.se hybrid l Kquus yrevyi- cdhalhis) 1 Zf-branlonkey hylii-id {Lqine-i yreryi- Oisdnus) 1 Grant’s zebra { Fqrnis bureh<dli 'h tinli) 1 Golinrod }>eceary {Dieofyfes auquiatus) .. 2 M’ild i'MUir C'/fs' sernfa) 1 Northern wart hog { J*harnch(rrus afri- rauuy) _ 2 Hippopotamus {Hippopotamus om- pliihiu-'<) 2 tJuauaco {Ldinn Jiufiuaelius) 8 Llama {Lama glam a) 8 A 1 pa ea ( La ma pneoy 2 Vicugna {Tjdmn rit'Ufnid) 1 1 1 n e t rl a n eam e I ( Cn u haetn anu s) - 3 Arahian camel {Pamelus dromrdarius) . 4 Sainbar de(*r (Ccrew.s u7iirolor) 2 I'liillppine deer {(Uu'viis philippitms) - 1 Hog deer {Cervus porciuus) ..... 9 Baraslng'ha deer (('err us duvaiivf'dU) . 18 Axis deer {(Cervus axis) 8 Japanese deer {Cervus sika) 6 Ka.shmir doer {Cervus eashmitdanus) _ 7 Red deer ( CcrrM.9 elaphus) 10 American elk {CfTvus canadensis) 8 Fallow deer {Cervus damn) 7 Virginia d(‘er {Odocoiletts virpinlanus) .. 13 Mule deer {Odocoilcus hemin^jus) 4 Columbian hlack-tnilod deer {Odocol- leus columliinnus) 5 Cuban deer {Odoeoilms sp.) 1 Blessbok {Dainaliseus alhlfrons) 1 White-tailed gnu {Oonnorhwtes gnu)... 1 Defassa water buck {Cohus defassa.) — 1 Indian antelope (Antilope cervlcapra) ~ 4 Arabian gazelle {OnmeUa nrahica )— 2 Sable antelope {Tlippotragus niger)..^ 1 Nilgai (Boselaphus tragornmelus) 2 Congo harnessed antelope {TragelaphuS gratus) i 2 Eland {Tcuufrotragus oryx Ueing-^ stonU) 4 EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 87 Talir (Ilcmitragua jemlaicus) 3 Great gray kangaroo (Macropua Circassian goat {Capra hircun) 4 Uma) 1 Barbary sheep {Oris tragclaphus) 12 WalUiroo {Alui^ropua robuatua) 2 Barbados sheep {Ovla arlea-tragcla- Red kangaroo (Afacropus rnfua) 3 phua) 8 Bennett’s wallaby (Alaaropus rnfioollia Anoa (A^ioa dcprcsaicornis) 1 Ijonirtfi) 1 Zebu (liibos indicua) 2 Fhalanger {TrUdioHuma rulp<^cula) 2 Yak (Pocpliagas priimiiv.na) 4 Virginia opossum (DidcipJips maraii- American bison {liiaon amn'icanua) 17 pialia) 1 Hairy armadillo {Daaypus villosua) ,3 I\rocking bird (Mimua polyplottoa) Catbird {Dumctclln. cai'olinensis) Brown thrasher {Toxoatoma rufum)^ Japanese robin {Lioihrix lutrua) laiughing 1 brush {(Jarriilax Icuctt- lopliua) Aiislrallan gray jumper {t^truthidva clnrrca) I Bishop linch {Tanagra, cpincopua) (hit-lhroat lineh {Amadhui faaeinta) — Zebra hneh (Amadina caattnadia) Black-headed tincli {Munia atrica- pilla.) Three-colored finch {Mimia malarra)^ White-liead(‘d tineh {MuuUt vioju) Nutmeg linch {Muiiia punctularid} . ^ Java sparrow (Muvia- oiv/;:(eorn.) White Java sparrow (Mania in u zivora) Black-faced Gouklian fin'!h (po^puihi ffouldi(P) R('(l-farefl Gouldiaii iiiicli {Pv<nhihL mirahilla) Sharp-tailed grass linch {Po-'plula umticauda) Cliestnut-l)reast«'d limdi {bomuola casiancofJiorax) Nnpolean weaver (Pyranu'tana n/ru) Madagascar weaver (Foudia m<ul<i.ga't- carirnaU) Red-billed weaver {Queh'a qurlcn) I radise wea v('r ( Vidua paradisra ) _ _ Red-crested cardinal {Paroaria cuad- Jata) * Common cardinal (Cardinalis cardi- nalia) SalTron linch (Syralia flavvola) Yellow hammer {Fmberiza citrinclla) ^ Common canary (Ferinua cimarlus)^. Cowbird (Molothrus atcr) Glossy starling (Laniprotot'nia cuiida- tus) European raven {('orvua cornx) Australian crow (Corrtia cor<nioidca) Whltc-throated jay {(J art ulus Ui^vo- tis) Blue jay {Cyanocitta crisiata) American magpie (Pica pica hud- aonica) Reel-billed magpie (Urocissa ocripi tails) Yellow tyrant (Pitangus sulphiiratus ruflpcnnia) Giant kingfisher {Dacclo gigas) Concave-casqued horubill (Dichoerroa biGortds) Reddish motmot {Momoiua aubrufes- ems) Yellow-brecsted lory ! Blue Mountain lory (Trichoglnsaua novccdiollarulice) Scaly-breasted lorikeet {Psitteutelcs chlorolcpidotua) Sulphur-crested cockatoo {Cacatua galcrita) White cockatoo (Cacatua alba) Great red-crested cockatoo {Cacatua moluocmsia) Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Oaoatua lead^ beat&ri) Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gywr nopid) BIBDS. 1 Ros<‘ate cockatoo (Cacatua rvsekut- 1 pilla) 1, Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ararau- 5 na) R('(l and yellow and i)Iue macaw (Ara 2 iiiacao) Rod and blue macaw (Ara chlorop- 2 tcra) 4 Gray-breasted jjarrakca't (Myopaiila- 2 cua monachua) 4 Cul-an parrot (Amarjonalcivoccphuhi) „ Festive amazon (Amazona fcatira)^ 4 Borto Rican amazon [Arnazona vit- G t(da) b Yellow-shouhb'red aina/on (Aniazuna^ G orhroptcra ) . 12 Yellow - fronted amazon (Arnazona oahrocrphala) 14 Yellov.'-napiMl amazon (Ainazoiia, aiui- palliaia) 2 Yeliow headed amazon (Arnazona. Ic- raiUanli) 2 r.lue-rroiited amazon (Aynazona aa- iira 1 ( ra y parrot (J '.s* i 1 1 a cu a ci i.'tUacna) Bt'sser vasa parrot 'ornf'cpaia nigra) ^ G Baioled iKUTakeet {P(d'i'ornia fuaci- 4 (da) .. ... Love bird • i . fiitd'iria) -1 Sited p ! rr.i : • ,! Iiipsittacua uu- 8 didalus) 8 Grt'al horned owl (Pubn l irgiulanua) .. Arctic horned ow! (llubo virgiidanus 2 aubarct icu.s) r>a rred owl (S'/rtiP rnrin) 1 S|>arro\v liawk (Fnlco s/o'rrrrb/s) Id Bald eagle ( Ilalia'ctua h ucorrphalua) .. 1 Ala^dia^ bald eagle (naUa'ciua hmeo- 1 cciihalus alo.ai'an us) \ Golden eagle (.^(luda chrysacioa) Australian eagle 1 Harpy <‘agle (Thraaactus harpyia) 1 Crowned hawk-eagJe (Spizai'tua coro- 1 natua) Cooper’s luiwk (Accipitcr cooperi) 1 Venezuelan hawk 1 Oarncara (l*<flyborua chcriway) BammergeytM’ ( Cypactua barbatu.a) __ 3 Secretary vultui(‘ (Cypogcninvs sccrc- lariua) 1 Smith American condor (Farcorhayn- p till a gryphua) 1 California condor (Cymnogypa vali- 2 farnianua) Griffon vulture (Cypa fulrua) 1 Cinereous vuKure (Vultur monacJi ua) .. Egyptian vulture (.Vcop/iroa pcicnop- 1 tcrua) 1 Turkey vnUurt' (raTbartca aura).. Black vulture (Calhnriaia uruhi)... 8 King vulture ((rgpagua papa) Snow pigeon (Columba lcv*'onot(i) 7 Red-billed pigeon (Colundai flaviros- iria) 3 Whlte-crowmed pigeon ((*olumba U.uco- 3 oopha-la) Band-tailed pigeon (Columba faaciata)^ 1 Mourning (love (Zenaidura macroura) ^ Peaceful dove (Ccop&lia trnnquilla) 1 Zebra dove (Ompdia striata) Gollared turtle-dove (Turtur riaoriMs) .. 3 Cape mabketl dove (QJJna oapdnsis)^^^ 12 2 7 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 C It 1 4 2 15 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 88 ANNUAL REPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916 , Australian crested pigeon {Ocyphaps lophotcs) 16 Wonga-wonga pigeon (Lcucosarcia picata) 12 Blue-headed quail-dove {Stiimcenm ryanoccphala) 4 Ked-bllled curassow {Craw caruncu- lata) 1 Mexican curassow {Craw yloMcera ) — 2 Pauben ton’s curassow {Crax dauhcrir toni) 2 Wild turkey {Mclcayria yallopavo ailvestris) 17 Peafowl iPavn cristata) 69 Peacock pheaHaut {Polylcvtron chin- quis) 1 Silver pheasant {Euplocarnus nycthe- mcrufi) 1 Bobwhite {ColinuH riryinia^ua) 1 Curasao crested quail {Eupaychortyx crUitatus) 3 Scaled quail {Callipepla aquainma )— 1 Valley quail {Lophortyx caliiarnica vallicola) 2 Gambel’s quail {Lophortyx pamhcli) 1 Massena quail {Cyrtunyx montezumw) 1 American coot (Fulica amcricana) 6 Great bustard (Otis tarda) 1 Common cariama {Cariama cristata)^ 1 Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides tirgo)^ 7 Crowned crane {Balearica paronina)- 2 Whooping crane {Grm amcricana) 1 Sand-hill crane (urus mcxicana) 4 Australian crane {Crua nustralaaiana) 1 European crane {Grua cincrca) 1 LUford’s crane {Grus lilfordi) 4 Indian white crane {Grus leuco- gcranus) 2 White-necked crane {Grus leucauchen) - 1 Ruff {Machetes pugnax) 1 Black-crowned night heron {Myctiroraw nyrticoraw na'rius) 12 Snowy egret {Egrctia candid issima)^ 3 Great blue heron {Ardea^ hcrodias) 1 Great black-crowned heron {Ardea cocoi) 1 Boatbill (Caftcroma cochlearia) 2 Black stork {Ciconia nigra) 1 Marabou stork {Leptoptilus duhius) 1 Wood ibis {Mycteria amcricana) 1 Sacred ibis {Ihis wthiopica) 3 White Ibis {Guara alba) 12 Roseate spoonbill {Ajaja ajaja) 2 European flamingo {Phmntcopterus roseus) 2 Black - necked screamer ( Cha/una chavaria) 3 Horned screamer (Pahmedca cor- nuta) 1 Whistling swan {dor columhianus) 4 Trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator) 2 Mute swan {Cygnus gibbus) 5 Black swan (Chenopis at rata) 3 Spur-winged goose {Platroptcrus gambmsis) 1 White muscovy duck (Cairina mas- chata) 1 REPTILES. Alligator {Alligator misslssippiensis) ^ 27 Painted box tortoise (Cistudo ornata)- 2 Duncan Island tortoise {Testudo ephippium) 2 Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo vicina) 1 Gila monster {Hclodcrma suspcctum) 3 Regal python (Python reticulatus) 8 Common boa (Boa constrictor) 4 Anaconda {Emeotes murinus) 1 Wood duck (Aix sponsa) 6 Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeric- ulata) 27 Cape Barren goose (Coreopsis novm hollandia) 2 Lesser snow goose (Chen hyper- borcus) 3 Greater snow goose (Chen hyper- boj'cus nivalis) 1 Blue goose (Chen arrulescens) 2 Ross’s goose (Chen romi) 1 American white-fronted goose (Anscr albifron^i gambeli) Barred-head goose (Anscr indicus) Chinese goose (Anscr cygnoidcs) Canada goose (Urania canadmsis) Hutchins’s goose (Urania canadensis hutch insii) Cackling goose (Urunta canadensis minima) Berniele goose (Uranta Icucopsis) Upland goose (Chlocphaga magcl- lanica) White-faced tree duck (J)cndrocygna riduata) Fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bi- eolor) Wandering tree duck (Dendrocygna arcuata) Ruddy sheldrake { Casarra fcrruginca) _ Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) East Indian black duck (Anas sp.) Black duck (Anas ruhripcs) European widgeon (Mareca penelope) Pintail (Dafila acuta) Blue-winged teal (Qucrqucdtila dis- cors) Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana^ pc- posaca) Red headed duck (Marila americana) American white pelican (Pelecmus crythrorhynchos) European white pelican (Pelevanus on ocro talus) Roseate pelican (Pclccanus roseus) Brown pelican (Pdveanus occiden- talis) Australian pelican (Pclccanus con- spicillatus) Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraw au- ritus floridanus) Water turkey (Anhinga- anhinga) Great black-hacked gull (Larus ma rinus) American herring gull (Larus argen- talus smith soninnus) Laughing gull (Larus atricilla) South African ostrich (i^truthio aus- tralis) Somali ostrich (Htruthio malybdo- phoncs) Common cassowary ((.'asuarius galea^ tus) Common rhea (Rhea amcricana) Emu (Dronueus novae hollandia ) Black snake (Zamcnis constrictor) Coach-whip snake (Zamenis flageL turn) Water snake (Natt'ix sipedon) Common garter snake (Eutwnia sir- tails) Texas water snake (E utaenia proximo) - King snake (Ophibolus getulus) Copperhead (Anoietrodon contortriw)^ CO fcOtOH* rfk tOM )-* to CX lOtO ® M to CO J-* tOfcO 0> •-JtOlOW hepobt of me seceetaey. 89 STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. Presented 60 Purchased 105 Born and hatched in the National Zoolo;,dcal Park 101 Received in exchan^^e 187 Received from Yellowstone National Park 2 Captured in National Zoological Park 1 Deposited in National Zoological Park 12 Total 474 8XIMMAKV. Animals on hand July 1, 1015 1,397 Accesssions during tlie year___ 474 1, 871 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, etc.) 488 On hand .lime 30, 1010 1,383 (’lass. Species. Indi- viduals. Mammals Ie5 ',74 < Birds 18'J 751 Replik'S l(i 58 Total ;(G0 i,:i83 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during tlie year, as determined by count and estimate, was 1,157,110, a daily average of 3,102. This was the largest year'’s attendance in the history of the park. The greatest number in any one month was 218,080, in April, 1910, an average per day of 8,209. The attendance by months was as follows: Ri/J.—July, 71,000; August, 79,100; September, 100,200; October, 121,000; November, 90,300 ; December, 34,050. lOKL—Jjinuary, .55,200; February, 58,380; March, 95,800; April, 248,080; iMay, 128,200; June, 74,300. One hundred and sixty-one schools, classes, etc., visited the park, with a total of 8,(‘)79 individuals. LMPRDVEMENTS. The hospital and laboratory building which was mentioned in last year’s report has been nearly completed, lacking only the interior fittings and the necessary outside yards. It is a pleasing structure, built, after the designs of the municipal architect, of blue gneiss of this neighborhood, warmly colored by infiltration of iron oxide. A retaining wall was built and some grading done to provide sufficient 90 AlSrKTJAL M?OllT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. area near the building for quarantine quarters for such animals as do not require artificial heat. Many of the chestnut trees surround- ing the building became blasted by the “chestnut blight” and had to be cut down. A roadway of tar-bound macadam was constructed about the building connecting with the nearest main driveway. Con- nection with the nearest sewer (in Klingle Koad) has been effected. Preparation should now be made to i)ut the laboratoi’y into effective operation. A modest sup]3ly of tlie necessary apparatus should be furnished in order that suitable facilities may be available for post mortem examination by the (h)vernment bureaus cooperating with the Z(X)logical Park. Attention has previously been called to the fact that the topog- raphy of the park is so irregular that it is difficult to find building sites wuth attached yards in convenient situations without extensive grading. A case in point (K*curs at the site of the barn which has been used for bison and other hoofed animals. The building here, made of logs with bark oiu has become unsightly by decay and re- quires extensive repairs. It is situated on a hill of small elevation, but the slopes of which are sufficiently steep to cause continual erosion when it is worn by the hoofs of the animals. It was there- •fore thought best to grade down this hill and fill up the adjoining gullies, much enlarging the area of the yards. In order to do this effectively, it was necessary to borrow earth from the prominent ridge that extends from the zebu house northwesterly to the camel ^uirds. About 25,000 square feet will be added to the level ground previously available. Only a portion of this work will be defrayed from the current ai)propriati()n, the remainder from next year’s appropriation. The wmrk was let out by contract, very favorable terms being se- cured. The additional paddocks thus obtained will be used, in part, for the exhibition of the beautiful ruminants presented to the park by the Duke of Bedford. New sheds were built in the pro]>erty yard for temporarily housing these animals and others displaced during the alteration of their regular quarters. A needed convenience was provided at th(‘ elephant's quarters by installing, at small cost, hydraulic lifts to raise the heavy doors which give access to the outside yards. The inclosure for ducks near tlie flight cage was reconstructed to make it safe from raccoons, etc. A concrete driveway was constructed in the rear of the bear yards to provide for convenient transfer of animals and care of the quarters. A motor truck was purchased during the year to haul food sup- plies, for which a trip is made every day except Sunday to the market BEPOKT OF THE SECRETARY. 91 and the fish wharf. A shelter house for the truck was built near the food house. Preparations were begun near the close of the year for building an additional toilet room for women, to be located in the valley a little below the large flight cage. ALTEUA'riON OF WESTERN BOUNDARY. It appears desirable to recapitulate for future reference the various stages through which this matter has passed. The following appro])riation was made by the act approved June 23, 1013 Readjustment of boundaries: For acquiring, t>y condoinnation, all the lots, pieces, <u‘ parcels of land, otlier than the one hcj'cinafler excepled, that lie between the present western boundary of the Xatioiial Z()olo.i:ical Park and Coiinectjcut Avenue from Cathedral Avmnie to KliiiKie Road, 1^107,200, or such ])ortion tlK'reof as may be necessary, said laud wlaai acquired, to;:;ethor Avith tlie incJudetl highways, to be add(al to and become a part of the National Zoologi- cal Park'. Tlie ])roeeedings for tbe condemnation of said laud shall be insti- tuted by tbe Secretary of the Treasury under and in accordance with the terms and provisions of subchapter 1 of chapter 15 of the Code of Law for the District of Columbia. As the act requires that the proceedings be instituted by the Sec- retary of the Treasury, the attention of that ofllcial was called to the matter in a letter from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, dated June 2S, 1913. A sjiecial survey and plat of tlie land re(piired was necessary, but this ])lat was not forwarded to the De])artment of elustice until November 5, 1913. Other delays en- sued; the title of the various owners of the land had to be investi- gated, and it was not until March 11, 1911, that the District court ordered a jury to be summoned. A hearing was set for April 10, 1914, and a final hearing of the case was heard by tlie jury on July 2 followfiug. The verdict of the jury was not filed until December 11, 1911. The hearing of objections to tlie verdict much delayed a final conclusion, especially as the time of the court ivas almost wholly occupied by a contest in an important will case. It was not until June 28, 1915, over two years from the passage of the appro- priation act, that the court confirmed the verdict as regards the awards for damages for the land to be taken. Tlie benefits assessed against the neigliboring [iroperty were set aside by this and by a subsequent decision of January 28, 1916. The decree of the court fixed the amount required for the purchase of the land at $194,438.08. The cost of the proceedings for condemnation was $2,203.35. The great delay caused by these legal proceedings occasioned an- other complication. The appropriation made by the act of June 23, 1913, was not a continuing one, but lapsed at the end of one year. 92 ANKXJAL BKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Consequently after June 30, 1915, there was nothing available to defray the purchase of the land. An item for an additional appropriation and for a reappropria- tion of the original sum appropriated by the act of June 23, 1913, was submitted to Congress, but was not favorably considered by the House of Eepresentatives. It was introduced in the Henate as an amendment to the sundry civil bill, but was dropped by the confer- ence committee. A similar item was offered in the Senate as an amendment to the District of Columbia appropriation bill, was accej)ted in Committee of the Whole, but thrown out finally in consequence of an appeal for retrenchment. It is greatly to be regretted that this appropriat!t>n failed, as it is exceedingly desirable that the anomalous and inconvenient situation of the park should be remedied as soon as possible. It now fronts on no principal thoroughfare and attains none of the dignity which an institution controlled by the Government should have. LMPOHTANT NEEDS. A inary huildtng ,—Attention has been called to the need for this building iji almost e^’ery annual report since 1908. The following is an extract from that document: The temporary bird house is crowded during the wintcu’ fnr beyond its proper capacity, and it Is impossible to care for birds satisfactori1>'. When it was built, {ind also at the tinu' that additions w(‘iv inad(\ the funds available for the purpose were so small that it was necessary to build in the clieapost manner possible, so that the lionse has already retpiirc'd considerable repair and will very soon have to be largely rebuilt. Tlu' park has a j^ood collection of birds, including a number id‘ rare, interesting, and valuable spe<*iinens, sufficient to fill at once a large aviary and make one of the most important and attractive features of the park. In the report for 1909 will be found the following: The need for a structure of this character is evident to any intelligent visitor to the park. Only a part of the collection can now be exhibited to the public, because of lack of room. A number of outdoor shelters and cages should also be provided for the exhibition of hardy birds. Again, in the repoi-t for 1912 will be found In spite of all efforts the fine collection of birds in the park is very far from being adequately housed. The woodeu building in which the larger number are kept is too small, too low, Insanitary, and really unworthy of a national Institution. It was built in the cheapest manner to m(^et an emergency, and, although considerable sums have been spent on it for repairs, it is far from satisfactory. It is desired to build a suitable aviary in the western part of the park and to group about this the cages for the eagles, vultures, condors, and owls, now scattered somewhat irregularly about the grounds. It is believed that a suitable structure can be built for about $80,000. EEPORT OP THE SECRETAEY. 93 It was again urged in 1914 as follows Attention lian been called for several years past to the importance of erecting a suitable house for the care and preservation of the birds of the collection, most of which are now housed in a low wooden temporary structure which is by no means suitable for the purpose and has to be constantly renewed by repairs. The matter has been repeatedly urged upon Congress and an appro- priatien of $80,000 asked for a new structure. This is by no means an extrava- gant sum, as the aviaries of most zoological collections cost considerably more than tills. Also, in 1915 Progressive deterioration of the temporary bird house again made repairs necessary there. Th(‘ wooden tloor, which had already been rebuilt twice, was replaced with concrete, as was also a part of the wood(m foundation. The cost of this work was $700. This building is an example of the ultimate costliness of cheap temporary construction. An aviary building is still a most urgent need, and rc^peated efforts have been made to secure an appropia’ation for tliis purpose. It has been with great difficulty that the collection of birds has been kept in a fairly presentable condition. The building in which they are housed is a \'ery common frame structui*e that has been repaired several times. The birds are crowded and not exhibited to advantage. In view of the fact that line aviaries have been built at New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago, it st^eins most unfor- tunate that the national collection should have to be housed in this manner. It has been uiost unfavorably criticised by visitors. The urgent needs oL‘ the park will be by no means satisfied by the construction of an aviary only. There are other buildings urgently needed for the pro])cr housing and exhibition of the animals and the comfort of the ])ul)lic. Among these are the following mentioned in the report of last year A huUding for elephants^ hippopotami^ and similar animals .—The park has at present several interesting animals belonging to this group, including two sj)ccies of elephants, two fine hippopotami, four tapirs, and other specimens. Someof these animals are large and powerful, and it is dilliciilt to keep them safely in the insecure quar- ters to which it has been necessary to assign them. It is also reason- ably certain that other similar animals wdll be added to the collection within a short time. A house for this groiij) should be substantially constructed and occupy a space of at least 170 by 88 feet, wdtli cages on both sides, 80 feet deep on one side and 60 feet on the other. A public comfort building and restaurant .—This should be a building about 80 feet by 60 feet, including porches and a rest room for ladies. It is urgently needed, as the park is a considerable dis- 94 AKKXJAL REt'OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. tance from town and is annually visited by over 1,000,000 people, including many young cliildren. The present restaurant is so only in name, it being a makeshift affair, open on all sides, established on a temporary phitform and affording no shelter during the driving and violent rainstorms tliat are so common here in summer. It fre- quentl}^ occurs that large numbers of people are drenched with rain before the}^ can traverse the considerable distance between tlie deep valley in which the park is situated and a place of shelter. Most zoological parks aie provided with spacious and commodious quar- ters of this kind. Gatehouses .—Suitable gatehouses should be erected at the principal entrances to the park, viz : Those near Connecticut Avenue, at Quarry Hoad (Harvard Street), and at Adams Mill Road. It is sometimes necessary to close the entrances ])rompt]y, as in the case of the escape of an animal or for arrest of some offender. Besides this, the present entrance gates are far from dignified or suitable for a Government institution. They are properly merely temporary, awaiting the time when the boundaries of the park arc definitely fixed. Each gate- house should have not onlj^ quarters for the watchman but also toilet facilities. Boundary fence .—In connection with this tliC inclosing boundary fence of the park should be considered. The present fence is of the type known as the “Page woven-wire fence.*’ It is believed that it would be more economical and efficient to con- struct a practically permanent iron fen(‘e than to replace the present nearly worn-out structure by anotlier of similar character. It is sug- gested that the matter be i-eferred to several iron-fence liuilders with a request for designs and prices. Mdiile the first cost of sucdi a fence would undoubtedly be much greater, it would many times outlast the present structure and could be absolutely de])ended on to stop animals and men. Certain animals and game birds could be allowed to run at large within the park were it entirely certain that the fence would prevent their escape. We already have at large peacocks, wild tur- keys, and squirrels, and it would be easy to considerably increase this list. It should be remembered that on several rare occasions caged animals have become loo.se within the park, and it is by no means certain that such accidents will not again occur. A few years ago the superintendent of the park was sued for damages alleged to be due to the escape of a wolf. The park is well wooded and a sudden heavy gale may throw tree trunks across the paddock fences, break- ing them dowui and thus leading to the escape of the animals. Should this occur during the darkness of a stormy night it would be practi- cally impossible for the keepers and watchmen to confine the animals again until daylight. JlEPOBt OP PHP SECBETAUY. 95 These improvements were urged in the last year’s report. There are others perhaps equally important which are needed to bring the establishment up to the modern standard of what a zoological park ought to be. Most of these have been mentioned fi'om time to time in other reports or* have been urged upon the appropriation com- mittees of Congress. They are brielly as follo'ws: Administration hnilding.—The present ollice of the park is in an old dwelling house situated i*ather remotely from the buildings for the animals and inconveniently for the prompt and constant supervision of the operations of the park, as is the general practice in the foreign zoological gardens. A modest office building should now be erected in a central location. This Avould gi‘eatly ex])edite the general work of the park and improve tlie discipline of the working force. It is estimated that a- building 50 by 3() feet, to contain office rooms, a drafting room, and a room for specimens would be sufficient. Stahle and forage ham ,—There should be a stable and gjirage where the work horses and automobiles of the park could be stored. These should be on the ground floor, a storage loft for forage above. The dimensions should be at least 100 by 40 feet. Shop ,—The present shop is not large enough to accommodate conveniently the carpenters employed at the ]>arlc. The woodwork- ing plant is now dangerously near the blacksmith shop and the cen- tral heating plant. A separate building 100 by 4G feet should be erected. Ape house .—Special (juarters should bo i)rovided for the large anthropoid apes. Tliese arc ]>i*ol)ably the most interesting animals that can be exhibited and reciuire special treatment and care. The group comi)rises the gorilla, the orang, several species of cliimpanzee and of gibbon. They are so nearly related to man that observation and study of them is of the highest impoj'tance. The park has now only a chimpanzee, and it has been necessaiy to provide special (piar- ters for him. It would be quite proper to place in the same building some of the larger species of baboons, as they re(iuire neaily the same treatment. A house for these animals should have a main building 150 by 60 feet, cages on l)oth sides, and a Aving 90 by 60 feet also, with similar cages. Outside cages should be erected along the 150 feet of the main building 18 feet deep, along the sides and end of wing 16 feet deep. Lion house ,—The house now occupied by the (‘at tribe is (piite too small for the purpose, and it has ahvays been intended to increase its capacity both by replacing the wooden extension by a masonr}^ structure and by building an addition 120 feet long across the north end of the present building. This, of course, would be fitted with cages both within and without. 96 AKKIJAL EEK)ET SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. Reptile home ,—^No properly appointed house for reptiles now exists here, and the few specimens we have are inconveniently and unsuitably exhibited in the lion house. There should be a house 120 by 50 feet, with properly fitted cases on both sides and having a wing 20 by 50 feet with table exhibits. This would enable the park to exhibit all the important snakes of the United States and the prin- cipal ones of the western hemisphere, as well as the cobras and others of tropical East India; also the extremely varied group of lizards, the different species of crocodiles, etc. Tortoise house ,—Almost at the inception of the park a group of giant tortoises from the Galapagos Islands was obtained from lion. Walter Eothschild. These still remain and might well form the nucleus of a collection of the tortoises of the world. A house 80 by 45 feet, with cages on both sides and yards 1C feet deep, would accom> modate such a collection. Jlouse for zehros^ wild asses, and others of the horse family . The park has already an interesting exliibit of this family including the Mongolian wild hors(3 and two species of zebra. This should be enlarged and suitable quarters i>rovided in a house 120 by 44 feet. The stalls should be on one side only and yards 50 feet deep be arranged. House for tropical antelopes .—The teeming Afi’ican fauna should be represented much more fully. It would require a house at least 175 feet by 75 with stalls on both sides and with commodious yards arranged about it in an elliptical foiin i*anging in dei)th from 40 feet to 80 feet. Some of the stalls should be fitted up for giraffes. House for tropical deer and swine .—A few sj)ecimons are already found in the collection. An adequate exhibit would reejuire a house 100 feet by 45 feet with cages on both sides, the yards 30 feet deep on one side and 50 feet on the other. House for marsupials .—The group of pouched animals, such as kangaroos, wallabies, opossums, wmmbats, Tasmanian Tvolves, etc., should be exhibited apart from the other mammals. These animals are dying out, rapidly diminishing in number year by year. They should have a house 120 feet by 40 feet with cages on both sides, the yards being GO feet deep on one side, 20 feet on the other. Pheasantry .—Besides the general aviary building, which it is hoped may soon be erected, separate quarters should be provided for cer- tain groups of birds. Among these are the i)heasants, comparatively hardy birds of very showy plumage, offering great variety. An exhibit can be secured at a reasonable expense. A house for them should be a low structure 140 by 18 feet. Visitors should not be admitted to this house ; the birds would be seen in the outside yards which should be about 25 feet deep. A small appropriation will be asked of the present Congress for the establishment of a pheasantry. BEPOKT OF THE SECRETARY, 97 Ostrich house ,—The ostriches and their near relatives the emus, the rheas, and the cassowaries are so large and important that they should have a house to themselves. This should be 120 feet by 35 feet, with cages on one side only and yards giving plenty of room for exercise from 30 to 100 feet deep. Tropical ivaterfowl ,—These birds require heat during the cold season and the house would be really their winter quarters. During the summer they would be in the large “ flight cage” or in some other outdoor inclosure. A house T20 by 50 fe43t, with cages on one side and one end, would be required. Tropical birds of prey .—These require similar treatment but could not, of course, be housed wdth the waterfowl. A house 80 by 45 feet with cages on both sides and outside cages 18 feet deep would be needed. Aquarium ,—An exhibit of fish and other aquatic creatures is neces- sary to a complete survey of the domain of zoology. Such an exhibit was for a few years shown at the park and was one of tlie most popu- lar features of the collection. It was installed in a rude frame struc- ture erected for tempoi’ary use as a carpenters’ shop. The tanks and other apparatus were furnished by the United States Fish Commis- sion, having been used at the Atlanta Exposition. The building be- came quite unsafe and in 1901 Congress was asked to appropriate $25,000 toward the construction of a permanent structure. As this was not granted it became necessarj^ to abandon the exhibit until such time as Congress may enable it to be properly housed. A building about 130 by 50 feet would be sufficient for the present. Insectary .—In several European gardens an exhibit under glass is made of social and other interesting insects, such as ants, bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, etc. These have proved very attractive and are inexpensive. A house 60 feet by 30 feet with wall cases and table cases would accommodate such an exhibit. The foregoing list merely recapitulates the needs of a fairly com- plete establishment such as may be seen in the European capitals. It would bo well if the municipal architect, to whom the park is required to go for plans and specifications for buildings, could be asked to prepare estimates of cost for all of the above improvements to pre- sent to Congress. In order to accommodate the buildings a considerable amount of grading should be done. The park is already cramped for space for convenient parking of vehicles upon crowded days. Over 50 automo- biles and sight-seeing cars are sometimes assembled here at once, and there is great difficulty in managing them. A request for an appro- priation of $4,000 for grading banks and filling ravines which was asked of Congress last year will be renewed. &8 ANIsfUAL KI:F0RT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916 . Automohile.—The office of the park very much needs to have a small automobile for use in attending to the public business. The distances within the park itself are so considerable that it is a great waste of time and energy to traverse them on foot, or by horse vehicle, and the use of an automobile would greatly increase effi- ciency in the business of the park. The purchase does not involve any increase of tlie appropriation for the park, but merely the insertion of a clause in the ap])ropriation act authorizing the purchase of a motor-pr(g)el led a ehiele. Roads .—The ordinary thorougli fares in (he park were, at the close of the fiscal year, in fair condition. N(thing has been done, how- ever, toward the repairing of the injury done by the construction by the District of the main trunk scAver kiioAvn as the Hock Creek Main Interceptor. Attempts Avere made to gxt an a]>])ropriation to repair this defacement of the natural beauty of tlie park, but as yet without avail. The remarks tlien made Avero as folloAvs: By authority of Congress a large sew(‘r has been constructed on the right bank of Kock Creek through the enlire lenglli of tlie [nirk, part of it being laid in a deep open cut, and i):irt of it in a tuniKa, A very large amount of roek has been excavated by blasting and. this has been piUal along bank of the stream, destroying the natural beauty of the park by large piles of fragments of stone. While the contractor Avas reciuiivd to “ restore the surface as nearly as possible to the condition in which he found it,” yet the amount of disturbance is so great that it Is practically impossible to do this. It is proposed to cover these Stone heaps Avith earth and to plant upon tliom trees and shrul)S which will modify tlie unsightly appearance. A narrow road can be formed upon the top of the open cut soAver which will be a convenience to the public entering the park from the soutiiern end. The general appropriation for the park has remained at $100,000 per annum for six years past. This has had to suffice for the repairs and construction of buildings, the care of grounds, and the mainte- nance of roads and walks. In the meantime the cost of supplies, ma- terials of all kinds, and labor has steadily increased so that there has been no opportunity to make even the most necessary improvements. The appropriations should be markedly increased, since a well- equipped zoological park is something of which the nation may Avell be proud. Respectfully submitted. Frank Baker, Superintendent. Dr. Charles T). Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution., Washing ton^ D. 0. Appendix 5. REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Sir: I have the honor to present the fcillowing report on the opera- tions of the Smithsonian Astroph^^sictil Observatory for tlie 3^ear ending June 30, 191G. i:qeipmi:nt. The cqiii})meiit of the observatory is as follows: (a) At Washington there is an indosure of al)out 16,000 square feet, containing five small frame buildings used for observing and computing purposes, three movable fi*ame shelters covering several out-of-door pieces of ap])aratus, and also one small brick building containing a storage battery and electrical distribution appaiaitiis. (ft) At Mount Wilson, Cal., upon a leased plat of ground 100 feet square, in horizontal projecti<'n, are located a one-stoiw ceTuerit ob- serving structure, designed (‘specially for solar-constant measure- ments, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for observer’s quarters. Upon the observing shelter at Mount Wilson there is a tower 40 feet liigh above the 12-root ]>iers which had been prepared in the original construction of the building. This tower is equipped with a tower telescope for use when observing (with the spectrobo- loineter) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk. During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or con- structed at the observatory shop. The value of these additions to the instrumental equipinent is estimated at $1,500. WORK OF THE YEAR. 1. AT WASHINGTON. Some years ago the Institution lent the Harvard College Observa- tory a silver-disk pyrheliometer for use at Arequipa, Peru. By re- quest of Prof. Pickering the observations which had accumulated since August, 1912, were reduced at the Astrophysical Observatory and published by the Smithsonian Institution during the past year.^ Owing to the high altitude of Arequipa the variations of solar radia- tion observed at a fixed zenith distance of the sun (as, for instance, ' Arequipa Pyrbellometry, Smltheoniau Misc. CoU., Vol. 65, No. 9, 1916. 100 ANKUAL f^EPORT SMITHSONIAK INSTITUTION, 1916. that whose secant is 1.2) were found to be almost wholly governed by three things—the atmospheric humidity, the distance of the sun, and the variations of the sun’s emission. Hence from measurements of the humidity by the psychrorneter it was possible to compute from the observed radiation the probable intensity of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere foi- each day. These empirical solar-constant values from Arequipa observations confirm the variations of the sun observed at Mount Wilson by the complete spectrobolometric process. Indeed, it appears that if eight or ten well-separated stations at high altitudes should be equipped with the pyrheliometer and psychrome- ter their combined results might well be expected to determine closely enough the sun’s variations. A most interesting feature of Arequipa observations is that there is nothing anomalous about the observations of 1912 to suggest that the volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai (of June 6, 1912), which produced a great deal of dust all over the northern hemisphere, produced any turbidity of the atmosphere whatever south of the Equator. Kesults of Mount Wilson solar-constant observations have been furnished in advance of publication to Dr. Bauer of the Carnegie Institution for comparison with magnetic data. He finds a close correlation between certain fluctuations of the earth’s magnetic field and the variations of solar radiation. The tower-telescope observations of the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the sun’s disk, made at Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914, having been fully reduced, a preliminary publication of them has been made by the Smithsonian Institution.^ These results show distinctly that the average distribution of solar radiation over the solar disk varies from year to year. Greater contrast of bright- ness between the center and limb of the sun prevailed in 1907 and 1914 than in 1913. The change is greater for short wave lengths than for longer ones. Changes also occur from day to day. Both of these kinds of changes are found correlated with changes of the solar constant of radiation, but in opposite senses. High values of the solar radiation attend periods of greater solar activity and are associated with increased contrast of brightness between the center and edge of the solar disk. For short-period fluctuations of solar radiation, however, low values of solar radiation are associated with increased contrast. It seems reasonable to suppose that the first kind of phenomena is caused by increased convection in the sun, bringing fresh radiating surfaces forward more rapidly, thus increasing the effective solar temperature. The second kind of phenomena may be caused by temporary increases of the turbidity of the outer solar envelopes, restricting the solar emission especially at the limb. ' On tk9 dlstributloB of radiation over the sun’s disk and new evidence of the solar varlablUt;^, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 66, No. 5, May, 1916. BEPOET OF THE SECEETARY. 101 Mount Wilson observations of 1915, including both the solar-con- stant work and the tower work, have been almost all reduced. Mr. Fowle has continued at intervals between other work the re- duction of his numerous observations of the transmission of rays of great wave length through long columns of air of known humidity. Many sources of error have required to be considered and eliminated, and the reading and reduction of the curves of observation was ex- tremely tedious. The results are at length reaching such a stage that it can be seen that they fall into excellent agreement and will be of high interest in connection with studies of the earth’s temperature as dependent on its radiation outward tow^ard space. In fact, the results of Mr. Fowle’s work arc expected to be ready for publication within a short time. For some years we have endeavored to design and construct an in- strument capable of measuring accurately the intensity of sky light by day and of radiation outward toward the whole sky by night. At last success seems to be reached in an instrument devised by Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich and constructed by Mr. Kramer. The instrument is called the pyranometer, from the Greek wmrds Trvp, fire, dud, up, ixtTpov^ a measure; thus designating an instrument adapted to measure heat coming from or going to space above. The pyranometer is somewhat after the principle of the Angstrom pyrheliometer, in that the intensity of radiation is measured by electrical compensating currents, whose strength is adjusted with reference to the indications of a delicate thermocouple. A full ac- count of the instrument has been published by the Smithsonian Institution,^ including the tests which have been made to determine its accuracy by comparisons in solar measurements with the pyrheli- ometer. Com]3]ete accord between the two instruments is found at all altitudes of the sun when due regard is paid to the fact that the pyranometer presents a horizontal surface. The pyranometer seems to be suitable for botanical investigations, for it is capable of measur- ing the radiation even in deep shade, as in forests and greenhouses, as well as in full sun. In short, it can measure radiation in all situa- tions where plants are accustomed to grow, except under water. The consideration of the pyranometer has led us to undertake the determination of the constant ordinarily called “sigma” of Stefan’s formula of radiation, according to which the emission of a perfect radiator per square centimeter per second is equal to the fourth. power of the absolute temperature multiplied by “sigma.” In recent years a good deal of disagreement has arisen as to the value of “ sigma.” We require to use it for certain tests of the py- ^ The pyranometer—an instrument for measuring sky radiation : Smithsonian Mlsc. Coll., Vol. 6ti, No. 7, May, 1916. 73839**—SM 1916- 8 102 AKKTTAL EEPOET SMITHSONIAK IITSTITUTTON, lOlC. ranometer and have devised a new method which seems very free from error for making its determination. The apparatus has been constructed and is now set up practically ready for use. 2. AT MOUNT WILSON. Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich continued observations at Mount Wil- son of the solar constant of radiation from July 1 to October 22, 1915, and renewed the expedition early in June, 191G. Besides con- ducting solar-constant observations and determinations of the dis- tribution of light over the sun’s disic in seven di fferent wave lengths on each favorable day, comparisons of the pyrhelioineters used or- dinarily on Mount Wilson were made in both 1915 and 191G with standard water-floAv pyrheliometer Xo. 3. The comparisons showed no change to have occurred in the sensitiA^eness of secondary pyrheli- ometers Nos. IV and VTI, on Avhose readings I’cst the solar-constant determinations made at Mount Wilson since 190G. A good deal of attention was also given to the installation and trial of a solar cooking apparatus comprising ovens heated by oil under gravity circulation maintained by heat collected by a concave cylindric mirror of about 100 square feet siiiface. The apparatus seems highly promising, but owing to a couple of defects Avas not in satisfactory operation until after the close of the period covered by this report. a. I’ROPOSED S0LAI{-(X)NSTAN1’ EXPEDITION. On recommendation of the Avriter an allotment Avas made from the Hodglcins fund of the Sinithsonian Institution for the purpose of duplicating the solar-constant Avork of Mount Wilson at the most favorable station on the earth. The expedition is being prepared and will go forAvard, probably to South America, in the summer of 1917. It is intended to continue solar-constant determinations by the spectro-bolometric method on every favorable day in every month of the year for several years at both Mount Wilson and the station in South America, with a vieAv to determining the dependence of the earth’s climatic conditions on the sun’s variations of radiation. SUMMARY. Observations of several kinds haA^e been made, reduced, and pub- lished which support one another in confirming the variability of the sun, and some of which tend to indicate dual causes of it. An expedition is proposed to occupy the most favorable station in South America for several years, beginning in 1917, for the purpose of making, in connection with the Mount Wilson observations, a full BEPOET OP THE SECEETAET. 103 and accurate determination of the solar variation for comparison with climatic changes. Measurements of the transmission of long- wave rays through long columns of moist air are almost ready for publication and appear to be i-esulting very satisfactorily. A new instrument, called the pyranometer, for measuring skylight and nocturnal radiation has been tested and found accurate. Kespcctfully submitted. C. G. Abbot, Director Asfropliyslcal Ohservatory. Dr. C. D. Walcott, Secretary of the Srnithsotua7t, Institution. Appendix 6. EEPORT ON THE LIBRARY. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the library of the Smithsonian Institution during the fiscal year ending June 80, 1916: The number of packages of books received during the year was 31,017, as compared with 29,928 packages in the year preceding. Of these 29,619 were received by mail and 1,400 through the Inter- national Exchange Service. Correspondence in connection with these included 1,241 letters and 3,997 acknowledgments on the regular printed form. The total accessions of books, pamphlets, and parts of sets aggi’egated 11,755. SMITHSONIAN MAIN LIBRARY. Publications for the main Smithsonian library are forwarded each day, after entering, to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Con- gress. Those catalogued and accessioned during the fiscal year num- bered in all 18,637, which may be further described as 8,101 volumes, 739 parts of volumes, 8>83 pamphlets, 18,155 periodicals, 211 charts and 1,038 parts of serials to complete sets; extending the numbers in the accession book from 521,617 to 525,255. The cataloguing included 5,045 volumes, 200 chaids, and the adding of 738 new^ titles and the making of 5,329 typewritten cards; 3,480 printed cards from the Librai-y of Congress for })ublications de- posited by the Institution were filed in the (aitalogue. In addition, 3,596 volumes were recatalogued on standard size cards, from the old catalogue for inclusion in the new catalogue. Documents relating to public matters and statistics of foreign countries, presented to the Smithsonian Institution largely in return for its own publications, were forwarded to the Library of Congress without stamping or recording, continuing a policy of some years standing. The publications sent in this way numbered 4,642. Dissertations were received from Utrecht, Toulouse, Lund, ITpsala, Leiden, Leipzig, Giessen, Paris, Bern, Pennsylvania, and Johns Hop- kins, and from the Technical Hochschules of Berlin and Stuttgart. 104 EEPOET OF THE SECRETAEY, 105 Mr. Herbert A. Gill, administrator of the estate of Dr. Theodore Nicholas Gill, has presented his brother’s scientific library to the Smithsonian Institution with the understanding that it is to be credited to the estate and that such publications as relate to the work of the Museum shall be placed in that library. The securing of exchanges in return for Smithsonian publications and missing parts to complete the sets have been continued, notwith- standing war conditions abroad, and the results have added new titles and completed sets and series. In response to the requests for missing parts in the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress 50 sets were completed and 1,038 ])arts supplied. These numbers include the completing of 30 sets in the series of publications of learned in- stitutions and scientific societies, and the supplying of 821 paii:s and the completing of 20 volumes of periodicals, and the supplying of 212 separate numbers. SMITHSONIAN OFFICE LIBRARY. The office library includes a collection of books relating to art, the employees library, and various works of reference, besides quite an extensive aeronautical library. In tlie reference room the transactions of scientific societies, and in the reading room the current foreign and domestic periodicals, have been in constant use. In the latter there are now 189 titles on the shelves. In addition to the use of the library by the scientific staff of the Institution, almost all of the bureaus of the Government have availed themselves of the privileges of consulting and using the publications in the libraries. From the reference and reading rooms in the Institution 3,330 publications were circulated during the year. Of these 473 were bound volumes and 2,857 were single periodicals. Additions have been made to the aeronautical collection by way of exchange and by purchase of a few of the important works recently published. An acquisition of special value was a number of refer- ence works formerly in the library of Maj. Baden-Powell. A scrap book of articles from the older magazines is of interest, as describing early inventions in the arts, brought together and arranged in chronological order. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell has continued to add to his collection of works relating to aeronautics by contributing 33 books and 37 portfolios and periodicals. This working library, which Dr. Bell used constantly while carrying on his experiments in aeronautics, will be of great value to students in the future. In addition to Dr. Bell’s gift a total of 58 volumes were added during the year. 106 ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY. The library of the National Museum has been handicapped, as has almost every library in the country, by the nonreceipt of many European publications on account of the war. Accessions .—There are now in the Museum library 47,713 volumes, 79,241 pamphlets and unbound papers, and 124 manuscripts. During the year just closed the accessions numbered 1,895 volumes, 2,873 pamphlets, and 72 parts of volumes. Cataloguing .—New matcidal was entei'ed as received and sent out to the shch es or to the sectional libraries, so that it Avould be avail- able at once to those interested. The reeataloguing from the larger cards to the standard size, and the identification of the publications has Ix'en continued. The new publications catalogued numbered 914 books, 3,157 pam- phlets, and the total number of cards made was 4,009. The periodi- cals and parts of jjublications catalogued numbered 9,074, and peri- odical cai’ds vere made for 25 new publications; 2,025 section cards were made foi’ periodicals assigned to sectional libraries, and 460 new periodical cards were written for the IMuseum library record. There were rccatalogued 135 Itooks, 275 pamphlets, nece.ssitating the making of 415 cai'ds. Exchanges.—Notwith.standing the conditions abroad, the efforts to secure missing jiai’ts and new exchanges have been continued. In connection with this work 257 letters weiT written, with the result that many parts that were kicking were sup]died and many new titles were secured. Loam .—During the year the loans from the general library num- bered 12,08.5 publications, which includes books assigned to the sec- tional libraries, 4,978; 3,228 books borrowed from the Library of Congress, which included those from the Smithsonian collection; 207 from the Department of Agriculture library; 100 from the United States Ceological Survey; 50 from the Array Medical Museum library; and 11 from other places. From the Museum shelves there were borrowed 3,511 volumes, and 1,899 section cards were made. Binding .—^Thc binding of the publications that have come to the Museum in parts, or paper covei s, in order that they may be prop- erly cared for and saved from destruction, is still a serious matter, as many remain unbound. It was possible this year to bind more than last year, which has relieved the situation; but it will take several years, at the present rate, to catch up with the needs of the library in this direction. EEPOET OF THE SECBETARY. 107 Thei’e were 790 volumes prepared and sent to the Government bj;ridei\ Of this number G25 were returned to the ISIuseum before the close of the year. Gifts ,—Tlie folloAving persons have contributed to tlie collection in the building: Dr. William Healey Dali, Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, Dr. Charles Doolittle Walcott, Dr. Oliver l^erry Hay, Dr. F. Alex- ander McDermott, Dr. F. P. Dewey, Dr. Walter Hough, Mr. William E. Maxon, Dr. A. C. Peale estate, and the estate of Dr. Theodore Xicholas Gill. Doll Collection,—Dr. William Healey Dali has continued to con- tribute to his collection of books relating to mollusks which he pre- sented some years ago for the sectional library of the division of mollusks. Since July 1, 1915, he has added 207 titles. GUI collection .—All the books and pamphlets from the estate of Dz\ Theodore Nicholas Gill are being classified and arranged so that they can be propci’ly distributed. From the hasty examination made in looking over the collection as it was being transferred it appears that the Museum library will have a valuable addition to its series of works relating to natural history, esi)ecially in zch- thyolog}\ Technological series ,—In this branch of the library lliere have been catalogued 1,052 volumes and 2,125 pamplilets, making a total of 3,177. The cards typewritten and tiled in connection with this work numbered 3,505, the periodicals entered 3,631. The books and pamjzhlets withdrawn for consultation in connection with the work of the Museum from this part of the library num- bered 537. This is in addition to tliose borrowed from the central library. Ihc filing of cards in the scicntilic depository set of ])rinted cards from the Library of Congress has been continued. Two thousand and thirty-three author cards and 4,031 subjects cards were placed in the alphabetical series. Sectioniil lihrarics,—The checking of publications assigned to the sectional libraries has been continued as the other Avork would allow, and while some ]n‘ogress has been made the work is not near com- pletion. The following is a complete list of the sectional libraries: AdrainistratioD. Administrative assistant’s olliee. Anthroi>ology. Biology. Birds. Botany. Comparative anatomy. Editor's ottice. Ethnology, Fishes. G(H)logy. Graphic arts. History. Insects. 108 AI^TKIJAL BBPOET SMITHSONIAK INSTITUTION, 1916. Invertebrate paleontology. Mammals. Marine invertebrates. Materia modica. Mechanical technology. Mesozoic fossils. Mineral technology. Minerals. MoHusIvkS. Oriental archeology. Paleobotany. LIBKAllY OF BUREAU Ol^ The collection of works relatin; the etlinologist-in-cliar^o, and an found in the report of that bureau ASTROPIIYSICAL OB^ The collection of reference work sta»t use, and during the year the of volumes, and 18 parnpldcts. NATTONAl. ZOOLOG [ Parasites. Photography. Physical anthropology. Prehistoric archeology. I'roperty clerk. Reptiles and bntrachians. Superintendent s office. Taxidermy. Textiles. A^'ertobral i )n leont ol ogy AxMERIOAL ETHNOLOGY. ; to ethnology is administered by account of its operations will be ERVATORY TJBRARY. s relating to astrophysics is in con- •e were added G1 volum(‘s, 20 parts ^AL PARK TJBRARY. This library contains pubbeations relating to the work of the park and the care of the animals, reports of other zoological parks, and works on landscape gardening. The number of publications added was 21 volumes and 5 pamphlets. SUMMARY OF AtVESSIONS. The accessions during the year, with the exception of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, may be summarized as follows: To the Smithsonian depo.sit in the Library (»f Goncress, including parts to complete sets 5^ 472 To the Smithsonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoo- logical Park 443 To the United States National Museum 4^ 840 Total ^ „ 11,755 Respectfully submitted. Paul Brockett, Assistant Lihrana/n. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Appendix 7. EEPOET ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States Bui-eau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal 3^ear ending June BO, 1916: Each year 17 volumes of the catalogue are published by the Central Bureau in London, one volume for each of the following named sciences: Mathematics, mechanics, physics, cliemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, geography, palaeontology, gen- eral biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, anthropology, physiology, and bacteriology. The publication was begun in 1901, and since then all of the first 11 annual issues have been published, together with 14 volumes of the twelfth issue, 10 volumes of the thirteenth issue, and 1 volume of the fourteenth, a total of 212 regular volumes, in addition to several special volumes of schedules, lists of journals, etc. The 14 volumes of the twelfth issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geography, palaeontology, general biolog}^, botany, zoology, anatomy, and anthropology. The 10 volumes of the thirteenth issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geography, palaeontology, general biology, and zoology. The one volume of the fourteenth issue published is zoology. During the year there were 24,160 classified references to American scientific literature prepared by this bureau as follows: Literature of 1908 6 1909 2 1910 75 1911 H09 1912 885 1913 3.948 1914 8, 750 1915 10, 175 Total 24,100 It was, of course, inevitable that an international cooperative enter- prise such as the International Catalogue should be affected by the m 110 ANISVAL EKPORT SMITHSOmAN TKSTITUTION; 1916. war in Europe, but it is a matter of congratulation that the prepara- tion and publication has been continued with comparatively little change. As was pointed out in the last report the finances of the catalogue had been seriously affected on account of the inability to collect the subscriptions from Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, and Poland. Before the beginning of the war the receipts and expenditures of the London Central Bureau approximately balanced and therefore as the delinquent remittances from the five subscribing countries above mentioned amounted to almost $G,000 a year it was necessary to obtain this sum in order to continue the luiblication. The Royal Society of London very generously offered to make good this loss of income and made a grant of £1,100 to enable the thirteenth annual issue to be published. The Royal Society has sub- sequently granted additional sums aggregating £3,750 to enable the Central Bureau to continue the publication of the catalogue without interruption. A request having been made for assistance from the United States the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution became so interested in the subject that he was enabled to obtain a grant of $0,000 from the Carnegie Corporation of New York for the purpose of aiding American students by making it possible for the Central Bureau to publish the fourteenth annual issue of the catalogue. The value and service to science of the work done by the catalogue is so universally recognized that any lapse in its regular publication would be a serious calamity. The great need for a Catalogue of Scientific Literature was felt as far back as 1855 when Prof. Jose])h Henry brought the subject to the attention of the British Association for the Advancement Of Science. The idea resulted in the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers which will, when completed, be a catalogue of periodical scientific literature from 1800 to 1900. Though this catalogue is simply a list of titles by authors’ names, including only periodical literature, it soon became evident that its production was too great a task for one society or even one nation to continue; therefore in 1893 a council of the Royal Society was held and a committee was appointed to consider the question. It was agreed that international cooperation should be obtained for the production of a complete subject and author catalogue of science beginning with 1901. The value of such a catalogue as then proposed may be estimated when it is considered that some of the most eminent scientific men of the day were members of the committee. Among the members were Lord Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh, Sir Michael Foster, Sir Joseph Lister, and Dr. Ludwig Mond. At the first meeting Prof. Armstrong EEPOBT OP THE SECEETARY. HI was elected chairman and he has ever since been prominently identi- fied with the affairs of the catalogue. To obtain international cooperation the committee caused over 200 letters to be sent to institutions and societies tlirouglxout the world and in 1895 a special meeting was called to confer with Prof. Alexander Agassiz, who advised that an international conference be called in 1896. In the report of the committee it was stated ‘Hhat in no single case was any doubt expressed as to the extreme value of the work contemplated,” and “that the matter had been taken up in a most cordial manner by the Smithsonian Institution, the seci'etary of which, in his reply, refers to the desirability of a catalogue of the kind suggested as being so obvious tliat the work commends itself at once.” Three international conferences were held in London (189G, 1898, and 1900), and as a result the publication of tlie catalogue was under- taken. It may be noted that among the prominent delegates attending these conferences (not includiiig those before mentioned as members of the Committee of the Royal Societj^) were Sir Xormaii Lockyer, Prof. H. Poincare, Prof. Simon Newcomb, Dr. Jolm S. Pollings, Right Hon. Sir. John E. Gorst, and Prof. Yan^t lloff. On the ad- vice of these and other jxrorninent men the catalogue was begun. The value of the catalogue is shown by the folloAving resolution adopted 10 years after the publication was begun by the represen- tatives of the countries f)articipating in the work: That in view of tlie success already aclUeved l)y the International Oataloj;ue of Scientilie Literature an(i the j^reat importance of the objects promoted by it, it is imperative to continue tlie puhlic'al ion of tlu' catalo^nie at least dur- inf? tlie period 1911-15 and on recommendation of the International Council dnrint? the siiiisi-fpient live years 1910-20. (Tlie Interna (imial Council of the catalo.£»ue has siihseiiueritly voted to extend the work diiriTit? the period 1910-20.) This convention was presided over by Sir Arcliibald Geikie, then president of the Royal Society, and had among its members repre- sentatives from all of the principal countries of the world. These men were thoroughly familiar with the service of the cata- logue to the scientific men in their respective countries and voted unanimously to continue the work on account of the value and success achieved by it. Respectfully submitted. Leonard C. Gunnell, Assistant in Charge. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Appendix 8. KEPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the pub- lications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year ending June 30, 1916 The Institution proper published during the year 22 papers in the series of Miscellaneous Collections, 2 annual reports, pamphlet copies of 54 papers from the general ap])endiees of these reports, and 8 special publications. The Bureau of American Ethnology pub- lished 2 annual reports, separates of 4 accompanying papers in these reports, and 2 bulletins. The United States National Museum issued 1 annual report, 2 volumes of the proceedings, and 52 separate papers forming parts of these and other a olume^i, and 4 bulletins. The total number of copies of publications distributed by the Institution and its branches was 153,262, which includes 219 \olumes and separate memoirs of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowdedge, t32,397 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections, 25,718 volumes and separate jiamphletsof Smitli- sonian Annual Reports, 73,798 A’olumes and separates of National Museum publications, 12,420 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 7,696 special publications, 47 volumes of the Annals of Astrophysical Observatory, 83 reports of the Ilarriman Alaska Expe- dition, and 647 reports of the American Historical Association. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. QUARTO. The title-page, table of contents, and cover for volume 27 were issued, and there was in press at the close of the year a memoir by Dr. J. S. Foote, of Creighton Medical College, on The comparative histology of the femur,” the result of extended original research. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. OCTAVO. Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume 62, 2 papers were pub- lished ; of volume 63, 1 paper ; of volume 64, 3 papers ; of volume 65, 8 papers and title-page and table of contents; of volume 66, 8 papers; in all, 22 papers, as follows: 112 EEPOET OF THE SEOBETAEY. 113 Volume 62. No. 4. Reports on wind tunnel experiments in aerodynamics. By J. C. Hunsaker, E. BuckiriKliain, IT. E. Ro.ssell, D. W. Douglas, C. L. Brand, and E. B. AVilson. Hodgkins Fund. January 15, 191G. 92 pp., 5 pis. (Publ. 23G8.) No, 5. Dynamical stability of aeroplanes. By Jerome C. Hunsaker, assisted by T. H. Huff, D. W. Douglas, 11. K. Chow, and V. E. Clark. Hodgkins Fund. June 30, 191G. 78 pp., 3 pis. (Publ. 2414.) Volume 63. No. G. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Reprint of sixth revised edition. By F. B. Fowle. February 18, 101 G. xxxvi4-355 pp. (Publ. 2269.) Volume No. 3. Cambrian Ceology and Paleontology. HI, No. 3. Cambrian trllobites. By Charles D. Walcott. January 14, 101 G. I»p. 157-258, pis. 24-38. (Publ. 2370.) No. 4. Caml)rian C(‘ology and I’aleontology. Ill, No. 4, Relations between the Cambrian and ])re-Can]brian formations in the vicinity of Helena, IVTontama. By Charles D. Walcott. June 24, lOlG. Pp. 259-301, pis. 30-14. (Publ. 241G.) No. 5. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology, in, No. 5. Cambrian trilobltG.s. By Charles D. Walcott. In pre.ss. Volume 65. No. 3. A study of the radiation of the atmosphere. Based upon observations of the nocturnal radiation during expeditions to Algeria and to Cali- fornia. By Anders Angstrom. Hodgkins Fund. August 27, 1915. 159 pp. (Pu!>l. 2354.) No. G. Fxplorations and tieUl work of llie Smithsonian Institution in 1914. July 1, 1915. 95 PI)., 1 pi. (Publ. 2.3G3.) No. 0. Arwiuipa i)yrlielioim‘try. By C. G. Abbot. Hodgkins Fund. March 1, 191G. 24 ])p. (I>ubl. 23G7.) No. 10. A phylogeneti(! study of the n'ctmt erinoids, with special reference to the (luestioii of specialization tlirough tlie partial or complete suppression of .structural characters. By Austin H. Clark. August 19, 191.5. 67 pp. (Piihl. 2309.) No. 11. A magneton tlioory of the structure of the atom. By A. L. Parson. November 29. 1915. 80 pp., 2 pis, (Publ. 2371.) No. 12. The jaw of the Piltdown Mam By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. November 24, 1915. 31 pp., 5 pis. (I^ubl. 2376.) No. 13. Di'scriptions of seven new subspecies and one new species of African birds (Plantain-Eater, Courser, and Rail), By Edgar A. Mearns. November 2(), 1915. 9 i)p. (Publ. 2378.) No. 14. The s('nse organs on the nioutli parts of the iiuney bee. By N. E. Mclndoo. January 12, 191G. 55 pp. (Publ. 2381.) Title-page and table of contents. June 17, 1916. v pp. (Publ. 2419.) Volume 66. No.l. Descriptions of a new genus and eight new species and subspecies of African mtimmals. By N. Hollister. February 10, 1916. 8 pp. (Publ. 241G.) 114 ANKUAL EEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. No. 2. A list of the birds observed In Alaska and Northeastern Siberia during the summer of 1914. By F. Seymour Horsey. March 31, 1916. 33 pp. (Publ. 2408.) No. 3. Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1915. May 27, 1916. 119 pp. (Publ. 2407.) No. 4. The Ordaz and Dortal expeditions in search of El Dorado, as described on sixteenth century mapis. By Kudolf Schuller. April 27, 1916. 15 pp., 2 maps. (Publ. 2411.) No. 5. On the distribution of radiation over tlu^ surf.s disk and new evidences of the solar variability. By (1 0 . Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and Ij. B. Aldrich. Hodgkins Fund. May 23, 1910. 24 pp., 1 pi. (Publ. 2412.) No. 6. Phonetic transcription of Indian languages. In press. No, 7. The Pyranoineter—an instrument for measuring sky radiation. By C. G. Abbot and L. B. Aldrich. Hodgkins Fund. May 23, 1916. 9 pp. (Publ. 2417.) No. 8. Three new African shrews of tlie genus Crocidura. By N. Hollister. May 23, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 2418.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL KEPORTS. Report for The completed volume of the Annual Keport of the Board of Regents for 1014 was received from the Public Printer in August, 1915. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of tin* Smithsonian Institution showing operations, exi)eiiditures, and contlition of 11 k‘ Institution for the year ending June 30, 1914. xi+729 pp., 155 pis. (Publ. 2321.) The general appendix contained the following papers, small edi- tions of wliich wei’v'- ])rinted in ])amphlet form The radiation of the sun. By 0. G. Abbot. 16 pi>., 4 pis. (Publ. 2322.) Modern theories of the sun. By Jean Hosier. 8 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 2323.) The form and constitution of the earth. By liOuis B. Stewart. 14 pp, (Publ. 2324.) Some remarks on logarithms ai)roi)os to their tercentenary. By ]\I. d’Oeagne. 7 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 2325.) Modern views on the constitution of the atom. By A. S. Eve. 9 pp. (Publ. 2326. ) Gyrostats and g^rostatic action. By Andrew Gray. 16 pp., 10 pis. (Publ. 2327. ) Stability of aeroplanes. By Orville Wright. 8 pp. (Publ. 2328.) The first man-carrying aeroplane capable of sustained free flight—Langley’s success as a pioneer in aviation. By A. F. Zahiri. 6 pp., 8 pis. (Publ. 2329.) Some aspects of industrial chemistry. By L. 11. Baekeland. 25 pp. (Publ. 2330.) Explosives. By Edward P. O’Hern. 27 pp., 7 pis. (Publ, 2331.) Climates of geologic time. By Charles Scliucliert. 35 pp. (Publ. 2332.) Pleochroic haloes. By J. Joly. 15 pp., 3 pis. (Publ. 2333.) The geology of the bottom of the seas. By L. de Launay. 24 pp. (Publ 2334.) Recent oceanographic researches. By Ch. Gravier. 10 pp. (Publ. 2335.) The Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1913. By H. M. Oadell. 20 pp., 6 pis. (Publ. 2336.) EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115 The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants. By Duncan 8. Johnson. 24 pp. (Publ. 2337.) Prohloins and progress in plant pathology. By h, R. Jones. 13 pp. (Publ. 2338.) Plant autographs and their revelations. By Jagadis Chuiuler Bose. 23 pp. (Publ. 2339.) The National Zoological Park and its inhabitants. By Frank Baker. 34 pp., 41 pis. (Publ, 2340.) On the habits and behavior of the lierring gull. P>y R. ]\I. Strong. 31 pp., 10 pis. (Publ. 2341.) Notes on some eff(M*ts of extianne drought in Waterberg, South Africa. By Eugene N. IMarais. 12 i)p. (Thibl. 2342.) Hoinmotic regeiK'ration of the anlennae in a Phasmid or walking-stick. By H. O. Sclnnit-Jensen. 14 pi^, 2 pis. (Publ. 2343.) laitent life: Its nature and its relations to certain tlieori(\s of contemporary biology. By Paul Bi'cfjiu'rel. 15 ])p. (Publ. 2344.) The early inhabitants of we.stern Asia. By Felix v. Luschan. 25 pp., 12 pis. (Publ. 2345.) Excavations at Abydos. By Edouard Naville. 7 pp., 3 pis. (Publ. 2340.) An examination of Chinese bronzes. By John C. Ferguson. 0 pp., 14 pis. (Ihibl. 2347.) The role of dei)oj)u]alion, <Ieforestatiou, and malaria in the decadence of certain nations. By Felix Ilcgnault. 5 pp. (1‘ubl. 2348.) The .story of the cliin. P>y Louis Robinson. 11 ]>{>., 12 pis. (Ihibl. 2349.) Recent dovelopineiits in tlur art of illumination. By Preston 8. Millar. 18 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 2350.) The loom and S[)iiidle: Past, present, and future. By Luther Hooper. 49 pp., 11 pis. (Publ. 2351.) The demonstration i)lay .school ot 1913. By Clark \V. Hethorington. 29 pp. (Publ. 2352.) Sketch of tile life of Eduard Siiess (1831-1914). By Pierre Termier. 10 pp. (Publ. 2353.) Report for 1915, The report of the exet*iiti\e conBiiittee and jiroceedings of the Board of Regents of the Instilution, and the re]>ort of tlie Secretary, both forining ptirt of the Animal Ih'port of the l>oard of Regents to Congress, were issued in pamphlet foian in December, 1915: Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of the 8mil])soniau Institution for the year ending June 30, 1915. 21 pp. (Publ. 23S0.) Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1915. 110 pp. (Publ. 2379.) Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen- dix of the report for 1915, were issued in May, 1910, and the complete volume was received from the printer in June: Review of astronomy for the year 1013, by P. Puiseux. 9 pp. (Publ. 2383.) The utilization of solar energy, by A. 8. E. Ackermann. 20 pp., 6 pis. (Publ. 2384.) The constitution of matter and the evolution of the elements, by Ernest Ruther- ford. 36 pp., 5 pis. (Publ. 2385.) 116 ANirtTAL EBPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Submarine signalling, by R. P. Blake, 11 pp. (Publ. 2386.) The earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy, by Ernesto Manclnl. 4 pp., 1 pi. (Publ. 2387.) Atlantis, by Pierre Termier. 16 pp. (Publ. 2388.) Evidences of primitive life, by Charles D. Walcott. 21 pp., 18 pis. (I’ubl. 2389.) The place of forestry among natural sciences, by Henry S. Graves. 13 pp. (Publ. 2390.) Ijignum Nephriticum, by W. E. Salford. 28 pp., 7 pis. (Publ. 2391.) Impressions of the voices of tropical birds, b> Louis Agassiz Phiertes. 25 pp., 16 pis. (Publ. 2392.) The Eskimo Curlew and its disappearance, by Myron 11. Swenk. 16 pp., 1 pi, (Publ. 2393.) Construction of insect nests, by Y. Sjdstedt. 7 pp., 3 pis. (Publ. 2394.) Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus, by (1 R. Eastman. 9 pp., 4 pis. (Publ. 2395.) Heredity, by William Bateson. 36 pp. (Publ. 2396.) Some aspects of progress in modern zoology, by Edmund B. Wilson. 14 pp. (Publ. 2397.) Linguistic areas in Europe: Their boundaries and political slgniflcance, by Leon Dominian. 35 pp., 5 maps. (Publ. 2308.) Excavations at Tell el-Amarna, Eg.\i)t, in 1913-14, by Ludwig Bor(‘hardt. 13 pp., 13 pis. (Publ. 2399.) Vaccines, by L. Roger. 8 pp. (Publ. 2400.) Progress in reclamation of arid lands in the Western rinteti States, by John B. Beadle. 22 pp., 13 pis. (Publ. 2401 ) Some recent developments in telephony and teh^graphy, by Frank B. Jewett 21 pp, (Publ. 2402.) Sir David Gill, by A S. Eddington. 12 pp. (Publ. 2403.) Walter Holbrook Gaskell, by J. N. Langley. 10 j>p. (Publ. 2404.) Special p'uhlicatwns. The following special publications were issued in octavo form: Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and June 30, 1915. Published July 20, 1915. 2 pp. (Publ 2372 ) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued hetveen January 1 and September 30, 1915. October 25, 1915. 2 pp. (Publ. 2377.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and December 31, 1915. January 27, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 2405.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issiu^d between January 1 and March 31, 1910. Ajail 20, 1916 1 p. (Publ. 2413.) Classified list of Smithsonian publications available for distribution, October 15, 1915. November 4, 1915. iv+32 pp. (Publ. 2375.) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 67. April 27, 1916. Pp. 177-182. (Publ. 2409.) Rules and regulations for the conduct of the work of the National- Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. July 16, 1915. 5 pp. Sources of nitrogen compounds in the United States. By Chester G. Gilbert. June 30, 1916. 12 pp. (Publ. 2421.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report to Congress; (6) the Proceedings of the United States Nb- BEPOET OF THE SECBETABY. 11 ( tional Museum; and (<?) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Marcus Benjamin. During the year the Museum published an annual report, 2 volumes of the Proceedings and 52 separate papers forming parts of these and other volumes, and 4 bulletins. The issues of the Proceedings were as follows: Volume 48; volume 49, papers 2092, 2094 to 2130, and the complete volume; volume 50, papers 2131 to 2138. The Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1915 was also published. The bulletins were as follows: Bulletin 50, The Birds of North and Middle America, pjirt 7, by Robert Ridgway. Bulletin 01, Rei)ort oii the Turton collection of South African marine mollusks, with additional notes oti otlier South African shells contained in the United States National Museum, by Paul Bartsch. Bulletin 02, Bibliographic index of American Ordovician and Silurian fossils (two volumes), by Ray S. Bassler. Bulletin 94, Handbook and descriptive catalogue of the meteorite collections in the United States National Museum, by George P, Merrill. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau arc discussed in appendix 2 of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work of the bureau has continued in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor. During the year, 2 annual reports and 2 bulletins were issued, as follows: 29th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (containing an ac- companying paper, “ The Ethnogeograpliy of the Tewa Indians,” by John Peabody Harrington). 30th Annual Report of the Bureau of American lOthnology (containing two ac- companying papers, “ Ethnobotaiiy of the Zuni Indians,” by Matilda Coxe Stevenson, and ‘‘An Inquiry into the animism and folklore of the Guiana Indians,” by W’alter E. Roth), and a *‘List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology.” BuUetin 57. An Introduction jo the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs, by Sylvanus Griswold Morley. Bulletin 62. Physical anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares, and of the Eastern Indians in general, by AleS Hrdli^ka. In i)reas. REPORT OF THE xVMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. 73839"--8M 1916 9 118 ANlirUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The annual report for 1913 (2 volumes) was published during the year, and the first volume of the 1914 report was in press at the close of the fiscal year. REPORT OP THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the Eighteenth Annual Report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year ending October 11, 1915, was communicated to Congress on March 28, 1916. THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to servo as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. This con)mittee passes on all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches, and considers forms of routine, blanks, and various other matters pertaining to printing and i^ublication. Eigliteen meet- ings were held during the year and 96 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. Hov'akd CnAKK, Editor. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OE THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARH.OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1016. To file Board of Regents of the Bmifhsonian InstHutwn: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re- port in reLation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the In- stitution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi- cal Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture for the year ending June 30, lOlG, together with balances of previous approiiriations SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fvnd July i, 1016. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it has lK‘en derived are as follows: 1)K1»()S]TFI) IN THK THEVSCRY OF THE UNIT! I) RT VTES. Beqiie.st of Smithson, 1S4C> $515,160.00 Kesidiiary h'picy of Sinitlison, 1S67 26.1210.0.’^ Deposit from savings of iiuome, 1807 108,020.37 Bequest of James Ilamiiton, 1875 $1,000.00 Accumulnted intere.st on ITamiiton fund, 1895__ __ __ 1, 000. 00 — — 2, 000. 00 Beque.st of Simeon Hahel, 1880 5(HJ. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881 51, 500. 00 Gift of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891 200, (X)0. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891 8,000.00 Deposit from savings of in(*ome, 1903 25,000.00 Kesiduary legnej of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907 7,018.09 Deposit from savings of income, 1918 636.94 Part of bequest of William Jones llbees, 1913 251.05 Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan- ton Avery ),1913 9, 692. 42 Bequest of Addison T. Reid, 1914 4, 795. 91 Depo.sit of savings from income of Avery bequest, 1914 204. 09 Balance of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1915 248. 05 Deposit of savings from income of Rhees bequest, 1915 28. 39 Deposit of savings from income of Avery fund, 1915 1,862. 60 Deposit of savings from income of Reid fund, 1915 426. 04 Deposit of first payment of Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, 1915.,.^ 24,584.92 119 120 ANNUAL EEPORX SMIXHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Deposit of iiart of principal of Addison T. Reid fund, 1916 $4, 698. 59 Deposit of principal of George H. Sanford fund, 1916 1, 020. 00 Deposit of savings from Income, 1916 2, 681. 41 Total amount of fund In United States Treasury 996,000.00 # OTHER llESOURCES. Registered and giiarantcH'd 4 per cent btaids of tlie West Shore Railroad (Jo., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value)- 42, 000. 00 Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due July 1. 1918 (cost) 5,040.63 Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec. 15, 1917 (cost) 5,093.75 1,048, 134. 38 Also three small pieces of real e.state located in the District of Columbia and bequeathed by the late Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, D. C. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States, now amounting to $996,000, bears interest at G pei* cent per annum, under the provisions of the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, organizing the Institution, and the act approved March 12, 1894. The real estate bequeathed to the Institution by the late Eobsrt Stanton Avery is exempt from taxation and yields only a nominal revenue from rentals. Statement of t'ceeipts and disbvrsemcnts from July 1. J015, to dime 30, 1916. RECEIPT.S. Cash on deposit and in safe July 1, 1915 . .$42, 165. 86 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury due July 1, 1915, and Jan. 1, 1916 $59, 071. 23 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1915, and Jan. 1, 1916 1, 680. 00 Repayments, rentals, publications, etc 9, 205. 45 Contributions from various sources for specific pur- poses 22, 954. 09 Frances Lea Chamberlain fund 10, 000. 00 Addison T. Reid fund 4, 698. 59 107, 670. 26 DISBURSEMENTS. Buildings, care and repairs Furniture and fixtures General expenses: Salaries Meetings Stationery Postage, telegraph, and telephone Freight Incidentals, fuel, and lights Garage 149, 836. 12 5, 718. 46 1, 451. 61 18, 783. 21 163. 25 830.39 599. 12 86. 82 1, 165. 92 1, 950. 16 23, 578.87 BEPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 121 Library $2, 545. 91 l^ublicatlons and their distribution: Miscellaneous collections .$4, 218. 26 Contributions to knowledge 139. 75 Reports 324. 58 Special publications 209.82 Publication supplies 221.05 Salaries 0,802.90 11, 976. 36 Explorations, researches, and collections 5, 441. 85 Hodgkins speeilic fund, researches, and puldications 3,008.57 International exchanges 4, 043. 31 Gallery of Art 21.88 Langley Aerodynam Seal Laboratory - 70.95 Deposited to credit of permanent fund 8, 400. 00 Consolidated fund, purchase of bonds 10,134.38 Advances for field expenses, etc 28,672. 95 Balance June 30, 1910: Deposited with the TreasunT of the United Stales 44, 511.02 Cash on hand 200. 00 44,711.02 149, 830. 12 Your executive coiuniittee again employed the Capital Audit Co. of this city to audit the receipts and expeuditui*e.s of the Smith- sonian Institution dining the period covered by this report. An itemized report has been submitted, but the following certificate of examination supports the foregoing statement and is hereby ap- proved : A ITUITOK’S STATEMENT. Capital Audit Co., Metropoutan Bank Building, Washingtmi, 1). 0., August Ui, J91 (k Executive Commitiee^ lUmnl of Regents, Sniillisonlan J iistit ution. Sirs: VVc have examined tlu‘ act'ouiUs and vouchors of the Smithsonian In- stitution for tlie fiscal year ended June 30, J910, and (*ertify the following to be a correct statiancnt: Total receipts ^ $107, 062. 40 Total disbui’soinents ^ 105, 117. 80 Excess of receipts over ilisbursements 2,545.16 Amount from July 1, 1915 — — 42,105.80 Balance on band June 30, 1910 44,711.02 Balance as shown by Treasury statement us of June 30, 1910 47,831.11 Less outstanding checks 3,320.09 Balance 44,511.02 Cash on hand 200. 00 Balance Jum* 30, 1910 - 44,711.02 ^ Does not Include $7.80 Eastman Kodak Co, voucher No. 5038, entry and counter entry. 122 ANNUAL HEPOEl' SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The vouchers representing payments from the Smithsonian Income during the year, each of whieli boars the approval of the secretary, or In his absence, of the acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and servi{‘0.s charged were applied to tlie purposes of the Institution, have been examined in con- nection with the books of the Institution and agree with them. Capital Audit Co., By William L. Yakger, rresident. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from in- terest, sales, and refunding of moneys temporarily advanced are de- posited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Institution, and all payments are made by checks signed by the secretary. The expenditures made by the disbursing agent of the Institution and audited by the Auditor for the State and Other Departments are reported in detail to Congi-ess and will be found in the printed docu- ment. Your committee also presents the following summary of appro- priations for the fiscal year IDIG intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations at the beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on June 30, 1916: Tnternutional 1914 IntornuUoiKil Kxclmiigos, 1915 International Exchanges, 1010 American Etlniology, 1914 American Ethnology' , 1915 American Ethnology, 1916 International ( 'atalogue, 1914 International f'atalogue, 1915 Intemationiil Catalogue, 1910 Astrophyslcal Ol)servatory, 1914 Aatrophysical Obsorv^atory', 1915 Astrophyslcal ObservatorV, 1910 Bookstacks, Oovemment uiirean libraries, 1914 Bookatacks, Government bureau libraries, 1915 Bookstacks, Govemnifmt bureau libraries, 1915-10. Tower telescope on Mount Wilson, 1915 Eepalrsto Smithsonian Building, 1915 National Museum: Eumiture and fixtures, 1914 rurniluroand fixtures, 1915 Furniture and fixtures, 1910 Heating and lighting, 1014 Heating and lighting, 1915 Heating and lighting, 1916 Preservation of collections, 1914 Pt^esorvation of collections, 1915 Preservation of collections, 1910 Books, 1914 Books, 1915 Books, 1916 Postage, 1916 Building repairs, 1914 Building repairs, 1915 Building repairs, 1916 National Zoological Park, 1914 National Zoolo^oal Park, 1915 National Zoological Park, 1916 Bridge over Bock Creek, National Zoological Park. Aviillu])le Balance lifter July Juno 30, 1, 1915. 1910. SO.fd i$0.01 3, 453. 79 .20 32,0(K).00 3,584.17 JS5. 3(1 1 170. 59 3,^54.513 1,119.04 4‘3,()00.IX) 2,897.78 21.50 1 21.50 S(i4. 45 198. 39 7, 5(i0. 00 549. 81 02.30 1 02. 36 1 , 203. 57 4(3. 35 ] 3, OlH). 00 1,522.31 33. 01 i 33. 61 35. 30 1.09 2 0, 5(H). (H) 64. 16 1,284.17 410. 23 4.52. 13 176.88 56. 85 156.85 1,048. 83 13.34 25,IH)0.00 1,941.96 242. 62 1 242, 62 4,473. 33 109. 63 40,000.00 5,852.66 573. 75 1 509. 15 8,774.88 1,278.34 300,000.00 7,696.91 25.83 1 10. 30 1,389.73 115.60 2,000.00 600.00 1,157.49 6.03 16.03 487.15 1.32 15,000.00 2,298.68 3.94 13.94 6,261.07 .83 100,(HK).00 6,653,99 1,830.90 1 1,830.00 1 Carried to credit of surplus fund. 2 Immediately available. REPOBT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 123 statement of estimated income from the Smithsonian fund and from other sources, accrued and prospective, to be available during the fiscal year ending June 30, 19X7. Balance June 30, 191 G $44,711.02 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury due July 1, 1916, and .Tan. 1, 1917 $00,451.00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds due July 1, 1916, and Jan. 1, 1917 1,680.00 Exchange repayments, sale of publications, refund of advances, oic 7, .526. 04 Deposits for specific i)urposes 12, 000. 00 81,657.04 Total available for year endinp; .Tune 30, 1917 126,368.06 Kespectfully submitted. George Gray, Alexander Graham Bell, Ernest W. Roberts, Executive Committee. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 9, 1915. The Board of Regents met at the Smithsonian Institution in regu- lar annual session at 10 o’clock a. m. December 9, 1915. Present: The lion. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor, in the chair; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator William J. Stone; Senator Henry P\ Hollis; Representative Scott Ferris; Representative Ernest AV. Roberts; the Hon. Maurice Con- nolly; Dr. Andrew D. White, Dr. A. Graham Bell ; the Hon. George Gray; Mr. John B. Henderson; tlie Hon. Charles AV. Fairbanks; and the secretary, Dr. Charles D. AValeott. APPOINTMENT OF PEOKNT. It was announced that William J. Stone, Senatoi* from Missouri, had been reappointed a Regent by the Vice President on February 18, 1915. UESOLtll'ION KELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. On motion by Judge Gray, cliairman of the executive committee, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fisciil year endiiif^ June 30, 1917, be appropriated for the sorviee of tlie Institution, to be ('xpended by the secretary with the advice of tlie executive committee, with full discTotion on the part of the secretary as to items. VACANCY IN EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. On motion it was Resolved^ That Mr. Ernest W. Roberts be elected to the executive committee to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of Mr. Maurice Connolly. ANNUAL REPORT OP THE EXECUTIVE COMMllTEE. The annual report of the executive committee reviewing the finan- cial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1019, was presented in printed form and adopted. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 125 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. The permanent committee presented the following statement: Hodgkins fund ,—A third allotment of $5,000 was made from the income of this fund for the purpose of continuing the work of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. Poore iequest,—Mr. John J, Pickman, executor of the estate of George W. Poore, was given an indemnity bond to guarantee him from loss, and he thereupon paid to the Institution the sum of $24,534.92, the net proceeds of the estate, exclusive of certain parcels of land, which are estimated to have a value of $10,000. The Addison T, Reid> hequest was made for the purpose of found- ing a chair in biology as a memorial to the testator’s grandfather, Asher Tunis, subject to the condition that the income be paid in three shares to certain enumerated beneficiaries until their death, when the principal of the estate, with accumulations, was to come to the Institution. As previously reported, one of the beneficiaries died in 1913, and the amount of her share, $4,795.91, was duly re- ceived by the Institution. A second benefidary died during the summer of 1915, and lier share, amounting to $4,(>98.59, was also received. Rhees bequest,—Mr. William Jones Khees, chief clei’k of the In- stitution for nearly 40 years, died March 18, 1907, l)equeathing to the Institution the sum of $500. This bequest lias been received and will be allowed to increase by the addition of its earnings to the principal until a suflicient sum shall have been realized to make possible the provision of a suitable work of some kind to serve as a memorial to this able and faitliful ofiicial. ChamheHain bequests ,—The board was informed at a previous meeting that Dr. Leander T. Chamberlain had made two beejnests to the Institution, each to be known as ‘‘the Frances Lea Chamberlain Fund.” ^ The first bequest was $25,000, the income of whicli was to be used “ for promoting the increase and the scientific value and usefulness of the collection of gems and gem material known as the ‘ Isaac Lea Collection’ in the department of minerals in the United States National Museum.” The second bequest was $10,000, the income to be used “ for pro- moting the scientific value and usefulness of the collection of mol- lusks known as the ‘Isaac Lea Collection,’” also in tlie National Museum. This second bequest has been received. Sanford bequest,—A bequest of $1,020 has been received by the Institution under the will of Mrs. Helen B. Sanford for the purpose of founding “ the George H. Sanford fund,” as a memorial to her husband. The income of this fund is to be used for the increase and 126 AHNUAL BEPORT SMlTHSONIAK IKSTITUTION, 15)16. diffusion oi knowledge on such subjects as the Institution may decide upon. " On motion the report of the permanent committee was accepted. secretary’s ANNUAL REPORT. The secretary presented his annual report in printed form and made statements thereon as follows The Smithsonian Institution and its branches since the last annual meeting of the Eegents have issued a total of 93 publications aggre- gating about 8,000 pages and 550 plates. Twenty-four of these publications (1,595 pages and 180 plates) were issued by the Institu- tion proper; 66 of them (5,370 pages and 380 plates) by the National Museum; and 3 (1,103 pages and 6 plates) by the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology. The total number of all publications distributed during the year was 145,272. In addition, the annual report of the American Historical Association and of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution were examined by the Institu- tion and transmitted to the Congress. From among valuable contributions to nearly every branch of science covered in these various publications, may be mentioned as of special interest two papers issued by the Institution proper mider the Hodgkins fund, one, an extended study of the radiation of the atmosphere, the other, a paper on the intensity of solar radiation outside the atmosphere. In the course of experiments covered by the latter, free balloons with recording apparatus reached altitudes up to 15 miles and were recovered with the records in good condi- tion. Another paper of considerable interest to physicists and chemists is entitled magneton theory of the structure of the atom,” by A. L. Parson. Among National Museum publications there was Issued from the United States National Herbarium a Flora of New Mexico, which describes some 3,000 species of plants from that State. There was also printed the usual pamphlet on explorations and researches by the Smithsonian Institution and its branches, written in a semipopular style and containing numerous illustrations. Last year thei’e was published a work giving some results of the secretary’s studies in Pre-cambrian Algonkian algal flora, and there has been prepared for the cuinrent annual report a general review of the secretary’s field and laboratory work in Cambrian geology dur- ing several years past. The Annual Report of the Institution for 1914 was completed con- siderably earlier than for any previous year. The general appendix contains 30 papers relating as usual to all branches of science. The public demand for the Smithsonian Report has become so great PROCEEDINGS OP THE REGENTS. 12 that Congress authorized the edition to be increased from 7,000 to 10,000 copies. THE LANOLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY. At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents, held December 10, 1914, a resolution was adopted providing for the appointment by the chancellor of a committee of four members of the board and the secretary “ to consider questions relative to the Langley Aerody- namical Laboratory.” The following committee was appointed: Dr, Alexander Graham Bell, chairman; lion. William J. Stone, Hon. Ernest W. Roberts, Mr. John B. Henderson, and the secretary. This committee presented a report to the l)oai*d on the history of the organization of the laboratory under the aiithoi’ity of the Re- gents and on the need of a National Advisory Committee on Aero- nautics; also a statement of American agencies, resources, and facili- ties for the work, and of the progress made by otlier nations in this subject. In addition a report was made on the action taken by Con- gress authorizing the appointment of an advisory committee by the President of the United States, wlio subse(]iienlly selected such com- mittee as follows Gen. (leorge P. Scriven, United States Army, and Lieut. Col. Samuel Reber, United States Army, representing the Army; Capt. Mark L. Bristol, United States Navy, and Na\ al Constructor H. C. Richardson, United States Navy, representing the Navy; Mr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau; Dr. S. W. Strat- ton, Director United States Bureau of Standards; Mr. Byron R. Newton, Assistant Secretary TTnited States Treasury; Prof. W. F. Durand, Stanford University of California: Prof. Michael I. Pupin, Columbia University, New York City; Pi'of. John F. Hayford, Northwestern University, Illinois; Prof. Josei)h S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secre- tary Smithsonian Institution. The committee’s report stated further that it was not deemed prob- able, in view of the organization and scope of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, that the Smithsonian Institution would find it necessary to cstablisli an aerodynamical laboratory for experi- mental purposes. Its function would now be more in the direction of aiding in such studies and experiments as could not well be other- wise provided for and in publishing such material as might be of value in the development of the art. On motion, the report was accepted. In this connection the secretary stated that the experiments being conducted with the Langley aerodrome on Lake Keuka, New York, were successfully continued during the year 1915 and that a report 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. thereon had been filed in the office by Dr. A. F. Zahm ; that the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had approved of the cooperation between the Smithsonian Institution and the United States Weather Bui’eau in connection with the investigations of the atmosphere having a bearing upon aeronautics, and that this coopera- tion had met with the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. To carry this into effect, $2,500 had been set aside from the allotment for the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory for the purchase of necessary instalments, sounding bal- loons, etc., and for conducting such experiments as could not be pro- vided for from funds of the Weather Bureau. Site for Freer Gallery of Art .—At the last meeting of the board a resolution Avas adopted authorizing the chancellor to appoint a com- mittee to consider the matter of a site for the proposed Freer Build- ing, and the folloAving were appointed on said committee: Senator Lodge, Senator Hollis, Judge Gray, Mr. Connolly, and the secretary. The committee jiresented a report recommending that the building be erected on a site in the southwest corner of the Smithsonian grounds, west of the Smithsonian building, and south of the line recommended by the National Park Commission in 1900 for future buildings on the Mall. The committee’s I’ecommendation was apjAroved by the board. In tins connection the secretary read an (‘xtrad from Mr. Freer’s letter of December 4. stating that if the board took favorable action he would at once place at the Institution’s disf)osal the $1,000,000 he had already set aside for this purpose. The secretary referred to the Widener art collection and to the neAvspaper comments as to th(i possibility of securing the collection for Washington City. These art objects were left to Mr. Widener’s son with discretion as to donating them to Philadelphia, Washington, or Now York. The collection is now handsomely houscal, and the secretary very much doubted that any action would be taken toward its being placed elsewhere for many years to come. Speaking on the subject of the National Gallery of Art, the secre- tary mentioned the art collections already in the custody of the Insti- tution and said that the time will soon be here when definite action must be taken looking to their proper housing. Bird and animal ref^iges.—The secretary stated that he had given considerable attention to the development of the movement for the creation of bird refuges, and that he had called the attention of the executive committee to an inquiry that had been made as to whether the Smithsonian Institution would consider the acceptance of a large tract of land on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico for the administra- tion of a great bird and wild animal refuge. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 129 The board decided that gifts of lands, buildings, or funds to estab- lish bird or wild animal refuges might be accepted and administered, on condition that adequate provision for their proper maintenance be made by the donor or donors or other agencies. skckktaky’s statement. The secretary also made the following statements: The National (Jallery of Art received in July^ 1015, a collection of pictures which, though not of an elaborate nature, is remai’kable for the long list of eminent artists represented. The collection consists of 82 drawings executed with various mediums, principally water color, crayon, charcoal, pencil, chalk, and pen, by as many of the most prominent contemporary painters, sculptors, and engravers of the French Republic. It came as a testimonial from the people of France to the people of the United States in recognition of their sympathetic efforts toward relieving the distress and suffering in France occasioned by the war in Europe and is the result of action by an organizing committee in Paris begun in March, 1915. The collection was delivered to the American ambassador at the French capital early in July, and immediately upon its receipt at the Depart- ment of State in Washington it was deposited in the National Gallery. A catalogue of the collection has been printed and widely circu- lated, and it constitutes a most distinguished honor roll. Of added interest is the fact that the pictures arc all signed, and, with very few exceptions, each is also inscribed by the artist with an expression of friendly feeling and gratitude. Bureau of /Urhcrican Ethnology,—During the summer and autumn of 1915 important archeological excavations were conducted in the historic Nacoochee Mound in MTiite County, Ga., as well as in the Mesa Verde National Park of southern Colorado, where a large ruin exhibiting remarkable masonry was thoroughly excavated and re- paired. Ethnologic investigations among the Creek and Natchez Indians of Oklahoma, the Fox Indians of low^a and Oklahoma, and the Chu- mash and Mohave Indians of California, w^ere prosecuted in the field with excellent results, and equally successful efforts were made in studying the languages of some of the tribes of Oregon that are threatened with extinction. A reconnaisance of the ruins of pueblos in the Zuni Valley, New Mexico, was made with a view to their excavation during the summer of 1916. • Addition of laiid to the National. Zoological^ Park,—The laundry civil act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, appropriated 130 ANNUAL EEPOHT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1M6. $107,200 for tlio purchase, as an addition to the National Zoological Park, of land lying between the present western boimdary of the park and Connecticut Avenue, between Cathedral Avenue and Klin- gle Eoad. After many delays in the legal steps to acquire this land, the jury of condemnation presented its findings to the court on December 11, 1914, as follows: Daiiia.ires aptiraisod $194,438.08 lOxpcnscs of Jury 2,203.35 Total . . 100,041.43 Bencfit>^ assossf'd ;it . 00,013.50 F.xcf'ss of (]:iiiia.a:cs ovt'r btau'lits . 130,027.93 This sum oxceo'Is tlic appropriation by . _ 23, 427.93 On January 12, 1015, tJie niofion of tin* Si'ciTiary of tlie TiTasnry to confirni tlie verdict was received by tlie (‘oiii’t and filed. From time to time exceptions to the verdict were bled by A’arious property owners interested, and on June 28. 1915, t])c court std aside the ver- dict of the assessnamt of lienefits and costs as regards exc(‘ptors and confirmed tlic remainder of tlic assessmtaits and the awards of damages. A recent statement from the Assistant United States Attorney for the District shows that the benefits assessed by tlie jury that have been set aside by the court amount to approximately $18,000, and that, according to his figures, the total amount that will lie refpiired to secure the land will bo approximately $170,000 instead of tlie $107,200 as appropriated. The land in question has a frontage on Conneciiciit A Maine of 1,750 feet and covers about 10 acres, which if olitaineil will bring the park area to an aggregate of 180 acres. Notes on the recent worh of the Astrophf/slccl Ohnerentory . Dr. Charles G, Alibot, director, and Mr. L. B. Aldrich, assistant, have continued at Mount Wilson, Cal., their observations on the in- tensity of solar radiation. Complete reductions of the Mount Wilson woi*k of 1914 show that the return of solar activity in that year—after the passage of the minimum epoch of 1913 (in which sun spots had become fewer than at any time for a century)—was attended by a very considerable rise in the intensity of solar radiation. Work with the tower telescope on Mount Whitney was continued, and this also confirmed the variability of the sun. It is greatly regretted that no other observing station had been equipped to share with the Institution these observations on the varia- tion of the sun. Only when several observatories, widely scattered in favorable regions as regards weather conditions, shall unite to PROCEEDINGS OE THE REGENTS. 131 follow these observations from daj^ to day for sevei*al years can the results be of much value to meteorologists as evidence whether or not the sun’s variability influences terrestrial climate. The Institution is looking forward to establisliing and operating a station in Argen- tina or some oilier favorable situation in South America, the expense to be provided for from the income of the Hodgkins fund. A new vacuum bolometer has been devised vhich in actual trial developed 20 times the sensitiveness of the bolometer heretofore used on Mount Wilson for these researches. With this new bolo- meter at leavSt one ten-millionth of a degiee rise of terni^erature could be detected and measured, and it seems not impossible that a bolometric outfit could be constructed ca])al)1e of detecting and measuring even a l)illionth of a degive i*ise of tem})ei*atm'e. 77ic licscarrh Corpovailon.— 'I'he Kes(‘ai’eh tVu’poralion lum suc- cessfully continued its work during the ^a^ar and is now on a sound financial basis. On Octohci* JJ)ir). the assets of tlie corporation were $l()G,001.tio. In these assets the Cottrell process patents are valued at the nominal sum of $1,000. It will be recollected that the Keseareh Cor])oration was organized in Ihhnuuw, 1012, with a capital of $10,000 and a salary roll of less than $3,000. The sahiry roll for tlie ensuing year, owing to the great increase in the scope of the work, will he in the neighborhood of $38,000. The energies of the corporation have been almost entirely applied in connection with the experimental iprecipitation processes which, it will be recalled, were offered to the Smithsonian Institution by Dr. Cottrell, and by it in turn oller(‘d to the Eesearch Corporation for commercial development. If the su(‘eessful development of the organization continues otlier lines of research will he entered upon. Kledv}(‘(il preeJplfatJon of fog .—Under a gi*ant of $2,000 made l)y the Institution from the Hodgkins fund Dr. F. 0. Cottrell has con- ducted ex])('rimcnts at the Paiunna-l^acifif’ Exjiosition at San Fran- cisco in I’elation to the electrical precii)itation of fog. The secre- tary, while visiting the exposition, saw something of the experi- ments and examined the apparatus used. The most striking features of the apparatus are the Thordarson 350,000 and 1,000,000 volt transformers placed at the service of Dr. Cottrell. These experi- ments involved the cooperation of the Panama-Pacific Exposition officials, the Eesearch Corporation, Mr. C. H. Thordarson, the Uni- versity of California, the General Electric Co., and the Smithsonian Institution. The problem of clearing fog differs from other precipitation prob- lems in several respects. For instance, in the latter cases it is mani- festly necessary to actually deposit the suspended matter on the elec- trodes in order to accomplish the effect sought, while in the case of 132 ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. fog, if even a considerable coalescence of the minute particles into large ones could be effected, it would become much more transparent, even aside from the more rapid settling of the drops. New difficnl- ties are to be expected, however, such as the matter of insulation, for tlie rtnisou tliat the whole apparatus is of necessity continuously immersed in the Avet atmospliere. Ilavrhndn trust finuL—Dr. C. Hart Merriam, operating under the trust fund established by Mrs. E. II. Ilarriman, has continued the study of the Big Bears of North America, and the preparation of manuscript and illustrations for the press. Owing to the scarcity of specimens of some of the less knoAvn species, final effort was made to obtain additional skulls, and more than 50 were secured which have proved of value in clearing up j)oints previously in doubt as to the charactei’s of several of the species. The labor of seai'ching the literature relating to early explora- tion, hunting, and ti‘avel for records of bear and otluu* animals, has been continued, and large additions liave l)een made to the files of material relating to North American mammals and to the Indian tribes of California and iNevada. Borneo and ('ef(t>cs expedition .—As previously stated, Dr. W. L. Abbott, a collaborator of the National Museum, contributed $11,000 in money and between $500 and $1,000 in ammunition arul supplies for the purpose of conducting a collecting expedition in Borneo and Celebes. Mr. Henry C. Baven, Dr. Abbott’s personal representative in this enterprise, spent about two years in Boimeo and nearly a year in Celebes. He returned to Washington during the summer of 1015. The expedition has beem lirieliy described in a pamphlet recently is- sued b^T' the Institution. Its main results include a collection of 405 fwammals, 870 birds, 50 reptiles, and a miscellaneous series of ethno- logical and zoological miiterial. lir, Abbott has i*ecently adde^l to liis generous gifts a donation of $2,0\)0 to provide for a second expedition to make natural history col- lecticlns and explorations in the Dutch East Indies, particularly in Celebes. Mr. Kaven was selected for this new expedition, and after outfitting at Washington, he sailed October 19, 1015, from Seattle for the field of his new operations via Singapore. The expedition is expected to last about three years, and the results will bf presented to the National Museum. Siberlcm Expedition .—As previously reported, an expedition to Siberia was financed by the Telluride Association, of Ithaca, N. Y., which generously donated $3,500 for the purpose. The expedition was under the direction of Capt. John Koren, who was accompanied by Mr. Copley Amory, jr., a collaborator of the National Museum, and by Mr. Benno Alexander, who specially Bepresented the Smith- sonian Institution. PEOCEEDINGS OP THE KEGENTS. 133 The party sailed from Seattle on June 20, 1914, and after an ex- })loration of the territory about the Kolyma River region, Mr. Amory returned during the summer of 1915 bringing 305 mammals and 264 birds. This collection was obtained at the nominal cost of an outfit and the transportation from Nome, Alaska, to Washington, and is a very important contribution to the National Museum. Biological worlc in North China.—Mr. A. de C. Sowerby is con- tinuing his Avork in Manchuria and northeastern China through the generosity of a friend of the Smithsonian, whose identity, as here- tf)forei repoTfed, is withheld. Two wapiti bucks and a roe deer have been received, but the main collections have been delayed in transit. Montana and Wyoming .—The secretary continued his Avork of exploration among the fossil beds of Montana in connection with liis studies of the early life of the earth. In the YclloAvstonc Na- tional Park he observed the character and method of deposition of the hot si)ring and geyser deposits by the primitive blue-green alga‘, and su])ei’A ised llu‘ collecting of siliceous geyserite, silicified wood, and volcanic rocks. Over 5 tons of material Avei’e shipped to the National Museum during the summer of 1915. On leaving the park the canyon of the West Oalhitin RiA^r Avas folloAved for a distance of 3t) miles, and the valley of the upper Missouri River Avas crossed at ToAviisend, Mont., en route to the Belt Mountains. A collection of very ancient fossil algal remains was made there, of Avhi(‘h one and a half tons of specimens were selected for study in connection with the material obtained dr.ring the field season of 1911. These specimens contain the oldest fossil bacteria knoAvn, as well as deposits similar to those made by the blue-gi'cen :dga^ in the YelloAvstone National Park hot s])rings. Throughout the trip Dr. Walcott Avas assisted by Mrs. AYalcott, Avlio is an enthusiastic photographer and collector. Dr. Urdlich^dH proposed Asiatic expedition .—The object of the contemplated expedition is to trace in eastern Asia, as far as may be possible, tlm origin of the American aborigines, which is noAV one of the foremost problems befoi-c the anthropologists of the world. A preliminary survey of parts of Siberia and Mongolia, made by Dr. ITrdlicka under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution in 1912, yielded results of the most interesting nature, and the evidence, ethnological and archeological, encouraged the belief that further research Avould lead to determinations of great scientific value. The primitive tribes visited by Dr. Hrdlicka are, in their physical characteristics, hardly to be distinguished from the typical American Indian and the traces of prehistoric culture give almost equally close analogies, and it seems most desirable that further explorations should be undertaken. 73839'’—SM 1916 10 134 ANNUAL BKPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. The great group of peoples concerned and to bo studied are dis- tributed over Tibet, western China, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and a large part of Siberia, and extend in varying degrees of relationship to Polynesia, Malaysia, and the Philippine Islands. The special object of Dr. Hrdlicka’s proposed expedition is to defi- nitely trace this distribution in its relation to the peopling of the American Continent. It is anticipated that the proposed survey should extend over four or five years. Mr. IFara^r’s proposed expedition to eastern A sia.—An expedition which is exjiected to eooi)erate in important ways with that of Dr. Hrdl irka, but which will devote its main attention to the prehistoric and early historic archeology and art of eastern Asia, is contem- plated by Mr. Langdon Warner. Mr. Warner plans to explore cer- tain districts of southern Chimi, excavating mounds and ruined cities which are confidently expected to yield archeological and art treasures of exceptional value. Doubtless these excavations will re- sult in the recovci'y of lai'ge quantities of skeletal remains and of objects of primiti\e art, which ))laced in the hands of specialists in these branches will serve to throw much light on the ancient peoples of Asia. This expedition is undertaken under the auspices of the new Cleve- land Museum of Art. GENEMI. APPENDIX TO TJIE SMITHSONIAN REPOIIT FOR 1!)I6. ADVEETTSEMENT. The object of th6 General Appendix to the Annual Eeport of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in ]>articular directions; reports of investi^atiojis made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a ^(‘nernl charat^ter or on special to])ics that are of interest or value to the numerous corresjiondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Ivc^ciits of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very eaidy date, to enricli tlie annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as avcU as showing the general character of (lie operations of the Institution; and this purpovse has, duriiig tln^ gic^ater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such pa})ers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientitii^ progress. In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the dis(‘ont)nuan(5e of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had beeri issued by well-known private publishing firms, Iiad prc|)ared by competent collaborators a series of abstracts, shoAving concisely the l^rominent features of recent scientific iirogress in astronomy, geol- ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan Avas continued, tliough not alto- gether satisfactorily, doAvn to and including the year 18f^8. In the report for 1889 a return Avas made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1916. 186 ADMTNLSTRATTON AND ACTIVITIES OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION. By A. Howard Clark, Editor, ^mitksonian Imt itxition. [With 22 plates. THE ESTABLISHMIONT- BOARD t)E REGENTS. The Smitlisonian Institution was created by act of Congress, in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in J8i^(> bequeathed his property to the United States of America ‘Ho found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian .Institution, an establishment for the increase and dif- fusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and acce|>ting tlte trust, Congress determined that the Federal Govern- ment was without authority to administer the. trust directly, and ther(d’orc CAmstituted an establishment,” whose statutory membersj are “the President, tlie Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” The business of the Institution is conducted by a Board of Regents composed of “ the Vice President*, the Chief Justice of the United States, and three Members of the Senate and three Members of the House of Re])resentatives, together with six other persons other than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” The Regents elect one of their number as chancellor, usually the Chief Justice, who is the presiding oftlcer of the board, and elect a suitable person as secretary of the Institution, who is also secretary of the board and the executive officer and director of the Institution’s activities. RESOURCES. The annual income of the Institution is about $100,000, deidved from interest on the permanent fund (in the United States Treas- ury) and on special funds, and contributions from various sources, which is applied to operations of the Institution proper, besides annual congressional appropriations of about $600,000 for the main- 137 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1D16. tenance of the bureaus or branches of the Institution developed through its early activities, including the United States National Museum and the National Gallery of Art, the International Ex- change Service, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientilic Litera- ture. The llegeiits are empowered to accept gifts without action of CongiTss in furtherance of the purposes of tlie Institution, and to administer trusts in accord therewith. Many important researches and expeditions, particularly during recent years, have also been aided by special trusts provided by })atrons of the Institution. Among the most notable of thc'se explorations, financed through ])ri- vate donations, was the African expedition under Theodore Roose- velt, and explorations in the Ear JCast continued for several years past through the liberality of Dr. William L. Abbott. The income of certain trust funds is set aside for specific ])ur[)oses, as that of the Frances Lea Chambeidain fund for the maintenance of the Isaac Lea collections of gems and molhisks. and that of a fund established by Mrs. E. II. ITarriman for carrying on certain biological studies; also the income of a portion of the Hodgkins fund, devoted to the study of atmospheric air. SMITHSONIAN HUILDINOS. The buildings occupied by the Institution and the National Museum are in the Smithsonian Park, an area of acres about mid- way between the Ca])itol and the Washington Monument. The origi- ^lal Smithsonian building is of brownstone in twelfth eentnry Nor- man or T./ombard style of architecture, LIT feet front and covering about 00,000 square feet. It was completed in 1855. The adminis- trative offices are here, as also several sections of the library, the Musenni division of plants or National Herbarium, and the divi- sion of graphic arts, also the offices and library of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Adjacent to the administrative building on the east is the Museum of Industrial Arts, built of brick in modernized Romanesque style of architecture, covering about 2^ acres, and comj)leted in 1881. Here are exhibited objects relating chiefly to the arts and industries and American history. On the north side of the park is the Museum of Natural History, completed in 1911. This fine structure is of granite in modern classic style with dome and columned portico. It covers an area of about 4 acres and in its ground floor and the three stories there are 468,118 square feet of floor space, one-half of which is devoted to exhibition purposes, the other half being utilized for storage rooms, offices, Smithsonian Report, 1 91^.— Cl.nk. Plate 1. Jit J i ! James Smithson. RiES Bu!LD:ng, U. S. National Museum. Natural HiSTORr Bu'ldin-, U. S. National Museum. South Front. Tllli SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— CLARK. 139 laboratories, and other purposes. As the latest of the groat museum hiiilcliiigs of the world it embodies many new and im])ortant features. Ilei'e are displayed the collections pertaining to anthropology, bi- ology, and geology, and the National Gallery of A]*t. The number of visitors to the original Smithsonian building from 1881 to 1916 was 4,580,932; and to the industrial arts building 7,727,732; while the visitors to the natural history building from 1910 to 1916 numliered 1,835,529. Through the generosity of Mr. Charles L. Freer there was begun in the summer of 1916 in connection with the National Gallery of Art, the coiistriu^tion of a beautiful edifice to house the splendid col- lection of American and oriental works of art presented to the Insti- tution by Mr. Freer, who has placed at the disposal of the Institution more than a million dollars to defray the cost of the building. The Astrophysical Observatory is housed in a grou]:) of small wooden structures south of the Smithsonian administrative ))uilding. PUKI’OSKS AM) (UUKCTS. The Smithsonian plan of (ugaiiization embi*aces the two objects named by the tt'stator: one, the increase of knowledge by tlie addi- tion of new truths to tlie existing stock; the other, the diil'usion of knowledge, thus increased, among mom No restriction is made in fa\or of any kind of knowledge, and hence each branch is entitled to and receives a share of attention. Paid of the ])laii has included the formation of a libiury of science and art. a museum, a gallery of art, and [)r(>\ isions foi* ])bysical research and })o])ular lectures. 41ie acti\'ities of the Institution embrace all branches of natural science, the line arts, and industrial arts, it lias at all times fostered ])rogi‘es.sive scientific reseaivh. Since its establishment the Institu- tion b:rs inaugurated and maintained or has paitici])ated in a great number of astronomical, anthropological, biologiiad, and geological expeditions and ex])lorations in every portion of the world, resulting ill largc'ly increasing our knowledge of the geography, the meteor- ology, the fauna and lloi’a, and the ethnology of all lands, and in the ac(jiiisitioii of a \ ast amount of valuable material for the National ]\Iiiseiun. Tlie Smilhsonian is not an educational institntiem of the nature of a uniyersity with a ccu'ps of professors and students, and yet its educational functions are of the highest rank, for the members of its scientific staff and its many collaborators aie constantly engaged in investigations in which students of science in all its branches participate; and the museum collections and the collection of ani- mals iix the Zoological Pai*k are a constmit source of original infor- 140 ANNUAL RUPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 191G. mation to specialists and to groups of pupils from public aiul private schools in Washington and elsewhere. The Institution aids investigators by making limited grants for research and exploration. It advises the Government in matters of scientific importance. It cooperates with all departments of the Government and with many scientific and historical national organ- izations. ACTIVITIES AND ACHIEVEMENa\S. The Tvegents controlling the policy and conducting the operations of the Institution have alwa3^s been men well known in public life and in the educational and scientific world. Among the more than 150 eminent Americans who have guid(‘d Smithsonian activities in past years maybe mentioned Louis Agassiz, the naturalist; Alexander Dallas Bache; George Bancroft, the his- torian; Salmon Portland Chase; Kufus Choate; James Dwight Dana, the eminent geologist and mineralogist; Asa Gray, the botanist; Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs, engineer; President Noah Poifcr, of Yale University; Lieut. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman; and many other men ])rominent in science and art and in public' allairs in niore recent years who are still active as Eegents or patrons or* otlierwise vitally interested in the work of the Institution. Under such leadership the achievements in every branch of knowl- edge have l)een notable and numerous. The Institution is practically tlie parent of maii}^ of the scientific Imreans of the Goviuannent. 1 lei'e were begun researches in astronomy, physics, meteorology, geology, liotany, fisheries, aviation, and other lines, some of wliidi, ha\'iiig out- grown facilities and means immediately available to the Institution, have been developed into separate Government bureaus, irn'liiding tlu^ United Slates Weather Bureau, the United States Geologii'al Sui-vey, the Fisheries Bureau, the National Advisory Committi'e for At'ronau- tics, and other Fedci'al bureaus, with all of which the Tustitutioti con- tinues in close and constant cooperation. To some of tli('S(‘. bunauis now belong tlie more economic phases of scientific work, while the Institution devotes its energies largely to the fundamental work, researches in the domain of xinre science, kee])ing in view, however, the l)earing of these reseairhes on the welfare of mankind. To Josejih Henry, Secretary of the Institution, 1H4() to 1878, emi- nent as a physicist, the world of S(;ience and industry owes a lasting debt, for it was be who in great measure made possible the electrical achievements of the present day. He married the intensity magnet to the intensity battery, the quantity magnet to the quantity battery, discovered the law by which their union Avas effected, and rendered theii* divorce impossible.” The intensity magnet is that which is to- Natural History Building, U. S. National Museum. Northwest Corne Joseph Henry, So( U‘t;iry ul Smiih.suiuaii lii.sl Kill ion, IM(>- l^TH. bPENCER Fullerton Baird, ,S('c:rl;n\ <>l iii.sntiilioii, Ls’rs-l,SS7. bmithioniuM Report. — Cl.-irk Plate 8. Samuel Pierpont Langley, Sctrulary of J^uiiLlLsoiiJan Just ilui ion, JssT-JoiMi, THE SMITHBONIAH INSTmiTTON—ClARK. 141 day in use in every telegra}>h syslein. Henry’s oscillating machine was the forerunner of all our modern electrical motors. The rotary motor of to-day is the direct outgrowth of his improvements in magnets.” His name is perpetuated in the term ‘4ienry,” tlie unit of electric inductance. Henry also inaugurated the system of daily meteorological observa- tions, out of which gi*ew the United States Weather Bureau, and, as head of the Lighthouse Board, he revolutionized the methods of lighthouse operation and signaling. In 1847 the Institution made an appropriation for instruments and other expenscis connected with meteorological observations.” The instruments thus secured were distributed throughout the country, and within two years the volunteer observers reporting to the Institution numbered about 400. In 1849 Henry realized the value of the electric telegraph as ready means of warning the more northern and southern observers to be on the watcli for the first appearance of an advancing storm,” and there was inaugurated a system of daily telegraphic weather reports, a system which was continued under the direction of the Institution until the beginning of the Civil War. On a large map in the Smithsonian building the weather over a considerable part of the country, according to re- ports received at 10 o’clock each day, was indicated by suitable symbols. Spencer Fullerton Baird, Secretary, 1878 to 1887, noted as a biolo- gist, during his administration bent his energies to iruTease man’s knowledge of animal life. He established the United States* Com- mission of Fish and Fisheries, now known as the Bureau of Fisheries, foi- the study of food fishes and river and ocean fauna. Secretary Baird, as keeper of the Museum, took a deep interest in the national collections in natural history and other objects, and under his direc- tion there was erected the Museum building for the exhibition of the valuable collections acquired from the International FxhiI:)ition at Philadelphia in 1876. During his administration the National Museum was rapidly developed under the direction of Assistant Secretary G. Brown Goode, and the need for more ade(|uatc (piarters soon became evident. Samuel Pierpont Langley, Secretary, 1887 to 1906, won eminence by his achievements as an astronomer, especially by his astropliysical observations and discoveries, and he became known to the world at large through his 18 years of administrative service as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. His fame will also become increasingly greater as the new science of aviation is further developed, for to Langley belongs the honor of being the first to demonstrate to the world, in 1890, the practicability of mechanical flight with machines heavier than the air, sustained and propelled by their own power. 142 ANNUAL KEl^OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. and he later developed and built the first nian-carryiii" aeroplane capable of sustained free flight. Ijangley’s success as a pioneer in aviation was commemorated on the Column of Progress at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition by a tablet bearing the inscription : “ To commemorate science’s gift of av iation to the world through Samuel Pierpont Langley, an American.” It was Prof. Langley who, in 1869, inaugurated a general system of standard-time distribution to various cities and railroads, a system which in 1885 had extended to 4,715 miles of railroad and is now universal throughout the country. He devised that most delicate instrument—the bolometer or elec- trical thermometer—by which changes of temperature of le.ss than the hundred-millionth of a degi-ee centigrade are measured, and by special installation difl'erences in temperature amounting to one- billionth of a degree can be detected. Langley’s investigations in radiation include (a) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s sgrface and in sun spots, (J) the solar enei-gy spectrum and its extension toward the infra red, (c) the lunar energy spectrum and the temperature of the moon, (d) spectra of terrestrial sources and determination of hitherto unmeasured wave lengths, and (d) the absorption by the earth’s atmosphere of the radiation of the sun and the determination of the solar constant of radiation. In each of these lines of research important discoveries were made by Langley, and since his death the Mork has been gi'eatly advanced through (be present director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Dr. Charles Greeley Abbot. It was during the administration of Secretary Langley that the National Zoological Park, largely the outgrowth of investigations on living animals under the direction of Assistant Secretary G. Brown Goode, was founded, and during this period there was begun the erection of the present great structure for the natural history collections of the National Museum, a building planned under the direction of Assistant Secretary Kichard Kathbun, who had made careful studies of the principal museums of the world. Charles Doolittle Walcott, the present Secretary, a geologist and ]mleontologist, began his administration as Secretary of the Institu- tion in 1907, having been connected with the Museum as an honorary officer of the department of paleontology since 1882. From 1888 to 1907 he held various positions in the United States Geological Survey, being its director from 1894 to 1907. His special study has berai Cambrian geology and paleontology, and he has recently suc- ceeded in bringing to light evidences of algal life in the pre-Cam- brian Algonkian. sediments, as also the discovery of most delicate examples of fossil holothurians and medusae in Middle Cambrian Charles Doolittle Walcott, of Km:! i' loi'.i ni Jii' ! iliilioii. Smithsonian Report, 191 THE BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—CLABK. 143 time. His publications have been voluminous in all phases of his specialty. During his administration the natural history and fine-arts collec- tions have been brought to a high status. The Institution has come into very close affiliation with a number of researcli corporations and scientific bodies through his official relation in their director- ship. He has taken deep interest in the promotion of the art of aviation, being largely instrumental in the establishment by Con- gress of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, having as one of its primary objects the bringing into close coordination of the Army and Navy and other branches of the Government and private interests engaged in various lines of aeronautical research. A prominent department of activity throughout the Iiistory of the Institution has been the scientific exploration of regions imperfectly known, pailicularly in Noilh America. Expeditions Inn^e been fitted out under the Institution's immediate direction and others organized by private enterprise or by Government departments have been aided by counsel and instructions. Tlie geological work of the Mexican Boundary Survey, the Colorado expeditions of Lieut. Ives, explorations to the Yellowstone, and many exiigditions and explorations in Alaska, in the Arctic, in xAfrica, in Siberia, in South America, in China, in Tibet, and elsewhere have been more or less intimately related with the Smithsonian Institution. The numerous and important services render ed to botanical science have greatly increased knowledge of the flora of little-known regions, especially in the south and west of this country and in Mexico, and, as a result of numerous investigations ami surveys, there has been brought together in the Institution the great National Herbarium of more than 1,000,000 specimens of the flora of the United States and foreign lands. Kecently the Institution has acquired a three years’ lease of the Cinchona Botanical Station at Jamaica, comprising about 10 aci’es of land, with offices, laboratories, and other buildings, for the fur- therance of our knowledge of West Indian botany. Assignment of botanists who desire to prosecute studies there are made on the recom- mendation of organizations which have cooperated with the Institu- tion in securing the use of this important field for botanical investi- gations. Under the auspices of the Institution and in cooperation with several departments of the Government, there has been a most thor- ough biological and geological survey of the Panama Canal Zone, resulting in a great addition to the knowledge of the fauna and flora and the geological history of that region. 144 A^iTKUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. As an aid to students of marine life, the Institution for several years has maintained a table at the Naples Zoological Station. The use of the table for stated periods has been accorded to a lai^ge num- ber of investigators on the recommendation of a committee appointed to advise the Institution as to the qualifications of applicants for the privilege of using the facilities thus afforded for carrying on their reseaj’ches. Many zoological explorations have likewise been carried on or aided by the Institution. Through the influence of the Institution naturalists or collectors were attached to practically all the impor- tant early surveys by the engineers of the United States Army, and the vast collections thus brought together have, in the main, been studied within the walls of the Smithsonian buildings and the natural history results made known through Smithsonian publi- cations. An important feature of the Institution’s activities has been its participation in the many international expositions held during the last forty years in the United States and Europe and numerous medals and diplomas of commendatory nature have been received for the exhibits displayed on these occasions, illustrative of the work of the Institution and of the resources and industries of the country and the customs of its jicople. In tlie interest of general education, particularly in natural his- tory and mineralogy, it has been the custom of the Institution to distribute to schools and colleges througliout the country such dupli- cate material as could be vspared from the National collections. These specimens are fully lal)eled and have aided instruction by supple- menting textbook information. A large addition to the Smithsonian fimd was made in 1891 when Thomas (5. Hodgkins, of Setauket, N. Y., presented $200,()()() to the Institution. The donor was deeply impressed with the im- portance of a careful study of atmospheric air, and stipulated that the income of $100,000 of his gift should be devoted to the increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to the nature and properties of atmospheric air in connection with the welfare of man. He indicated his desire that researches be not limitexl to sanitary science, but that the atmosphere be considered in its widest relation- ship to all branches of science, referring to the experiments of Franklin in atmospheric electricity and the discovery of Paul Bert in regard to the influence of oxygen on the phenomena of vitality as germane to his foundation. To stimulate researches in these directions the Institution offered a prize of $10,000 for a paper embodying some new and important discovery in regard to the nature and properties of atmospheric air, which was awarded in 1895 to Lord Kayleigh and Prof. William Ramsay, of London, for THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CLARK. 145 the discovery of argon, a new element in the atmosphere. Another prize of $1,000 for the best popular treatise on atmospheric air was awarded to Dr. Henry de Varigny, of Paris, from among 229 com- petitors in the United States, France, Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Norway, Denmark, Fin- land, Bohemia, Ba^'aria, Servia, Switzerland, Spain, India, Canada, Mexico, and Argentina. Numerous inA^estigations on the composi- tion of ex]>ired air and its effects upon animal life,” in “ atmospheric actinometry,” the “ air of towns,” ‘‘ animal resistance to disease,” ^‘ex])erimeiits with ionized air,” ‘Hhe ratio of specific heats,” and kindred to])ics have been carried on with tlie aid of grants from the Hodgkins fund. Researches have likcAvise been aided in con- nection wfitli the temperature, pressure, radiation, and other features of the iitmospliere at very liigh altitudes, and many other lines of investigation have been carried on, through all of which it is believed that valual)!e knoAvledge has been acquired by Avhich tlie welfare of man has been advanced. rrofxaviNS and langlea" ArEDALS. The Hodgkins gold medal was established by the Smithsonian In- stitution to be awarded for im[>ortant (‘ontributions to the knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric a/ir, or for practical ap- plications of existing knoAvledge to the Avelfare of mankind. It was first bestoAved April 3, 1899, on Prof. James Dewar, F. R. S., and second, October 28, 1902, on Prof. J. J. Thomson, F. R. S. The Langley medal Avas established in memory of the late Secre- tary Samuel Pierpont Langley and his contributions to the science of aerodrornics, ‘Ho be aAvarded for specially meritorious investiga- tions in connection Avith the science of aerodrornics and its applica- tion to aAoation.” This medal Avas presented in 1910 to the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright, and in 1913, to Mr. Glenn II. Curtiss and Mods. Gustave Eiffel. TUIRLK^ATIONS AND EXCHAN(;ES. The “diffusion of knoAvledge,” Avhich, next to its “ increase,” Avas so promirrmtly in the mind of the founder of the Institution, Avas provided for in the program of organization, submitted by Secre- tary Henry to the Board of Regents in 1847, by a system of several series of publications constituting original contributions to knoAvl- edge, accounts of scientific explorations and investigations, and papers recording the annual progiess in the field of science, which are distributed gratuitously to important libraries throughout the world. 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. The publications have been numerous and include many important and authoritative works. There is no restriction as to subject; they consist of memoirs upon aeronautics, archeology, astronomy, astro- physics, ethnology, botany, zoology, geology, paleontology, meteor- ology, magnetism, physics, physiology, philology, and many other subjects. The several series comprise (1 ) The Annual Report of the Board of Regente to Congress with a general appendix of papers illustrating progress in a wide range of scientific branches; (2) Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, begun in 1850, in quarto form; (3) Smitlisonian Miscellaneous Collections, in octavo; (4) Harriman Alaska Series, on the results of the scientific expedition to Alaska, in 1800; (5) Bulletin of the National Museum, including Contributions from the Ibiited States National Herbarium; (fi) Proceedings of the National Museum; (7) Annual Report of the National Museum; (8) Annual Report of the Ihireati of American Ethnology: (0) Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology; (10) Annals of the Astropliysical Observatory; and (11) a number of special publications independent of the above sei ies. There is also communicated to Congress tlirough the Secretary of the Institution the annual report of the American Historical Asso- ciation and of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution. The complete collection of Smithsonian publications numbers about 450 volumes, aggregating more than 200,000 printed pages. Since it wmuld be im[)ossible through the limited funds of the Institution and printing allotments by Congress to meet the great popular demand for Smithsonian publications, they are necessarily almost entirely distributed to learned institutions and impoi'tant public libraries, where they are available for general reference. Through this distribution there developed a system of exchange of Smithsonian publications with those of scientific and literary socie- ties of the United States and of other ])arts of the world and a general interchange of publications of American and foreign institu- tions, which has come to be Icnown as The Smithsonian International Exchange Service. In 1886 a treaty was made in Brussels between the United States and a number of foreign countries providing for the interchange of their governmental, scientific, and literary publi- cations, and the work of carrying out its pro\dsions in the United States was intrusted by Congress to the Smithsonian Institution. Under certain regulations the Institution accepts from correspond- ents in this country publications intended as exchanges and donations, and they are shipped by freight, at intervals not exceeding a month, to about 60 distributing imreaus or agencies abroad, which in turn receive from correspondents in their countries and forward to the THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—CLARK. 147 Smithsonian Institution, under certain rules, publications addressed to institutions in the United States and territory subject to its juris- diction. This service handles annually from 300,000 to 350,000 pack- ages, weighing upward of half a million pounds. Through its operation the national collection of books in the Library of Con- gress has been greatly increased. SMITHSONIAN LIBRARY. The accumulation of a, scientilic library has been an important phase of the Institution’s work in the “diffusion of knowledge,” and the collection has increased in size from year to year, until at present it numbers well over half a million titles. The main Smithsonian library is assembled in the Library of Congress, and is known as the Smithsonian deposit. This collection consists chiefly of transactions and memoirs of learned institutions and s(dentific societies and periodicals relating to science in general brought together from all parts of the world on a systematic plan since the middle of the last century. The National Mnseinn and the lil)rary of the Bureau of American Ethnology also maintain largo special libraries, and there arc libraries connected witli the Astro- physical ObvServatory and the National Zoological Bark, besides some 35 specialized sectional collections located in various offices for the use of the sdentific staff of the Institution and its branches. The ISmithsonian office libra ly contains a collection of books relating to art, the cmjdoyees’ library, and an extensive aeronautical library. INTERNATIONA!. CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The Smithsonian Institution directs the work of the TTnited States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, which is one of 33 regional bureaus in various countries engaged in the collecting, indexing, and classifying of siuentlfic publications of the year. The classified references are forwarded to the central bureau in London, where they are collated and published in a series of 17 annual volumes covering each branch of science and aggregat- ing about 8,000 printed pages. These volumes are sold at an annual subscription price of $85, chiefly to large reference libraries and im- portant scientific institutions, the proceeds covering in part the cost of publication. From 1901 to lOlO the bureau at the Smithsonian Institution forwarded to London about 350,000 reference cards to publications issued in the United States during that ])eriod. A plan for a work of this character was proposed as early as 1855, when Secretary Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, called the attention of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to the great need of an international catalogue of scientific works. 148 Ai^nsrtTAL rkpobt smithsoniak ikstitutiok, im In 1867 the Eoyal Society of London published its well-known Catalogue of Scientific Papers,” and the Smithsonian Institution has from time to time issued catalogues of the literature of special branches of science. In 1894 the Royal Society invited the Govern- ments of the world to send delegates to a conference to be held in London in 1896. At this and the following conferences in 1898 and 1900 a plan was formulated to start the work with a classified sub- ject and author catalogue of all original scientific literature, begin- ning with January 1, 1901. Tim UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSUEM. By the act of 1816 the Smithsonian Institution was made the cus- todian of the national collections in both nature and art. Tlie Museum branch was definitely organized in 1850, the title ‘MI. S. National Museum” being authoritatively given by Congress in 1875. During the first iaw years expenses of the Museum were Avholly met from the Smithsonian fund, and it was not until 1878 that the Gov- ernment began to provide entirely for its maintenance, this being done through annual appro]>riations by Congress. The Museum staff includes the Secretary of the Institution as keeper ex-officio, the assistant secretary in immediate charge, the administratue assistant, tluee head curators, and about 50 curators, assistant curators, custodians, and aids, besides many clerks and other employees. Four general divisions are recognized: (1) Natural history, in- cluding ethnology and arclieology; (2) the fine arts; (3) the indus- trial arts; (4) histoi’y. The division of natural history is divided into three departments, biology, geology, and anthropology. The collections of natural liis- tory have been received in greater part from Government surveys and explorations, and are richest in material from North America. Many other parts of the world are also well represented in one sub- ject or another, especially Central America, the Philippines, Ma- laysia, and some portions of Europe, Africa, and South America. The deep-water zoological collections from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are the most extensive and important in existence. Among important early sources of collections may be mentioned the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 to 1842, the Perry IJxpedition to Japan, the North Pacific Exploring Expedition of the Navy, the railroad and wagon-road surveys by the Army in connection with the opening up of the far West, the Canadian and Mexican boundary surveys, certain geological explorations, and the work of the coast survey in Alaskan waters, besides many expedi** tinns ojtf or by the Smithsonian Institution* Of more PLATE Exhibition of Fossil Vertebrates, i i. S. National Museum. Plate Exhibition of Fossil Vertebrates. U. S. National Museum. Plate 1 3. Group of African Lions from Roosevelt Rxpedition, I'l. S. National Museum. Plate 1 4. <HMB1TS. U. S N A TILS' AL M USEUM llilii SMITIISOOTAK 1NB11TU1?I0K~CLA11K. 149 I'eceixt date are the investigations of the Bureau of Fisheries, the Geological Survey, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and tlie Bureaus of Plant Industry, -Entomology, and Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture. Of private donors, some of whom have made gifts of great extent and value, the list is very long. The total number of specimens in all branches of natural history recorded to the present time amounts to several millions, the annual accretion during several years past having a^uraged a quarter of a million specimens. Of arts and industries there are on exhibition extensive collections of firearms, the most (lomplete in this (^ountiy ; l)oat and railroad models, electrical appai’atus, time-keeping and measuring devices, musical instruments, ceramics, graphic arts, h'xtiles, laces, em- broideries, and collections in mineral technology and in ])hotography. The growtli of the National Museum has heretofore been greatest in natural history lines, including primitive man. The develop- ment of the natural resources of the country and the study of the American aborigines through (iovci'nincnt surveys and explorations have contributed toward building u]) collections illustrative of nature and early man that e(]unl if not actually surpass those of any other country. The millions of specimens and hundreds of thousands of distinct s]'>ecics and forms here preserver! sei‘ve as the basis for extended researches and discoveries, 'idiroiigh cooperation with the executive departments of the Government the Museum collections constantly render aid in solving many broad economic problems in agj’iculture, in mining, in fisheries, and in Indian affairs. Unri- valed conditions are here afforded for tlie arrangement, care, and safety of the Nation’s treasures, for their uni’estricted study in the advancement of knowledge, and for their use in promoting the interests of public education. In recent years great advance has been made in the development of the department of technology—a Museum of Industrial Arts* It is in this department in particular that the Museum manifests one of its principal functions. The exhibits are so selected and so installed as to teach visitors how things are made and what they are made of, and not so much who makes the best articles or how they should be packed to meet the demands of trade. And yet whilft these collections first of all educate the public they also teach the manufacturer and therefore are of decided economic importance. While commercial museums have their place for developing trade and commerce, and are of much value for such purpose, the develop- ment of the artistic taste of the public through an educational Museum of Industrial Arts seems of even gi^eater general impbrt|i^e* It Simulates inventive skill and advances every art and e^^%y 1916 li 150 ANNUAL BBPOBT WITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. industry. The exhibits illustrating textile industry and mineral technology in particular are very complete, consisting of specimens of raw materials, machinery used in manufacture, and the finished products. The division of history has likewise greatly broadened in recent years. Here are displayed memorials of many leading American soldiers and sailors, inventors, explorers, and men of science, and memorials of important events in American history. A collection of costumes worn by ladies of the White House during each admin- istration since 1789 is of much popular interest. Among other objects of historic value are large collections of postage stamps, coins, and medHls. The Museum has been defined as one of record, of research, and of education. As a Museum of record it preserves the very foundations of an enormous amount of scientific knowledge in the many thou- sands of type specimens from numerous natural-history investiga- tions, and these are increasing rai)idlv as the results of new re- searches and explorations arc here permanently deposited. As a Museum of research the collections .serve as a stimulus to inquiry and tlie foundation for further investigation. The installation of exhibits is carefully planned to make tlie Museum an aid to public education. Every kind of natural object and every manifestation of human thought and activity are illustrated by specimens accom- panied by general and descriptive labels. Eaces of men are illus- trated by groups of figures in their native costumes, many of them represented in their daily occupations; mammals, birds, and other zoological specimens are each assembled in groups wdth natural sur- roundings. In every exhibition hall the educational feature is con- stantly kept in mind. It is a consultative library of objects,'’ an agency for the instruc- tion of all the people of the country, and it keeps in mind the needs of those whose lives are not occupied in the study of science as well as those of the professional investigator and teacher.” THE NATIONAT. GAIvLETlY OF ART. ^The foundation of a National Gallery of Art was contemplated and directed in the act of organization of the Institution in 1846 and in the program of operation adopted by the Board of Re- gents in 1847. It was several years, however, before the gallery was in active operation. The national gallery received very great stimu- lus in 1906 through the bequest of Harriet Lane Johnston, niece of Pi^esident Buchanan; the munificent gift of Mr. Charles L. Freer, an4 the gift of Mr. William T. Evans, thus bringing into national C)Wi|€rehi|) a very rich collection of paintings and other objects of Plate 1 5. Exhibition Group of Chilkat Indians, U, S. National Museum. Exhibition Group of Bering Strait Eskimo, U. S. National Musei SrM Jacquard Machines, U. S. National Museum, 4TE 18 Working Modei of P.oal Mine, U. S. National Museum. Tttfe SMITHSONIAN IN&ttfUTION—CLARK. 151 art The gallery is now administered as the department of line arts of the National Museum. The collections of the gallery include paintings and other objects which had long been in the custody of the Institution; (6) the Harriet Lane Johnston bequest, including a number of highly interesting and valuable paintings and sculptures; (c) the William T. Evans gift of more than 150 carefully selected works by modern American painters; (d) the Charles L. Freer collection, numbering more than 5,000 items of paintings, sculptures, pottery, bronzes, jades, and other works of art; (e) a collection of 82 drawings in pencil, pen, charcoal, chalk, crayon, and water color executed by eminent contemporary French artists. The munificent donation by Mi*. Freer of his collection and pro- vision for its preservation is unsurpassed in this country and is one of the moat notable gifts of its character in the world’s history. Mr. Freer describes his collection as follows: These several collections Include specimens of very widely separated periods of artistic development, bogmniiig before the birth of Christ and ending tOKiay. No attempt has been made to secure specimens from unsympathetic sources, my collecting liaving been confined to American and Asiatic schools. My great desire has been to unite modern work with masterpieces of certain periods of high civilization harmonious in spiritual and physical suggestion, having the pemer to broaden esthetic culture and the grace to elevate the human mind. The original collection consisted of about 2,300 paintings and other objects of art and has since Ix'cn increased to 5,340 items, including American paintings and sculptures, the Whistler collec- tion, and oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea, Japan, and other Asiatic countries. Mr. Freer retains his collection in his home citv until the com- pletion of the building now under constniction in the Smithsonian Park, for which Iia has placed in the hands of the Institution the sum of $1,000,000. BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology is an outgrowth of early ethnological and archeological researches of the Institution, and of later investigations conducted in behalf of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to determine the aflRnities of the various tribes of Indians to serve as a guide in grouping them on reservations, as it was believed that an effective classification of the tribes materially reduced the danger of warlike outbreaks. A vast amount of lin- guistic and bibliographical information relative to the American Lps liflPin nnbbsbed by the Bureau, and DTcnt e,n1lections of 152 ANKUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTlTOTlOlr, 1916. ethnological material have been gathered for the anthropological department of the Museum. Several years ago there was begun a series of handbooks on the American Indians. The first of these, in two volumes, was the Iltindbook of American Indians North of Mexico, containing a de- scriptive list of the stocks, confederacies, tribes, tribal divisions, and settlements, with sketches of their history, archeology, man- ners, arts, customs, and institutions. The second series. Handbook of American Indian Languages, discusses the characteristics and classification of the 55 linguistic families north of Mexico and their relation to ethnology. Further scries, including a Handbook of American Antiquities, a Handbook of Aboriginal Kemains East of the Mississippi, and handbooks of the Indians of the several States, are in preparation. Since 1879 the Bureau has published 34 \’olumes of annual reports and 62 bulletins, covering eiery phase of American Indian life and history. It has surveyed, excavated, and put in con- dition for permanent preseination a number of aboriginal ruins in the southwestern portion of the country, and is constantly cooperat- ing with the Department of the Interior and with archeological societies in the work of saiing these interesting sites for the benefit of future generations, h'ield operations by the Bureau during recent years in New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Wyoming have brought to light exceedingly interesting aboriginal remains that have been set apart as national monuments. NATION.VL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. In 1890 the Congress set apart 167 acres in the beautiful Rock Creek Valley on the northwestern borders of Washington City as the National Zoological Park, which was founded “ for the advancement of science and the instruction and recreation of th^ people,” and Con- gress placed its administration in the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution. The collection of mammals, birds, and reptiles numbers about 1,400 individuals, representing some 860 species. Its visitors now average about 1,000,000 each year, including many groups of public and private school students accompanied by their teachers. Among the buildings in the park are the lion house, containing the large cats and other animals, the monkey house, the bird hotusc, houses of the elephants, and the antelope house. There are also ihcloSures for bears, pumas, wolves, and foxes; pools for sea lions ,and other Ifrater-loving animals, and paddocks for deer, lama, yak, and oth^ ruminants; also many cages for small animals. Wild turkeylty* |lil®tridg6fi^ peacocks, squirrels, and wild rabbits wander in perfeist iteedom throughout the park. ;-ATE 1 y. Mammal House, National 7oological Park. bmithsonian K' port, — ClarU. PLATE ^U. View in National Zoological Park. 2. Swan in National Zoological Park, Sfnith5onia Report, 1916 -Clark Plate 22. 2. Polar Bear Cage, National Zoological Park. ITBP SMITHSONIiN mSTiWMOK—OLABK. 163 One of the principal aims in establishing the park was to promote .the preservation of races of animals threatened with extinction, such as the American bison, which once roamed in vast herds over the Western plains and was rapidly disappearing before the advance of railroads and the rapacity of hunters. Several bison were secured for the park and have thrived here, and through the efforts of the Smithsonian Institution and others the Government was aroused to establish preserves in the West where the bison breeds freely. There are several large cages for birds in the park. The great “ flight cage,” 158 feet long by 50 feet in width and height, is built over several full-grown trees and has a running stream of water sup- plying pools for the convenience of the birds, which are mainly herons, stolks, cranes, cormorants, gulls, and pelicans. Among the particularly impoi’tant exhibits is a fine collection of ungulates, or hoofed animals, no less than 50 species of wild cattle, deer, sheep, goats, antelopes, horses, and their Idndred being repre- sented, many of them by breeding herds. There is also a valuable collection of North American water fowl, a specially prepared breed- ing lake being set aside for the wild ducks, geese, and swans of this continent. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSKRVATORY The Astrophysical Observatory, founded in 1890, investigates solar radiation, and in general, solar phenomena, and has produced a complete chart, made by automatic processes, which shows in detail the so-called invisible spectrum. The work of this Observatory is especially directed to those portions of the energy of the sun that affect through its radiation the climate and the crops. Through the use of s])ecially designed pyrhelioraeters attached to free balloons, observations have been made of the intensity of solar radiation at various elevations up to a height of more than 80,000 feet, above sea level. Special studies have been made of the solar constant and of the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk. The principal astrophysical work is carried on at the observatory in the Smithsonian Park in Washington and at Mount Wilson and Mount Whitney in California. On the summit of Mount Wliitney the Institution has constnicted a shelter for the general use of observers. Expeditions to various parts of the world have been made for observation of eclipses of the sun and other special studies. As the result of researches made by the observatory during the period from 1900 to 1915 it is found that the average value of heitt emitted by the sun is 1.932 calories per minute per square centi- ineter, and that the heat emitted in a year equals that obtained bjjfe 164 ANKITAL EEPORT SMITHSOI^IAI^ IKSTITUTION, 1916. burning four hundred sextillion (400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) tons of anthracite coal. It is found that there is a variability in the sun’s radiation, with a range about 7 per cent irregularly in periods of a week to 10 days. The sun’s radiation is generally greater, par- ticularly toward the center of the solar disk, at sun-spot maximum, though the temperature of the earth is generally greater at sun-spot minimum. Standard pyrhelionieters have l)een recently devised by the Astrophysical Observatory for measuring solar heat and are in use at observatories in several parts of the world, and also a pyran- ometer for measuring tlie intensity of skylight by day and radiation outward toward tlie sky at night. These studies are of economic agricultural importance as well as of scientific interest. OUIOIN OF THE INSTITUTION. James Smithson, of England, a graduate of Oxford University, Master of Arts, Fellow of the Koyal Society, a chemist and mineral- ogist, made his will in 182G bequeathing his property to the United States of America to found tlie Smithsonian Institution at Wash- ington for the increase and diffusion of knoA\ledge among men. He died in Italy in 1829. In July, 18)15, the Secretary of State was officially informed of the bequest, and on December 27, President Andrew Jackson communicated the papers to Oongress. The mes- sage of the President was referred to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary and to a select committee of the House of Re})re^ntatives. After deliberate discussion of the authority and projiriety of the United States Go\ eminent to accept such a trust for the purpose stated, there was approved by the President, on July 1, 183G, an act of Congress to authorize and enalde the President to assert and prosecute with effect the claim of the United States to the Smithson legacy, and Mr. Richard Rush was appointed agent of the United States for that purpose. On December 3, 1838, the Secretary of the Treasury reported to the President that the bequest, amounting to $508,318.46, had been paid into the Treasury of the United States. In a message to Congress on December 6, 1838, President Van Buren invited attention to the obligation devolving upon the United States to fulfill the object of the Smithson bequest. For eight years thereafter the subject was under consideration in the Senate and House, resulting in the founding of the Institution by an act of Con- gress of August 10, 1846, and by law the Smithsonian fund was made perpetually entitled to an annual income of 6 per cent interest, and definite resources were thus assured for carrying out the purposes and objects of the founder of the trust. Since the original bequest by Smithson, other bequests and gifts have come to the Institution THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—-CLABK. 155 Tom generous benefactors, varying in amounts from a quarter of i million to the modest, but none the less acceptable, sums of a bousand dollars or less, until the total invested permanent fund now iggregates more than a million dollars, and is gradually increasing Vom year to year. In discussing the acceptance of the Smithson bequest in 1836, John Juincy Adams, in the House of Kepresentatives, said Of all the foundations of establishments for pious or charitable uses, which !ver signalized the spirit of llie age, or (lie comprehensive lienellcence of tlie ounder, none can be named more deserving of (lie apiirobation of mankind han this. Should it be faithfully carried into eflect, witli an earnestness and agacity of application, and a steady perseverance of pursuit, proportioned to the nenns furnished by the will of (he founder and to the greatness and simplicity if his design us by himself declared “(lie increase and diffusion of knowledge iinong men ” it is no extravagance of anticipation to declare that his name vlll be hereafter enrolled among (lie eminent benefactors of mankind. Eighty years have passed .since Mr. Adams spoke those prophetic vords. The name of James Smithson, and the Smithsonian Institu- ion, which he founded, are to-day known to all men of science, ind everywhere are held in the liighest esteem. NEWS FROM THE STARS. By (). (}. AimoT, Director^ .MraphyfiicdJ Obacrratory, ^^inUJiHou’nni Imtiiution, [Willi 5 plates.] Light is the messenger that brings the news. The message is in cipher, very long, faint, and hard to read. It tells of the materials, classification, temperatures, motions, distanc^e, grouping, brightness, variability, mass, size, and number of the stars. TtATEIUALS. Starlight collected by a telescope is passed through a spectroscope. This forms a narrow band, called the spectrum, violet at one end, red at the other. A photograph of tlie spectrum is made, and for most stars this shows the band of colors crossed by dark lines. Suppose an electric arc is made to play between iron poles, and its light is sent through the spectroscope. Instead of a bright con- tinuous spectrum with darh lines, as given by a star, there appears its exact opposite—a very faint si)ectrum ciT>ssed by hriglit lilies, especially numerous whei*e the green occurs in the spectrum of star- light. Matched together, one speidrum above the other, the bright iron lines occur where the dark lines cross the star s|)ectriim. So unmis- takably is one the i*eversal of the other that the coincidence seems to give proof of the presence of iron in the star. Probability be- comes assurance when it is known that under some circumstances iron vapor can produce davh lines on bright spectrum ground, just as usually found in starlight, and that some stars, on the other hand, show hright lines on a faint spectrum background. Hydrogen, helium, oxygen, calcium, and many other elements are similarly shown to exist in the stars by spectroscopic examination of starlight. But not all the stars show all these elements. Great dif- ferences are found in the stellar spectra, and stars are classified accordingly. 157 J58 aIS'N'TJAL EEfOBl* SMITHSONIAI? iNSrlTTJtlOlT, l&ie. CLASSIFICATION. As proposed at Harvard College Observatory, the following classi- fication of btellar spectra has been generally adopted; Class 0 ( Wolf-Eayet type) . The spectrum consists of bright lines on a faint continuous background. Class B (Orion type). Dark lines of helium are sparsely set on a bright ground. Class A (Sirian type). Ilydiogen lines are most conspicuous. Class F (calcium type). Hydrogen lines are still conspicuous, but many lines of metals appear faintly, and notably two great lines of calcium in the violet. Class G (solar type). Numerous strong metallic lines occur as in s^iuilight. Class K (sun-spot type). The lines are darker and sun- spot flutings occur. Hydrogen lines are faint. Type M (fluted type). Titanium oxide flutings are strong, and carbon flutings also w^ell marked. Several other (dasses are noted by specialists, but those above named are the chief ones (pi. 1). The classification of the stellar spectra is a very important aid to research. It is found that motions, position in the heavens with leference to the Milky Way, si/e, temperature, distance,, and other characteristics of stars, vary with spectral class. Director Picker- ing, of IlarNard College Observatory, has already done a work of higli \ alue m securing the s^iectra and publishing the classification of about G,000 stars covering both the northern and southern hemis- pheres. Now a new publication is about to bo made by Harvard College Observatory, giving the classification of the spectra of above 200,0(X) stars, all obsei\ed by the Harvard staff, and all examined by Miss A. J. Cannon within the last four years. nnOMPEKATlTRKS Cold iron does not shine in the dark, but let the smith heat it in his forge and soon it glows red, then yellow, then white hot. The hotter the body is the more its spectrum is enriched toward the violet end as compared with the red. Exact mathematical relations are known to connect temperature and distribution of light in the spec- trum. Working on this basis, it is found that our sun’s surface appears to be at about 6,000° centigrade (10,800° Fahrenheit) above the melting temperature of ice. (See pi. 2.) By photographic methods Wilsing and Scheiner, of the Agtro^ physical Observatory at Potsdam, in Germany, have assigned tem- peratures to about 100 of the brighter stars. The results run from ^,000° C. for class B down to 3,000° C. for class M, varying in fairly regular progression. Very recently Coblentz, of the National Bureau of Standards, lybrking temporarily at Lick Observatory in California, has sue* M measuring the heat caused by the rays of stars so faint tl^l ^ 1*1 i CLASSfFICATION OF STELLAR SPECTRA ^ADAMS). From Harper’s Mairazme, October, I'JIO, Prismatic Stlctrum (Langlty). From J’roc. Amor. Asso. AUv. Sci., Vol. lil, lssr>. MWS PROM THE STABS—ABBOT. 159 eye can scarcely see them. For this purpose the rays were col- lected by a concave mirror of 3 feet diameter and focused on the Surface of a very delicate electrical thermopile (pi. 3 and pi. 4, fig. 2), This instrument acts on the principle that a difference of temperature between the junctions of two metals made up into a closed wire cir- cuit, produces an electric current. The apparatus used was so deli- cate that if the experiment could be made in a vacuum the heat from rays of a candle at flS miles could be observed. Further work along similar lines is proposed. DISTANCE. When a surveyor measures the distance of an inaccessible object he selects two convenient stations and measures their distance apart. This is called the base line. At each end of the base line he observes the angle the base line makes with a line sighted toward the inaccessible object. The angles and the base of his triangle being thus meas- ured, the two remaining sides can be calculated. By such a process, using the earth’s diameter, or a large part of it, as the base line, the distance of the moon is readily de- termined, and comes out 243,000 miles. Even the length of a diameter of the earth is too small a base line from which to triangulate for the distances of the stars. Astrono- mers use the diameter of the earth’s orbit round the sun, 186,000,000 miles, for this. Astronomers also take advantage of the f^ict that very faint stars are usually much farther away (though not invari- ably so) than bright ones. Thus it comes about that if photographs of a bright star are made with the same telescope at two dates ax months apart, and exact measurements of the distance of the bri^t Star from its faint neighbors are made on both photographs, a slf^t displacement of the bright star will often be found to havo occurred, ^he angular measure of displacement gives the vertical angle of wo isosceles triangl% of which the base line is the diameter of thO amth’s orbit, and from these data the star’s distance is easily found, from the nearest star, « Centauri, the radius Of the earth’s Fio. 1— Method of triangulating for distances of heavenly bodies. From “ The Sun,” by C. G. Abbot Published by Appleton & Co., 1911. AKTST/AL WPO»T SMITHSONUjSr IN&TITUTIOIT, mSl 01‘bit, 93,000,000 miles, subtends an angle of only 0.75 seconds. is Called the star’s parallax. Up until very recently the parallax determinations of Elkin an^ Chase at Yale University Ob&er\ atory, by direct eye observations with the heliometer, were regarded as of the highest accuracy. Bwt now the photographic method as worked out at Yerkes Observatory by Prof. Schlesinger, now director at Allegheny Observatory, has come to be preferred. This work is being pushed by Director Mitchell, of Leander McCormick Observatory, and is also occupying a prominent place on the program at several other observatories where large telescopes are available. Altogether less than 1,000 star distances have been measured. It is a slow, tedious work, often disappointing, a Centami, the nearest star, except the sun, is at 25,000,000,000,000 miles, while the sun is at only 93,000,000 miles. When a measurement indicates that a star is at 2,000,000,000,- 000,000 miles or more (parallax 0.01 seconds) it is the same as saying that the star is too far away for its distance to be determined. It may be ten or a hundred times as far as the measurements indicate. This is about the average distance of the faintest stars visible to the naked eye. The great majority of telescopic stare lie beyond this distance. If observers did not choose stars cx])ected to be relatively near, most of their results would come out thus indeterminately. Even as it is, a great number of measurements do come out in this disappointing fashion. Unless some better method of investigation is discovered, measurements of individual star distances must ever be in this imsatisfactory state. In ti'eating of star motions we shall see how our knowledge of the avei'age distances of certain gi-oups pf stars has been extended.^ MOTIONS. About the year 1750 the English astronomer royal, Bi-adley, ob- served the positions in the heavens of 3,222 stars. Bradley’s stars and many others have been observed often in moi'e recent years. All the best work relating to about 6,000 of the brighter stars was com*' pared and reduced to a homogeneous system about the year 1910 by Hiie late Broi Lewis Boss, of the Dudley Observatory and Carnegie Imdatufeottl. ( FfOln Boss’s work the proper motions *(so called) of these Wene accurately determined. All stars, including our auib mplb *—— i ijifjft 1 Sliftce tW» was written Dr, Adams, of Mount Wilson Solar 0]t»«ervat<M^» dliKiov^ed i method of determining parallaxes,%hlcli la applicable to of iSiemkli % 4 i; nnd M, and I« independent In accuracy of tl^e dlstattOe of the It te to permit a good spectrum photograph to be made^ Coblen/tz Plate IffWS Fll()M THE STARS" ‘ABBOT. Ifl eaoh with his own rate and direction, so that at the end of a century thd configuration of the heavens is not quite the same as at its begin- ning. These proper motions” range from 870 seconds of arc pef century down. (A second of arc is about the angular width of a Megraph wire as seen at a distance of a half mile.) The vast ma- |brity of stars have a less proper motion than 20 seconds per century. / Proper motions are observed as angles and can not be expressed in miles per second without other information. We see only the component of motion at right angles to the line from the earth to the star. If a star is coming directly toward us, it has no proper mo- tion, though its real speed may be very great. Near stars have greater average proper motions than distant ones, just as men walk- ing on the other side of the street apparent!}" outdistance those a bhx^k away. Two things besides proper motion are therefore needed to detenninc the real motion of a star, namely, its distance and the angle its real motion makes to the lino of siglit. Fortunately, the spectroscope can help in this matter. Although, as stated above, the chemical element'", are discovered in stars by the reversal of their sjiectrum lines, c^refnl measurement shows that the positions of the stellar lines are slightly shifted, either toward the red or toward the violet, with respect to the bright lines of the comparison spectrum of a metal. Doppler predicted this effect nearly a half century before it was observed in starlight. It depends on the motion of the star in the line of sight. Light travels by waves. Violet light .has more waves per second than red. If a star is approaching, its light seems to have more waves per second because the star’s motion is added to that of light, and hence all the spectrum lines are shifted toward the violet. The lines are shifted toward the red for stars that are receding. From the amount of tlie shift the actual rate of approach or recession of the star may be found. Natunilly, a small correction must be made for the motion of the earih on its axis and its motion round the sun. We then have the actual rate of motion of the star to or firom the shn. It is a very valuable thing about this kind of measurement that pnly a star is bright enough it makes no difference at all in the acijilracy of the detemiination how distant the star may be. This ithfortunately is not so with proper motions. As the sun has a motion of its own, which Sir Williaih Herschel itly concluded in the year 1783 is toward the noi^hern cplistella^ tion Hercules and not far from the bright star Vega, all the stellar motions, of course, appear to be affected by an equal motion toithat of fhe sun but in the opposite direction. ' /^rpetor Campbell, of Lick Observatory, has recently pttbiis a ediiectite of the so-called radial motions” of nearly 2,000 g If® AKJSfUAL KBi^r SMITHSONIAN INSTlI^TldiN* MSi resiiltai^ filioin Ms of spectroscopic observing in both the Northerft and Southern Hemispheres, begun about the year 1898. From this work he finds the sun to be moving at about 19.6 kilom®*; ters (12 miles) per second in its course among the stars. Rapid progress is being made in measuring the radial motions of the fainter stars at Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. The 60-inch reflecting telescope there has been employed, under the direction of Dr. W. S. Adams, for this purpose since 1910, and the new 100-inch reflecting telescope also will soon be available. Other great refleetors are being prepared for Canada and for Argentina, and will doubtless be joined in this work. As it is a slow business at best, observers of the radial motions of the fainter stars will generally confine their measurements to what are termed Kaptcyn’s selected areas. Prof. Kaptcyn, of Groningen, Holland (who has just been deco- rated for his astronomical work by the Emperor of Germany with the Prussian order Pour le Merite, at the same time with a group of generals, marshals, and kings) , has been engaged for many years in a general study of the motions and distances of the stars. His studies are continually thw'arted by lack of information about the fainter stars, which are so numerous that they will never be all observed individually. Hence Kapteyn has proposed that attention be devoted to 206 selected areas all over the sky, each about IJ degrees scjuarc, so that samples of the stars so chosen may have their positions, motions, brightness, distances, and spectral classes determined within a reasonable time. The distances wdll always be the weak point, but progress will be rapid along the other lines. ; Now, let us see hgw knowledge of proper motions, radial motions, ai)4 distances can be combined when all three are known, as in the M individual stars. From the distance and proper motion k^ther we learn that the star appears to move at right apgles to the line of sight at a certain rate in miles per second. Tht proper motion also indicates in which direction this cross motion 'is taking the star. The spectroscope indicates that the star ig 4)^proaching or receding at a certain rate. By combining the two f^mponents—the apparent cross and radial motions—^the actual speed and direction of the star’s motion becomes fully determined. Apply- ing next a correction for the known motion of the solar system, !^ own peculiar motion with respect to the whole system of sfeprs via kt length found. STAR GROUPING. distance is so weak a link in this chain, several devices have Ki^ployed to strengthen it, and these depend in one way or an- ^pi^ -ktar grouping. First of all, there are a good many i^irs l^^'-whidi have bw» shown by t^Mcopic observatiw to be l^evolving about their common center of gravity. Spectroscopic de- terminations of radial motion for such telescopic double stars give sufficient additional information to yield us their distances. Secondly, there are a number of large groups of stars, each of which have been found to have their peculiar motions all toward a single converging point. If the reader will stand at one end of a long corridor and look down the four corners of it as they stretch away from him, or, still better, will look from the back of a train at a long, straight stretch of railway, he will see at once that this convergence really means for these stars tluit their motions are all parallel. This could only happen if the stars were all of a single flock, moved by some common cause in the same direction. Finally, as these stars have been moving since a time immeamraMy long ago, they would not now have been seen in the same part of the slcy if their speeds were unequal. Such a gi*oup, therefore, consists of stars moving at equal speeds in parallel paths. Yet their proper motions are unequal. This is because their dis- tances are unequal. If now the distance of a single one of these stars can be determined in some way, the distance of every one of them whose proper motion is known follows at once. But the great extension of knowledge as to star distances comes when stars are classified according to proper motion. Consider a large number of stars of equal proper motion. It is to be supposed that generally (apart from s[>ecial groups like those just mentioned) their real motions will be at random in space, and though some will be moving squarely across the line of sight and showing all of their real motion, others moving nearly along the line of sight showing but little of it, the average of all f)roper motions will be approxi- mately two-thirds of the average real motion. The same is of course true for large groups at two, four, or any number of times smaller average proper motion than the group first considered. Their aver- age real motions will also be approximately 3/2 their average proper motions. It is further to be supposed that the average of all the real mb- tions in each of these large groups of stars is the same, whatever their distance from us. We may at least adopt this hypothesis f<jr lack of knowledge to the contrary. If so, it follows at once that a, large group of stars whose mean proper motion is one second is twice as far away on the whole as a large group of stars whose meah proper motion is two seconds. Prof, Kapteyn has carefully compared all the known distances of individual stars with their proper motions, and has considered in this coihparison certain other data, especially brightness. In this way he has Worked out a formula by which one can determine average di^anoes of stars of different mean proper motions, and ithtiS\; 164 ANNUAL EUPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, we escape from the limitations imposed by the comparative meager- ness of oiir knowledge of individual stellar distances. According to Kapteyn’s formulae, the vast majority of the stars are so far away that it takes light thousands of years to come to the earth from them, though light travels 186,000 miles per second. Returning now for a moment to the considei'atiou of star motions, we understand at once that, just as the mean proper motion of a large group of stars corresponds to two-thirds of the average real motion of these stars, so the mean radial motion of the group is actually approximately two-tlnrds of tlic average real motion. Director Campbell has in this way worked out the average real motions of stars of diirerent specti*al classics, and Prof. Boss also has done the same, basing his l esult on the mean proper motions and mean probable distances. Their results are in very close, agreement. Both find our sun to be moving a very little slower than the average of all stars in their lists. When, however, the stellar motions aro an*anged by spectral classes they find the B stai-s moving slower, otlmr classes faster and faster in a somewhat regular progression up to the M class star^. Quite recently Adams has extended tliis investigation to fainter stars. He finds the.se dilferencos of s])eed l)etvveen s|)ectral (da9S(\s not so great as found by Boss and CamplTell, and the average speed of the fainter stars also less. It may be that the brighter stars, being relatively near us, form a s])ecial group, not rpiite representa- tive of all the stars in the universe. The greatest conception in regard to star grouping is that of ‘‘star streaming,” recently wT)rked out by Kapteyn and by Edding- ton, of the Ibiiversity of Cambridge, England. They find that when the proper motions of the stars are cleared of tlie effects of solar motion the remaining so-called “peculiar motions” of the in- dividual stars, while they go to some extent at random, plainly in- dicate the governing influence of two great streams moving oppo- sitely. If we could (a)llect all the stars at one point and endow each of them with its “ peculiar motion ” just as it has been ol)served, then at the end of a century the stars wmuld have sti'etched out, not into a sphere but into an ellipsoid, owing to the influence of the two star- streams. This grand phenomenon is attracting deep attention from astronomers to-day, and will undoubtedly play a gi'eat part in future studies. BRIGHTNESS AND VARIABILITY. Stars look hardly as bright as the fireflies of a summer night, but in reality they glow like the sun, and seem faint only l)ecause far away. Astronomers speak of “magnitudes” and of “ absolute mag- mtndes.” The first gives the relative brightness of the stars as NEWS FKOM THE STARS—^ABBOT. 165 they seem to us to be, and the second as they would seem if all were equally distant. A diiference of a magnitude means about 2| fold in brightness, and five magnitudes 100 fold. Thus a star of sixth magnitude, which can just barely be seen by the naked eye, under best conditions, is 100 times fainter than stars of first magnitude, like Aldebaran, which is among the brightest. On this scale our sun is of —20.5 magnitude. But on the scale of absolute magnitudes our sun is only an aver- age star. If removed to Aldebaian's distance the sun would seem a fifth magnitude star. Some bright stars like Tligcl, (Ainopus, and Deneb give thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands or millions, Fig. 2,—Llght-fiirve of Ti R Draconic uf oclipso (Sears). From Astropbyskal Journal, vol. 30. Vertical scale, days; horizontal scale, magnitudes. of times as much light as does the sun. On the other hand a vast number of stars give less light than the sun. Measurement of brightness is called photometry. A very large pro- gram of stellar photometry has beendoneunder Director Pickering at Harvard College Observatory. Many stars aie found to be of vari- able brightness. It has been shown lately by the Smithsonian observ- ers that even the sun is variable through a l ange of about 10 per cent. But most of the known variable stars vary much more widely than this. The cause of the variation is now known to be, in many but not all cases, the presence of a companion star so near the primary star as to be indistinguishable by the telescope, but discoverable by spec- 73889®—SM 1916 12 166 ANKUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, im. troscopic studies of motion in the line of sight. As the two stars re- volve about their coimnoii center of gravity they alternately eclipse each other as seen from the earth. Of course the eclipse may be either total or partial, according to the relatiA e sizes of the tw’^o stai>> and the inclination of their orbit to our line of sight. By a careful study of the variation of brightness of these objects it is possible to fix the period of revolution, the relative size of the two stars, the in- clination of their orbit, and other data. This branch of astronomy has been much investigated at the Observatory of Ih'inceton ITniver- sity under Director Eussell, and a most interesting publication of the results has just been made by his pupil Shapley, now at Mount Wil- son Solar Observatoi'V. MASS AND SIZE OF STABS. The spectroscope shows, by noting the periodic variability of ve- locities of stars in the line of sight, that about one- fourth of all the visible stars are really double or multiple, though appai’cntly single to the telescope. So, for instance, Campbell found that the i^olar star is probably triple. In cases where the stars are so wide apart that the telescope can perccDe them as separated, not only can the distance of the stars from each other and from the earth be determined, but also the combined mass of the pair in terms of the mass of the sun. When there is no visible separation, the mass can be determined for some cases in which the plane of the orbit is known. For a Centuuri, the nearest star to the sun. there is visible si'paration of two compo- nents, which revolve in 81 years. The total mass is twice that of the sun, and the two components being nearly equal, ea('li is of about the sun’s mass. The two are separated about 23.6 times as far as the earth is from the sun. The periods of revolution of double stai’s thus far determined spectroscopically range from 4^ hours to 90 years. From the photc/metric study of eclipsing binary stars it has been shown by Eoberts and by Eussell that the average densities of these stars is small, no more than one-eighth of that of the sun. On this and other grounds astronomers are of the opinion that stars are gen- erally less dense than the sun, that is that they occupy a larger volume when of equal mass. The sun is only 1.4 times as dense as water, or half as dense as glass, while our earth is 6.5 times as dense as water, or 4 times as dense as the sun, THE NUMBER OF THE STARS. Stars are divided according to brightness in classes called magni- tudes. First magnitude stars like Aldebaran are rare. A good ex- ample of the second magnitude is Polaris. Stars as faint as the fifth NEWS FBOM THE STABS—ABBOT. 167 or sixth niagiiitiide can be seen with the unaided eye, according to the cleamess of the sky and its freedom from the glare of cities. A difference of five magnitudes means a difference of a hundredfold in brightness. Thus sixth, eleventh, sixteenth, and twenty-first magni- tude stars arc lespecti vely a liundred, ten thousand, a million, and a hundred million times fainter than first- magnitude stai^. Our sun is about twenly-six magnitudes, or twenty-five billion times brighter than zero magnitude stars like Vega. Do the stars increase in number without limit as we consider fainter and fainter ones revealed by larger and larger telescopes? To answer this* (juestion counts have been made of the actual numbers in the whole sky for the brighter magnitudes, and then of numerous patches of .slcy sufficient to give a fair average sample for the fainter magnitudes. In this way it has been found that up to the tenth magnitude the num- ber of stars l')righter _ than a gi^en magni- r ^ d "" tilde is about three '** - ^ \ ‘^ times as gi*eat as the number bright er than the magnitude next p r e c e ( I i n g From this point on the increase grows • - - ^ less and less rapid, - ^ ^ ^ ^ so t hat of s t a r s hrighte)' than tlu' Fi<r a.— The syslom of R R Droconis. Diagram by Shajiioy. seventeenth magni - Astro,a.ysicai journal, voi. 3T. tilde, the estimnted number acconliiig to (h{)])man and Melotte, is only 55,000,000 instead of 1,800,000,000 as it would be if this constant ratio of increase prevailed. T'P to the present time no thorough counts have been finished beyond the 17.5 magnitude, although by the aid of photography it is possible to obser\'o stars as faint as the twenty-first magnitude with the great 60-iiich reflector of Mount Wilson KSolar Observatory. Arranging the information given by the counts in mathematical fashion, it appears that it is unlikely that any very considerable increase in the number of the stars will be found by observing stars fainter than the twenty-sixth magnitude, however large the telescope available. Stars at this limit are about as much fainter than those of zero Fi<!. a.*— The syslom of R R Droconis. Diagram by SbajiU'.v. From Astro, )liysU*al Journal, vol. 3T. magnitude as our sun is brighter, so that the brightest star (our sun) is twenty-five billion times twenty-five billion (25X10^X25X10®) times as bright as the stars of the faintest class which are probably shining upon us in any considerable numbers. The total estimated 168 ANNUAL E!j:POBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. number of stars including this supposed limiting magnitude is probably between one and two thousand millions. But why is it that there is a limit of numbers? Are we to sup- pose that there are no more stars, and that if our tehvs(*o})es were sufficiently powei’fu! to perceive those of twenty-sixth inagnitude we could see all, little or big, that exist? Or are we rather to sup- pose that there is a limit of distance beyond wliich no star can be seen, however briglit, so that thougli myriads without limit may exist, no single station in the universe is able to receive light from those beyond this limiting distance? It seems probable Unit tlie latter hypothesis is the true one, although astronomers would not he unanimous in saying so. In recent years one bit after another of evidence has come out, tending to show that there is a light-absorbing medium in space. It is very rare. Dr. li. \\ King has recently comjiuted that the most probable measures of its effects on star brightness would be satislled by assuming a density of the sui)})osed absorliing medium in space less than one-trilliorith pai’t of that of the air. But even at tliis rate, space is so vast that the (juantity of the suppos(.‘d medium within a sphere wliose radius is the average distance of the iiearcvst star (a Centauri) is about 10,000 times the mass of the sun, which is startling if true. There figures are of course very uncertain. But that there is in space hei’e a paidicle, tliere another, yonder a hydrogen molecule, beyond still others, and that in the well-nigh endless path extend- ing to stars of the twenty-sixth magnitude, wliose light traveling 186,000 miles per second takes tens of thousands of years to travel to ns, there would be found enough such particles to bar the doors of light, as a fog shuts out the sun—this seems reasonable. THK DIS1 ANCES OF THE ITEAVENr.V BODIES.^ P»y W. S. ElCIlKLliKRCKIi, IJ. N. \ (i ru1 Ohs<'rra!(>rfi, Before any attempt was made by tlie ancients to determine the distance from the earth of any celestial body we find them arrang- in^i^ tliese iiodies in order of distance* very mucli as we know them to-day, assuming that tlie more rapid the motion of a IkhIv among the stars the less its distance from the eaifli; the stars, that were su])posed to have no relative motions, were assumed to be the most distant olijeets. The first attemiit (o assign definite ladative distan(‘es to any two (if the bodies was jirobably that of Endoxris of (hiidus, who, aliont 1^70 B. C., siipposeib ac'cording to Archimech's. tliat the diameter of the sun was nine times greater than that of the moon, which is equiva- lent to saying that, since the sun and t!u‘ moon have approximately the same apparent diameter, the distance of the sun from the earth is nine times greater than that of the moon. A century lat(‘r, about lb (\, Aristarchus of Samos gave a method of determining the relative distaiKHS of the sun and moon Irom the eaidh, as follows: AMien the moon is at the phase first' (luarter or last quarter the earth is in the ])lane of the circle which separates the portion of the moon illuminated by the sun from the nonilluminated part, and the line from the observer to the center of the moon is jierpendicular to the line from the center of the moon to the sun. If at this instant the angular separation of the sun and moon is detennined, one of the acute angles of a right-angle tri- angle—sun, moom and earth—is known, from which can be deduced the ratio of any two of the sides, as, for instance, the ratio of the distance from the earth to the moon to that from the earth to tlie sun. Aristarcdnis gives the \'alue of this angle as differing fixnn a right angle by only one-thirtieth of that angle, i. e., it is an angle of 87^^, from which it follows that the distance from the earth to the sun is » Presidential aildross ]>ef()ro tlu* riiilosop]ii<‘al HocUtty of Washington on Mar. 4, 1910. 109 170 ANNUAL rMPOBT SMITHSONIAN TNBTTTUTION, 19W. nineteen times that from the earth to the moon. This method of Aristarchns is theoretically correct, but in determining the angle at the earth as being 3° less than a right angle he made an error of about 2° 50'. Hipparchus, who lived about 150 B. C. and was called by Delambre the true father of astronomy, attacked the problem of the distance's of the sun and moon through a study of eclij)ses. Assuming in accordance with the result of Aristarclius that the sun is 19 times as far from the earth as the moom having determined the diametei* of the earth’s shadow at the distance of the moon and Iniowing the angular diameter of the mo<m he found 3' as the sun's horizontal parallax. By the sun’s ])arallax is meant (lie angl(‘ at the sun sub- tended by the earth’s semidiameter and if f?, the semidiameter of the earth, A=- the distance to the sun, and 11 ^ sun’s horizontal parallax, the relation between these (juantities is expressed by the equation a Sin 11 = A The next attempt to determine the distance of a heavenly body was made about 150 A. D. by Claudius l^tolerny, tlie last of the ancient astronomers and one wlu>se writings were considered tlu' standard in things astronomical for 15 centuries. To determine the lunar parallax he resorted to direc^t ol)servations of the zenith distance of the moon on the meridian, com] >:i ring the result of his observations with the |)()silion obtained from tlie lunar theory. Tie determined the ])arallax when the moon was nearest the zcuiith, and also when it crossed his meridian at its fartluvst distance from the zenith. From his observations he obtained results varying fi'om less than 50 pei‘ cent of the true i)ara11ax (57'.0) to more than 150 per cent of that value. According to Houzeau the dcdinitiAe result of Ptolemy’s work is 58'. 7, It is thus seen that tlie astronomers of 2,000 years ago had a fairly accurate knowledge of the distance of the moon from the earth, but an entirely erroneous one of the distance of the sun, the true distance being something like 20 times that assumed by them. This value of the distance of the sun from the earth was accepted for 19 centuries from Aristarchus to Kepler, liav ing been deduced anew by such men as Coperni(*us and Tycho Brahe. With the announcement by Kepler, early in the seventeenth cen- tury, of his laws of planetary motion it became possible to deduce from the periodic times of revolution of the planets around the sun their relative distances from that b(K]y, and thus to determine the DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—KICHELBEBGEB. 171 distance of the sun from the earth by determining the distance or parallax of one of tlie planets. From observations of Mars, Kepler obtained the distance of the sun from the earth as about three times that accepted up to his time. Ilis value, however, was but one-seventh of the true distance. About 50 years later Flamsteed and Cassini, working independently and using the same method as that employed by Kepler, obtained for the first time approximately the correct value of the distance of the sun from the eartli. In a letter dated November 16, 1672, to the publisher of the Philosophical Transactions, Flamsteed says: Septomber last I went to Townlcy. The week that I intended to have observed 6 there with Mr. Towuley, I twice observ’d him, but could not make two Observations, as 1 intended, in one night. The llrst night after my return, I had tlic good hap to measure his distances from two Stars the same night; wliei-eby I, (ind, Ibat the Parallax was very small; certainly lad 30 seconds: So that I belkwe (he Sun’s Parallax is not more than 10 seconds. Of this Observation I intc'ial to wiite a small 'Craet, when I shall gain leisure; in which I shall denuuistrate both the DiameUa* and Distances of all the Planets by observations; fur wbieli 1 am now in’etty well titt(H}. Dui'ing the two and a half centuries since Flamsteed's determina- tion tlieiT liave laeen more than a hundred determinations of the solar parallax by various methods. In the method used by Flam- steed the rotation of the earth is depended upon to change the rela- tive position of the obstn*ver, the center of the earth, and Mars. Another method is to eslal»lish two stations widely separated in lati- tude and in ai)proximately the same longitude. At one station the zenith distance of Mars will be determined as it crosses the mei’idian north of the zenith; at the other station the zenith distance will be determined as it crosses the meridian south of the zenith. The sum of the two zenith distances minus the diil'erence in latitude between the two stati(»ns will give the displacement of Mars due to parallax. These two methods have been successfully applied to several of the asteroids whose distances from the sun are \ ery nearly that of Mars. The nearest approach of Venus to the earth is during her transit across the face of the sun, and these occasions—four during the last two centuries-—have been utilized to determine the solar paral- lax. Here, as in the case of Mars, two different methods may be used, either by combining observations at two stations widely sepa- rated in latitude or at two stations widely separated in longitude. The methods just described for obtaining the solar parallax, the geometrical methods, were made available, as has been said, by the discovery of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Newton’s dis- covery of the law of gravitation gave rise to another group of methods, designated as gravitational methods. The best of these is probably that in which the distance of the sun from the earth is determined from the mass of the earth, wliich in turn is deter- 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1916, mined from the perturbative effect of the eartli npon Venus and Mars. This method is long and laborious, but its importance lies in the fact that the accuracy of the result increases with the time. Prof. C. A. I'Diing says this is file “mothod ol' the futiiro,” niid two or tlireo hnndrod yoars hence will have superseded all the other.s, unless, Indeed, it should appear tliat bodies at present unknown ai‘e interferinji: with the nioveinents of our neij^hborinj' planets, or iinU^ss il should turn out that the law of j^vavitation is not quite so simple as it is now supposed to be. A third grouj) of methods of determining the distance of tlie snii from the eaidh, ejvlled the idiysieal metliods, depends upon tlie de* termination of the velocity of light in conjunction either with the time it takes light to travel from the sun to the eaidh obtained from observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's saUdlites or with the constant of aberration derived from observations of the stars. In August, 1898, Dr. Witt, of Berlin, discovered an asteroid, since named Ei’os, \vl\ich was soon seen to olTer exce])tional oppor- tunity for tlie determination of the solar parallax, as at the veiy next opposition, in Xovemher, 1900, it would a])pj“()a(‘h to within 30,000,000 miles of the earth. At the meeting of the Astrographic Chart Congress in Bails in July, 1900, it wtis resol vtal to seize this opportunity and oi'gaiiize an international parallax (‘ampaign. Fifty-eight observatories took jiart in the various observations called for by the general plan. The meridian insiiaimeiits determined the absolute position of Eros from night to night as it crosscnl tlie meridians of the various observatories; the large visual refi’actoi’S measured the distance of Eros from the faint stars near it, at times continuing the measures throughout the entire night; and the photo- graphic e(|uatorijils obtained ])ermanent records of the. position of Eros among the surrounding stars. In addition long seiaes of obser- vations had to be made to determine the positions of the stars to which Eros was referred. When several years had elapsed after the conijiletion of the obser- vations, and no general discussion of all the material had been provided for. Prof. Arthur R. Ilinks, of (Cambridge, England, vol- unteered for the work. The undertaking was truly monumental. He first formed a catalogue of the G71 stars which had been seh‘cted by the Paris congress for observation ns marking out the path of Eros from a discii&sion of the results obtained by the meildian instruments and from the photograjAic i)lates. This done, with these results as a basis, a larger catalogue of about G,000 stars had to be formed from measures on the photographic plates. He was then ready to commence the discussion of the observations of Eros itself. From 1901 to 1910 there appeared in the Monthly Notices of DISTANCES OP HEAVENLY BODIES—EICHELBERGER. 173 the Koyal Astronomical Society eight articles covering 135 pages giving the results of his labors. From a discussion of all the photographic observations he obtained a solar parallax of 8".807±:0".0027 a probable error e(jiiivaleiit to an uiu'ertainty of al)out 30,000 miles ih the distance to tlie sun. From a discussion of all llie micromctric* o])servations lie obtained 8".80(‘)±0".004 The observations with tlie inei-ldian instriiinenls gave 8".837±0".018r> a deteT'mination ndalivcly mucli weaker tlian eitlier of the others. A parallax of 8'hSO, tlie value a(lo])ted for all the national alma- nacs 20 years ago, corresponds to a distance (»f 02,000,000 miles. At ])resent it seems improbable that anotlier })ai'allax (‘ani])aig]i will be undertaken befon.‘ 1031, when Eros a])proaches still nearer to the earth, its least distance at that time being al)out 15,000,000 miles. Tai-si.k L Apftro.rhndft’ distancf' fnan ((trth to sim f/.s* (icct jth d <if rnrioufi t'nneft. Ihiiv. 275 B. C. to 1620 A. D 1<)20 Ivoplor 1672 Flatasteod 1910 ni,s<,a?ioe. Miks. ‘1,500,000 13,500,OOC S1,5(W.(K)( 92,‘XX),00t When Copernicus projxised that the sun is tlie center of the solar system and that all the planets, including the earth, revolve around the sim, it was at once seen that such a motion of the earth must produce an annual parallax of the stai's. Tycho Brahe rejected the Copernicaii system because he could not find from his observations any such parallax. However, the system was generally accepted as the true one, and the determination of stellar parallax or the dis- tance of the stars became a live subject. Picard in the latter half of the seventeenth century, using a telescope and a micrometer in con- nection with his divided circle, showed an annual variation in the declination of the pole star* amounting to 40". In 1674 Hooke announced a parallax of 15" for y Hraconis. About this same time Flamsteed announced a parallax of 20" for a TTrsae Minoris, but J. Caasini showed that the variations in the declination did not follow the law of the parallax. 174 A^TNIJAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, m6. The period which we have now reached is so admirably treated by Sir Frank W. Dyson, Astronomer Koyal, in his Halley lecture delivered at Oxford on May 20, 1915, that I ask your indulgence while I quote rather freely from that source Thus in Halley’s time it was fairly well established that the stars were at least 20,000 or 30.000 times as distant as the sun. Halley did not succeed in hiuliiif," their range, hut he made an important discovery whicli showed that three of the stars were at sensible distances. In 1718 he contributed to the Royal Society a paper entitled “ (’oiisiderations of the Uhange of the Latitinie of Some of the Principal Bright Stars.” While pursuing researches on another subject be found that the tiircv briglit stars—Aldcharan, Sirius, and Arctiiriis— occnipied positions among the other stars diffeinng (‘onsiderably from those assigned to them in the Almagest of Ptolemy. Ib' sliowial that the possibility of an error in the transcription of the nianns<.*ri]tt ('ould bc^ safely excluded, and that the southward movement of these stars to tlie extend of 37', 12', and 33'-- i. e., anglers larger than the apparent diameter of the sun in the sky—were ('stablished. * * * Tills is the lirst good evidence— i. e., evidence* wlilcli we now know to he true—that the so-called lixed stars are not tixed relatively to one another. It Is the first positive proof that the distances of the stars are sensibly lc*ss than Infinite. At the time of th(‘ appearance of TTallc‘v's pajier there was coming into notice a young astronoine]’, James Bradley, then 26 yeai^s old. He wa.s admitted to menibership in the Hoval Society the same year that Halley’s paper was presented. He was exceedingly eager to attack the problem of the distances of the stars. At lengtli tlie opportunity presented itself. To quote again from Sir Ih’anlv Dyson Bradley designed an instrumeid for measuring the angnhir distance from the zenith, at which a certain star, 7 Hrac'onis. crossed 1li(‘ meridian. This In- strument is caium a zemdh senior. Tlic' dinvtion of the vmfical Is given by a plumb line, and bc^ measured from day lo day tlie angnhir distance of the star from the direction of tlie vertical. Prom Hecenibm*, 1725, to March, 172(5, the star gradually movcnl farther south; then it rcunained stationary for a little time, then ihovcmI northwards until, by the* middle of June, it was In the same position as in December. It conliiuied to mcAa* northwarcls until the be.ginning of S(‘ptem])er, tlien turned again and rc'uched its old position in December. The movement was very regular and evidently not due to any errors in Bradley’s observations. But it was most nnexp(*cted. The effect of parallax—which Bradkw was looking foi^would have brought tlie star farthest south in Decembei*, not in March. The times were all three months wrong. Bradley examin(*d other star.s, thinking first that this might be due to a movement of the, earth’s polo. But this would not explain the phenomena The true explanation, it is said, although I do not know liow truly, occurrwi to Bradley when he was sailing on the Thames and uotieed that the direction of the wind, as indicated liy a vane <»n the masthead, varied slightly with the course ou which the boat was sailing, Au uccount of the observutlons In the BISTANOKS OF IIKAVKNLY BODIES^—EICHET-BERGEK. 175 form of a letter from Bradley to Halley is published in the Philosophical Transactions for December, 1728: When the year was completed, I b(‘gan to examine and compare my obser- vations, and having pretty well satisfied myself as to the general laws of the phenomena, 1 then endeavored to lind out the cause of them. I was already convinced that the api»areut motion of the stars was not owing to the nutation of the earth’s axis. The next thing that offered itself was an aUa'ratioii in the direction of the plumb line with wliich the instrument was constantly rectified; but this upon trial proved insnllicienl. Tlien 1 considered what refraction might do, but tlaaa^ als(> nothing satisfactory occurred. At lengtli T conjectured that all the phrnonKita liitherto mentioned, laax-eeded from the progressive motion of light and the <‘arlh’s annual motion in its oi-hit. For 1 perceived that, If light was pi'opagated in time, the apparent i)lace of a lixed object would not be the saint* when the (*ye is at rest, as when it is moving in any other direction than tlial of the line passing tlirongh the eye and tlu* object; and that, when the eye is moving in diffenait dirtHdions, the api)arenl place (»f the object would be different. When Bradley's oliservations of v Dracoiiis were corrected for abemitioii. tliey showed, acconliiig to hiinself, that the parallax of that star could not he as iiiucli as or tliat the star was more than 200,000 times as distant i'rom the earth as the smi. On December G, 1781, there 'was read before Ihe Koval Society a paper l>y Mr. Herseheh afterwards Sir William, on the Parallax of the Fixed Stars. We read : The method point(*d out i>y Ojilileo. and first attmnptr'd )»y Hook. Flainstead, Moliucaiix. and Hr;nlk‘y, of taking distanc(*s of stars from llu* zenith that pass very near it, though it failed with regard t<> ]»anUlax, has heen productive of the most noble dis(‘overii‘.s of anotlier nature. At the same time it has given ns a mucli justt-r idt'U of Hit' immense distance of tlie stars, ami furnished ns with an approxiimition to the knowletige of ilit'ir parallax that is much neart'r tlie trutli thau we ever had befort' lu gericvid, the mtffliod of ztmitli dislama's laimrs \indm’ tlu* ftdiowiug con- siderable ditUenllies. In tht' iirsi jilaet*, all these distances, though they should not exceeti a few degret's, are iiabh* to relVuetions ; inul 1 Imiie to be pardoned wiien I say tliat the real (inantlties of tlusst* refractions, and tlieii* ditTerences, are very fur from being jierfectly known. SeeoiuUv, tlie tdiange tif position of tlie earth’s axis arising from mitation, tirect'ssitm of the tHpiinoxt's, anti other causes, is so far rroni being eom|)lt‘tt*ly settletl, tiial it wonhl not bt* vt*ry easy to say what it exactly is at any given tinu*. In (lie third place, the aberration of light, though best Iviiown tif all, may akso be liable to some small errors, since the obst'ivatlons frtmi whit'h it was deduced labored under all the foregtdng dilUciilties. 1 do not mean tt) say, that tmr theories of all these causes of error are dt'fective ; ou tlie ctmtrary, I grant that we are ftir most astronomical purposes suffieic'utly furnished with excellent tallies to correct our observations from the iiliove meiitioued errors. Ibit when we are upon so delicate a point as the parallax of tlu* stars; when we are investigating angles that may, per- haps, not amount to a single se('<ind, we innsi endeavor to koe]) clear of every possibility of being invadved in uneertalntles ; even tlie hundredth part of a second become:; a quantity to be taken into consideration. Herschel then proceeds to advocate selecting- pairs of stars of very unequal magnitude and wliose distance apart is less than 5" and making very uccurate microiuetric measures of this distance from 176 ANNUAL BRPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IMfi. time to time. The first condition should give, in general, stars very unequally distant from the earth, so that the changing perspective as the earth revolves in her orbit would give a variation of the apparent distance between the stars, while the small distance, less than 5", would eliminate from consideration entirely any effect upon this distance of the uncertainties in refraction, precession, nutation, abenaition, etc. Hcr.schel had already commenced the cataloguing of such double stars and in January, 1782, submitted to the Royal So(.uety a catalogue of 2G1). Tliis work did not enable Herschel to determine the distances of the stars but did enable him to demonstrate that there exist pairs of stars in which tlie two components revolve the one around the otlier. In 20 years he had found 50 such pairs. Coming forward another generation—tliat is, to a time a little less than a hundred years ago—we find Pond, (hen astronomer royal, writing; Tlie history of aiiiUKil i)arallax .oiiiH'ars lo me to bo lliis: In jiroiMirtion as instruinent.s have boon imporreet in llioir eonslnu-tion they have niisiod oli- servers into the belief of tlio exisloiico of sensible parallax. This lias liappenoil In Italy to ustronoiuers of the very lirsl r(‘p'italion. U'lio Unlilin insirumont is stijHM'ior to any of a similar const I'lioi ion on the (lonlineni, ami aocordinKly it sliow’s a nuicli loss iiurallax tlian tlie ilali.in astronomers ini:i;;inod tlioy liad detected. Conceivinf; lliat I liavo esialdishod beyond a donbi Ibat llie (Ireen- vvich instrument apiiroaelie.s still iiean'r lo perfection, 1 can come to no oilier conclusion tlian tbat this is Ihc reason wliy it discovers no iiarallax at all. Within 15 years after this statement by Pond observations had been obtained which .showed a mea.siirable ])arallax of three different star.s. The announcements of these results, each liy a diffei'cnt astronomer, wei'e practically .simultaneous. W. Struve, using a filar micrometer, detei'inined the distance of a Lyrae from a small star about 40" di.staut on 00 diffei-ent day.s over a itcriod of nearly three yeai-s. He obtained a ])arallax of 0".2C2±0".025. Bessel, using his heliometer, determined the dis- tances of Cl Cygni from two small stars distant about 500" and 700", respectively. He obtained foi- this star a parallax of 0".314±0".020. Henderson, using determinations of the jiosition of a Centauri by meridian instruments, deduced a parallax of 1".1G+0".11. All three of these results were announci'd in the m’ inter of 1838-89 and indicate that the three stai's are distant fi-om the earth about 750,000, 650,000, and 200,000 times the distance of the sun from the earth. DISTANCBB OF HEAVENLY BODIES—EICHELBEBGEH. 177 Talu.k II .—rarallax of 61 Cyf/nL August 23 Beptpunhor 1 \ October 3 2 ... Novorn))cr 22. December 21 Janujiry 34... February A. May 14 Jmie r.) July 13 August 19 . . September 19 O])sorvo(l clis[)Iaco- meut. 1 Conipulod i from 1 0".314. f-0.20 4-0.18 +0. 10 +0.08 4-0. 04 -0. 05 -0. 21 -0.22 -0.32 i -0. 27 -0,3S -0. 27 -0. 22 -0. 23 -4-0.21 +0.20 4-0.36 +0.28 4-0.22 1 +0. 28 4 1). 15 +0. 4-0.04 +0.06 Talilc II exhibits the observed displacement of Gi Cygni l»y monthly means as given by Main from BesvsePs observations. The last column gives the computttd displacement on the assumption of M parallax of 0".314. The reality of the parallax is seen at a glance. In 1888, 50 years after the first determination of what we now know to be a true stellar parallax, Young, in his General Astronomy, gives, in a list of knoAvn stellar parallaxes, 28 stars and 55 separate determinations. Within the next 10 years the numlier of stars whose parallaxes had been determined about doubled, due principally to the work of Gill and Elkin. Probably the most exiensive piece of stellar parallax work in existence is that with the Yale heliometer. The results to date were published in 1012, and contained the parallaxes of 245 stars, the observations extending oaxu’ a quarter of a century, the entire work having been done by three men—Elkin, Chase, and Smith. In selecting a list of stars for parallax work, an elfort is made to obtain stars which give promise of being nearer than the mass of stars. At first the blighter stai\s were selected, and then those with large proper motions. The Yale list of 245 stars contains all stars in the northern heavens whose annual proper motion is known to be as much as 0''.5. Of these- 215 stars, 54 are given a negative parallax. A negative parallax does not mean, as some one has expressed it, that the star is “somewhere on the other side of nowhere,” but such a result may he attributed to the errors of observation or to the fact thnt the comparison stars are nearer than the one under investigation. It is safe to say, however, that some- what more than half of the 245 stars have a measurable parallax. Another series of stellar parallax observations, comparable in extent with the one just mentioned, is that of Flint, at the Washburn Observatory. This series includes 20S stars and extended from 1893 to 1905. These observations were made with a meridian circle, but 1V8 ANKUAL RKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. not after the method of a century ago. The observations were strictly diffei'ential, the general plan being to select two faint com- parison stars, one immediately preceding and the other immediately following tlic i)arallax star, and to determine the difference in right ascension, the observation of the three stars occupying about five minutes. Here, as in the case of the Yale heliometer Avork, a large proportion of the resulting pai’allaxcs are negative; somewhat more than half, however, Avere found to have a measurable parallax. The average probable error of a parallax Avas the same in each of these tAvo pieces of Avork—about ()'b08. The progress of tlie work during the last tAVo or three generations is given in Table III, Avhicli con- tains also a brief statement of the discoveries made during the preceding century, due chiefly to efforts to measure stellar parallaxes. Tabli: \li. —Aiiproximaic uumher of liioirn sidlar parallnxf'H. 1718 172S 1751) 1790 1838 1888 1898 3916 Dfite. Afdronomer. Number of stars with known parallaxes. Uiscoveries. ITalli^y ! f) Proper motion. A l:>erration. Bradley (^ 0 . ! (U Nutation. Herschel 1 U) Tme bintiry systems. 1 3 28 50 to 00 1. 200 to 300 L., 1 No parallax. A generation ago photography entered the field of stellar parallax work, and has outdistanced all the previously employed metliods for efficiency. In 1911 two ]>uhli(*ations appeared giving the results of photographic stellar parallax work, one by Kussell, giving the paral- laxes of 40 stars from photographs taken by Hinks and himself at Cambridge, England, the other by Schlesinger, giving the parallaxes of 25 stars from photographs taken mostly by liimself at the Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis. In speaking of these tAvo series of observations. Sir David Gill said: On the whole, the Cambridge results, when a sufTicient number of plates have been taken and when the comparison stars an* symmetrically arranged, give results of an accuracy which, hut for the wonderful pro(*ision of the Yerkes observations, would have been regarded as of the highest class, Schlesinger has shown that with a telescope of the size and char- acter of the Yerkes instrument “the number of stellar parallaxes that can be determined per annum, with an aA'erage provable error of 0".013, will in the long run be about equal to the number of clear nights available for the work.” DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—KICHELBERGER. 179 In other words, the Yerkes 40-inch equatorial used photographi- cally determines stellar parallaxes with one-tenth the labor required with a helioineter and with twice the accuracy. In July, 1913, stellar parallax work was undertaken with the 60-inch reflector of tlie Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, and at the meeting of the American Astronomical Society at San Francisco in August, 1915, a report on that wanic was made. The parallaxes of 13 stars liave been determined, with a maximum probable error of 0".010 and an average probable error of less than 0".006, giving twice the accuracy of the Schlesinger results with the Yerkes 40-inch and from three to five times that obtained 15 years ago. What may we not (expect when the 100-inch reflector gets to work on Mount Wilson ? At the meeting of the American Astronomical Society, to which reference has just been made, two other observatories reported upon their stellar parallax work. Lee and Joy, of the Yerkes Observatory, reported the parallaxes of 9 stars Avith a maximum ]U’obable error of 0".014 and an avei'age probable error of 0".()10: and Mitehclb of Leander McCormick Observatory, reported the parallaxes of 11 stars Avith a maximum probable error of 0".012 and an average probable error of 0".009. The progress made in the accuracy of parallax results is shoAvn at a glance in Table IV. Taeiao 1\.— 7V/r avrurarp of stolUir parallax del (iiniaff turns. Date. Instrument. 1838 Micrometric: Dorpat refractor Kdiiigsberg helioineter . . 1838 1 1880-1898 Cape heliometer 1888-1912 Ysue hel iomotor 1893-1905 I AVashbum meridian circle 1910 Photographic: A^erkes refractor 1915 do 1915 1 Leander McCormlrk refractor . . 1915 1 Mount WUlson GO-iuch reflector. 1 Probable error. 0".025 .02 .017 .03 . 03 .013 .010 .009 .006 Observers. I Struve. , Bessel. Gill and assistants. Elldn, Chase, and Smith. Flint. Schlesinger. Leo and Joy. Mitchell Van Maanan. From these results it appears that any star whose parallax is as much as e".02, i. e., whose distance from the earth is less than 10,000,000 times that from the earth to the sun, should give a positive result when subjected to the treatment now employed in parallax investigations, and as 8 or 10 observatories are devoting their ener- gies to stellar parallax work at present, the combined programs containing over 1,000 different stars, we ought soon to have lists of at least a few thousand stars whose parallaxes are known, where our present lists contain but a few hundred. A CENSUS OF THE SKY.^ By U. A. Sampson, M. A., F. R, S., AHlmnomrr Uoi/al for Scotland. [With fJ plates, 1 Jt seem to call for some remark, even some apology, that at a period like the ])reseiit one, wlien all the ordinary interests of life disappear or tire transformed, that we should meet as wc had arranged to meet, tiiid exchange with one another tlie different truisms of science. There occurs to me a passage in a book by a celebrated private in the French Army, Anatole France's ^‘Isle of Penguins'’; one of his characters, deepl}^ dei)ressed by the pervei’sity of the world, reflects someAvhat as follows: Since riches and civilization bring as many occasions for wtir as barbtirism and poverty, since the folly and ill will of mankind are incurable, there remains one good deed to do, some Avise man shall collect enough dynamite to bhnv this planet up. Then when it whirls in fragments across space some imperceptible alleviation Avill be felt in the universe and some satisfaction will given to the universal conscience, which, indeed, does not exist.” While we feel as much as any this same savage indignation Swift’s swva indiijnatio—that folly and ill will have still the power to throAv the v hole world off its bearings, and while we are all of us busily engaged in collect ing enough dynamite to blow some parts of it to pieces, it is wise to remind ourselves that there are other things besides folly and ill will that are indestructible, and among these is the desire to increase natural knowledge. We are at no loss for precedents. Our Royal Society was initiated in the midst of civil war. The Principia ” was published a year before the Great Revolution. Kepler found in the Thirty Years’ War no reason to ^Evening dlRcourse doHverod before the British Assoclatlou Sept. 11, 1915. Reprinted, by author’H permission, from The Observatory, a monthly review of astronomy, vol. 38, No. 498, Nov., 1915. 73830'^— BM 1010- 1.3 181 182 AKKITAL "TI^PORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 11)16 . interrupt liis study of the planetary motions, nor did (jauss in the invasion of Napoleon. Successive volumes of IVlecanique Celeste came out. and bear evidence in their title-pages of the political changes of the French Kevolution. ITevelius and Gassendi corre- sponded across a Eui’ope in turmoil, and Newcomb worked with De- launay at the theory of the moon while the Pai’is Commune raged almost to the doors of the observatory. Had science always Availed to advance till times Avere quiet, it would have remained to this day uncommonl v near to its starting point. ^ The subject to which I. ask your attention for an hour to-night is not a. small one. It is nothing less than the simplest compre- hensive vicAv of the Avhole iiuivei-se. Indeed, it is a subject so vast that some have felt that in the study of it human interests would shrivel away and that as we looked steadily upon its extension Ave should bo gripped Avith a kind of nightmare and fe(‘l ourselves shrink- ing and shrinking, and unless by violent eifort we could throAv it off Ave should seem in risk of vanishing altogether. But somehow that is not the case, ^liose avIio most study matter and those Avho have lately contributed most to our Icnowhslgi' are men Avell known to us, s ery human beings. Certainly a correct conception of the universe must govern the scale of ultimate values of all avc do; but in the history of ideas it is remarkal)](' that interest in it ims for the most part of the time been satisfied w ith obvious fairy tales, has, in fact, l)een limited to the very narrow’ outlook of what we might immediately exjiect to accom[)lish, and has often combined in indi- viduals an intense interest in the (jiiestion, Avith a total disregard of any but the individuars point of view, as if even tlie lasty halls'’ of cosmogony Avere an arena of spoii, where the attenq>i was not so much to reach the goal as to gain a place for self-expression. As president for the time being of the Koval Astronomical Society, I keep a certain amount of involuntary touch Avitli such people. I should like to know, sir." one of these Avrote to me severely the other day, what stejis are being taken to spread the true chronology and the truth about the deluge.” Well, perhaps that gentleman Avas a jiaradoxer; but it is interest- ing to bestow a side glance upon the way astronomy has been viewed by acute and catholic minds l)efore the era Avhen the commonplaces of diffused education had blunted a good many first-hand judgments. I shall not take you on a long excursion into history. Thvo or three pregnant examples will suffice. Take Bacon’s Ncav Atlantis. In that remarkable country, Avhich had flying men and submarines and scientific stockbreeding for the production of definite variations, it is true that they had a statue to ‘‘ the iiiATiitor of observations of astronomy,” but the systematic con- CENSUS OK Tine SKY—SAMPSON* 183 ternplation of the heavens does not appear to have formed a part of their national scheme of study: We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in iH'ight; and some of them likewise set U]»on high mountains, so that the vantage of tlie tiill with the tower is in the iUgluiSt of them 8 miles at least. * * We use these towers, a.(*(‘or(lir)g to their sevcTal Inlghts ami situations, for insolation, refrigeration, eonservation, ami fur tla^ view of divers meteors; as winds, rain, snow, bail, and some of the tu‘ry ni<*|eors also. And uixai them in some places are dwellings of hermits, wliom we visit sometimes and instruct what to observe. This ])assa^c is very disn|)])ointijig to an astronomer. These lier- mits, with their ma^Tiilicent e(piipment, state support, and boards of visitors, were nothing more than meteorologists. Or, again, take Shakespeare. It is admittedly dinieiilt to make out what views, if any, Shakespeare held on any subject, and I sliall have to (juote words put into the mouth of the light-minded Biron in order to make my point; but we know that the farcical figures of his plays aie chiefly pedants and })o]icemeu; in pailicular, the pedant moved liim to a s(*lu)ol-boy ribaldry, and from two or three references 1 surmise that astroiiomy, as a sci('Ti(‘e and a]>art from its jxadic incriislatioiis, struck liiiii as yet aiiothei' field for the preci- osities of his inell'able ])edants. '"Study/' says Jkiroii Study is lilv(‘ I lie bcavcn’s glorious sun, Tlmt will not. be dee]) scmtcIumI with saucy imiks. Small liavi* (‘ontinual iilodders (‘ver won. Save base aiilliority from others’ books. Those (*nrtlily godfatlu'rs of hcaviaVs iiglits Thai, give a nam(‘ to eviaw lixed star Have no more profit of tlaur shining nights Tliaii those that walk and wot not whai thi'v are. Too mucli to know' is to know naught but fauu'; Ami (*v(‘ry godfatlier can give a name. Tliat is all tliere is in it—giving names: science is nominalism. We nmy brush it aside, l)ut, after jill, it is a ptiin fully shrewd hit against scieiu'e. Now, there was a. very considerable and exteuded astronomy in Slnikespearo’s and Bacon's days. Copernicus's work Do Ilevolu- lionihus wjis 50 yettrs old. 11 wtts perhaps not much read, but for a century before devious voyages, lasting for months or yeare, to North and South America, to South Africa, and to India had made indis- pensable a working knowledge and command of its ])ractice, and with tlie j^ractice grew np a scientific interevSt. In 1578 Mr. John Wiiifer passed through the Straits of Magellan ‘^in a good and newe shi])pe called (he ‘Elizabeth,’ of 80 tonnes in burthen,” as one of Sir Francis Drake’s consorts. Neither the ])lace nor the vessel can have been favorable to scientific abstraction, yet he determined his longitude there from an eclipse of the moon. The 184 ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. l>iussage (Hakluyt, Vol. A^lIT) is a gem of accurate astronomy, and I shall read it to you, for every point mentioned is relevant and the conclusion quite justified and near the truth The 15 of September the moone was there cKilipsed, and began to be darkened Iiresently after the setting of the siinne, about slxe of the elocke at night, being then Ikininoetlai vernal in that country. Tlie ^ald eclipse ha{)i)ened the 16 day in the morning InTore one of the cltn-ke in England, which Is about sixe honros difference, agrt?eing to one qiiarttT of the World from the Meridian of England, towards the West. Now, take a long step from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Passing by a fastidious and academic writer like Tennyson, we find a mind as careless of fact and nntrammeled by convention as Mark Twain deriving perpetual deliglit from the mere scope and scale of things astronomical in its revelation of the very size of the world as measured in millions u]K)n millions of any units we can tell off. It may Ixi hard to say e-xactly what this ])ro^'es, but we may allow it to sufTuse the continual ploddei’ with a gentle glow of satisfaction, for without his continual plodding it ivonld never have come to pass. Undoubtedly the last word of astronorn\' must be beard before wo can solve the problem of the philosophers upon its material side and ])lace man in true relation to the universe. I suppose it is evolution that has made us feel responsil>le for the universe, incurring thereby, it must be e(>nfos8(‘d, a very hea\\y responsibility with fate—a debt that would cause serious anxiety liad not philosophy long since beeoruc reconciled to permanent bank- ruptcy. I mean that before evolution hceame one of ()ur fixed ideas ‘‘man’s place in nature” was an expie>ssion to whidi only an arbi- trary meaning could be attached. There was no obligation to con- nect the phenomena of the univei^e in one long chain. Nothing is more illuminating as to our change of vicAv than to read the words of one of the lessor lights of the eighteenth century— for example, Thomas Wright, of Durham, is an author wlio is often mentioned alongside Immanuel Kant as liaving foresight of (he nebula r hy- pothesis, the great evolutionary scheme of astTonomy. Without depreciating the insight and tlie breadth of Wright’s views on ex- tended stellar systems the defect—^the perfect defect of any evolu- tionary glimpse in them—strikes one now as an almost painful incompetence. We are sensible of the necessity of connecting all the parts of our system. That is the general inteT-est in a survey of the sky, outside of professional interest in a difficulty overcome and of curiosity—which, indeed, is soon bored by mere magnitude and that is the reason why Ave come back to it again and again, especially now that we are beginning from more than one avenue to approach some reliable, and one hopes some permanent, point of view. CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON. 186 That avemie which T would ask you to follow this evening is the most direct, tlie least artificial, and one would say the driest of all— mere enumeration, a census of the sky. But it is not dull. As I shall show you in a few minutes, the material dealt with is of com- pelling beauty, and, as scientific people, I hope it may interest you to have in brief review the consideralde difficultiei^, instrumental and of organization; tlie many collateral questions that must be answered before any confident, or even approximate, reply cun be given to the main (luestion of Iiow many stai*s there a]*e and how they are dis- tributed. And, finally, as British j)eople, I think you feel a legiti- mate pride to know that this great and unobtrusive work, of central interest to astronomy, that I wish specially to describe to 5^011 is all British (including tlierein the Transvaal Colony) in design and execution; the plans made, cost provided, and veiy many of the pliotograplis taken by an amateur, the late Mr. Franklin-Adams, a business man of London; the instrument designed by Mr. Dennis Taylor, and constructed by him at Cooke’s works at York; the series of photographs comi)leted at the Union Ol^servatoiy at Johannes- burg; and the counts performed and discussion made at Greenwich 01)servatoi'y by Mr. Chapman and Mr. Melotte, two members of the stall*. [Specimens of the Franklin-Adams chart were shown (pis. 1-G).] You now see, more or less, the problem before you. To “give a name to every fixed star” is a task that we are not likely to under- take. The Arabs gave many of them pro])er names, which no doubt had some meaning, more or less substantial, but now passed on to the west('rns with meaning, pronunciation, and accent alike in corrup- tion, uncertainty, and disrepair, form a somewhat trying detail to the conscientious astronomer. Ptolemy adopted in his list a crude and pictures(iue description with reference to the asterism. Thus, in Leo: ^‘The one on his muzzle,” “the one in his throat,” “the one at the tip of his front right claw,” “the western one of the three on his belly,” “ the one at his heart named Regulus.” It is a tnSublesome plan, e-ven for the 1,0(X) stars of which he gives the places. Tycho, who was only incidentally a sUdlar obs’erver, using the stars to fix his planets, canned on the method of Ptolemy. Not till the middle of the seventeenth century did Bayer in his IJranometria, introduce the device of attaching the Greek letters to stars in each asterism. The advent of the teles<’ope, with Hevelius and our own Flamsteed, utterly outran any method except that of numbering. Lalande’s Histoire Celeste in 1801 contained 50,000; Argelander’s Durchmus- terung in 1847, upward of 300,000 in zones from the pole to Dec. -' 10 '=*. At each effort the object, if completeness Avas its aim, showed more mountainlike. In 1879, at the instance of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, Argelander’s zones were revised by the cooperation of 186 A-NKIJAL himwv SMITIXSO^N'TAN INSTITUTION, 1910 . many observatories in iipwai-d of 20 years. It hardly requires x>’"oof that* with sncli resources as astronomy has ever coimnancled, or is likely to command, a complete enumeration upon these lines will never be attained. If we are to attain a conspectus of the Avhole, now or ever, we must make a radical reduction in the demands of our ])rob]em. Now, in all these catalogues the ])la(!es of the stars are recorded in their two coordinates, and the calculations made in eacli individual case whi(*li are n(‘(‘(>ssa ry to allow ior pia^cessiomd change in the a\(\s of retei*- ence. We (*an not disj)ense with Icnowin^’ whei*e the stars are, but if our intei'est is in th(‘ir numbers and regional distriluition, we can dis])ense with ]*ecordini>* it ])recis(‘ly. And if we can lake an elevated standpoint and eliminab* the earth, 1ik(‘ th(‘ Blesst'd Damozel, leaning on the gold bar of hea\di, and see Tar below this earth Sniii like a fretful why, Hum, we may dis|>ense with tlu' tronblesonu^ (ailculation of pre- cession. dlicre is almost nothing left then except to eount. But let iiobody tiiink lightly of the importaiK'e or the dillicidty of mere counting. When the White (iueen put to Alice the (juestion: How many are one and one and oik* nnd one and one and oik* and one and one and one and one? Alice does not ajipear to have been able to answer. Counting correctly is very ditlicult, becatne, so to put it, it retpiires from the mind a simultaneous hold ujxm the ])ast, p]*esent, and future. CV)unt- ing, on the other hand, done carefully is tlu‘ only region of knowl- edge, even of nialhcmaties, in which Ave can 1 h‘ ])e]‘fee(iy sure we are not talking nonsimse. Much that was foinuMly (dasAsed as geometry is now cIusschI as iionsimse. A circle has no pi(>])(‘rties until we say how it is generated, and we can not say how it is generated until we make up our minds about eoutinuilv; and continuity, to make it intelligible, is now ex])laiiied in Uaans of disccmtiiiuity - that is, of (‘(dinting. By counting inhnity is made comprehensible, like an infinite perspe(*tive colh'cted ii])()n tli(‘ nai’row s]>aee of the retina, as a seijiience of converging inerements—camntless in their number but eountahle in thinr sum or effect. Counting by samples is another name for the theory of statistics, of averages, Avith their ramifications of probability, without Avliicdi matters so disparate as life insurance and the kinetii^ theory of gases would be equally unmanageable. I need not labor my point. In counting the stars you have to count a sum of which you can not tell in advance Avhether it will prove infinite or finite; you have to count by snin|)]es; you have to count by receding stei)s or grades as far as you can and then CKNSUB OF THE SKV-—SAMFSON. 187 infer the continuation; and, if these grades are incorrectly or debat- ably demarcated from one another, your results are liable to such enormous uncertainties that they can hardly be held to add anything to knowledge. To have ])erf()rmed this counting, as I believe it has been effectively and securely performed, is, in my judgment, a very great feat, one that would appropi'iately be taken as a land- mark in the history of (he mind; and I do not think I deti*act from this at all if T say that those who have actually done the work would not lay (daim to moi*e than to have well and truly ])erformed a straightfoj'ward task by established methods. None tlie less, it marks a stagt\ a fact among many surmises, an achienTuneni among many attempts. Counting the stars i-^ nothing else than the method of Herschel’s star gauges su])phun(‘nted by a <lue (‘onsideration of all the diffi- (‘ulties which he o\'erste])])(‘d by intrepid assum})tions. When Iler- S(diel set up his tiO-foot reflector of IH-ineh a])erture it was mounted vertically iii the meridian with a sweej) of a little moi’e than 2y-\ and he surveyed the sky in zones of deedination, taking everything that came l)y, amh in particular, counting the density of the fields. These counts were the bases of his papers on the ‘‘Construction of the heavens,” which sliowed that the sun was roughly in the center of an irregular disk-shaped universe of stars, researches that I have heard Sir David (Jill d(\sci-ibe as almost inspired.” But, if he was inspired, like other pro])hetic writei*s, we have to re])ose ujxrn his genius, for criticism spoils him. It will not do now to tell us that a seventh-magnitude star may be genei-ally taken as seven tunes as distant as a first-magnitude star. Tn the first place, calculation is astray—25 times woidd be more defensible—^l:mt, in the second, though we know that distamv must raise magnitude, generally speak- ing, we are quite unable to verify the connection. But, most of all, though IIei*sch(d “looked farther into heaven than any man before him,” for this purpose he did not look nearly far enough. His statement tliat in a field of 15' diameter he counted some 70 or 80 stars, with occasional fields very much denser, would indicate that he reached to the thirteenth or fourteenth magnitude. The fifteenth magnitude mor(‘ than doul)Ies the fourteenth, the sixteenth nearly doubles) the fifteenth, the s^nnmteenth neaidy doubles tlie six- teenth. How does the jirogression continue ^ Does it go on forever? Does it go on even as far as we can see? No real advance upon Herschel’s gauges could be made without photograpliy, both because the record is permanent and so leaves you time to count and also because the faintness of the stars that you can reach is almost unlimited. Let me now leave generalities and give you, as succinctly as pos- sible, some details of the work 1 am describing. 188 ANNUAL K1- PORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. The instrument consisted of a 10-inch lens of 45-inch focus, with a 6-inch lens of 27-inch focus, mounted, together with guiding tele- scopes, upon an equatorial mounting of the English pattern. With the 10-inch lens, 17° by 17° upon the sky arc depicted upon a plate 15 inches square, and to cover the whole sky upon this scale 206 plates were recpiisite. The exposure of each plate was 2 hours or 2 hours 20 minutes, so as to reach the faint stars. Noi-thern jilates were taken at Mervel Hill, near London ; the southern at the Cavpe and afterwards retaken at Johannesburg. There are certain defects in every lens which are practically in- curable when a wide-angle field is desired, namely, curvature of the field and astigmatism or replacement of a ])olnt-image by two line condensations at dilFerent distances from the huis. It is the art of the lens maker and of the lens user to split the residual errors in the least harmful manner. I show two slides taken from the same plate. The first shows the center, with images perfectly rounil, small, and defined. The. second shows the corner. You see the elongations in two ])erpendicular di- rections succeeding one another separated by foi-ms that suggest flights of beetles. That these forms are so little pronounced at some 10° from the center is the proof of the excellence of lens, focussing, and guiding. It is the practice to supi>rcKs them somewhat by sac- rificing almost imperceptibly the definition at the c(>nter, so that the smallest images are actually not at the center, but half or two-third the radius away. But this enlargement of image means diffusion of light, so that the instrument is less sensitive and the stars I’ccorded are less numerous at the margin of the field than at the best focus. I n matters of count- ing this is very important, betaiuse it would produce a systematic deviation. Accordingly, the average amount of this deviation was determined and allowed for. It was proposed to count a sufficient numbei' of plates to determine the number of stars, zone by zone, in each of eight zones of galactic latitude. Actually 30 plates were einjiloyed. They are all in the northern hemisphere, but lie both north and south of the galactic equator. In each count it was proposed to detennine the number of sters of each separate magnitude, and here arose one of the most cru- cial, as well as difficult, points. The magnitudes recorded ranged down to the seventeenth, or nearly to the ten-millionth of the brightness of a first magnitude star. It was necessary to have the scale of magni- tude correct over this wide space, because any deviation would here again become systematic, and, altering the number of stars in each grade, would altogether distort the estimated total of the vast num- ber of those beyond the reach of counting. You will understand how difficult it was to establish an absolute magnitude scale when the CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON. 189 liiriiting brightness of stai's recorded varies upon each plate with the purity of sky and the elevation above the horizon. I will only allude to this difficulty and say that a scale was determined and was applied to each plate in a way that is pr actically beyond criticism. Standard specimens of the i*esults were jrhotographed within the eyepiece of the measuring microscope for* comparison with the plates and wei*e used for the estimation of tlri^ magnitudes of all the stars. The count- ing then pi‘oceed(‘d. Two computer's were emi)Ioyed on the work and it occupied them for* two year-s. Success depended very much on skill. After* the counting had jrr oceeded for a few* weeks one of the earlier* plates was recounted and the number ot star's detected w^as in- cr'eased by 50 per* cent. The wdiole of these early [dates were there- fore r*epeated and, fortunaU'ly for hnality, subsequent practice did not increase the numbei*s any mor*e. Only the magnitudes from the twelfth to the seventeenth were counted, as the mater'ial wnis already available for* star's brigiiter* than tire twelfth. These w'er’e found partly in some counts made at Ilar'vai'd of stars fi*om magnitude 2 to 4.5,par*tly in some counts of Sclnvai'zschild for magnitude 5 to 7.5, but chiefly fr*om the Gr‘eeriw'i<*h Astr’ogr*a))hic Catalogue from magnitude 9 to 12.5, and a special Greenwich photometj*y with the Franklin- Adams 6-inch lens for magnitude 6.5 to 9.0. The standar‘d bases of all these, I need har-dly say, wer'e most cai’efully br'ought into adjust- ment. The i*esults of this labor*i(Mis wor’k are contained in a table. (A diagram representing the table was shown on the screen.) Bm is the number of star's of magnitude m and l)i'ighter in each zone; its logarithm is char’ted her(‘ in ])lace of the number in order to make the diagram rnor'e compact. In this diagr'am is contained the net out- come of the counts, the distribution of star's, zone by zone, for ev^ery magnitude. AH the eight curves, repi’cstmting the eight zones, are independent, and their similarity, which strikes us at once, is convincing proof of their reliability. They tell us that in ever’y zone the proportion of stars of the various magnitudes is the same, as far as the eye can follow. If we look closely into the numlrei’s it apjrears that there is perce])tible a slight gradual increase of the proportion of the fainter stars as the galaxy is airproached. Beyond this there is a gradual increase in density in the whole number of stars in the zones, so tliat at the equator of the galaxy it is three times as dense as at the poles. The progress is quite gradual over the whole sky. The galaxy does not produce a sudden i‘ise in the numbers, and simply drops into the statistical register of the wdiole. Statistically, in spite of the striking contrasts you liave seen, the divine disorder” of the heavens, there are no other features than this, a gradual condensation amounting at the limit to threefold toward the galaxy accompanied 190 AN^^UAL KCPOET SMITHSONIAN TNSTlTtTTION, 1916. by a slight relative increase of the proportion of the fainter stars. That is, the statistical description of the distribution of the stars when attention is diverted from their random features. Passing now fi'oin the distribution in zones to the question of the total n umber of stars, the table beloAV exhibits the data before us: We see (hat as we take in successively the second, third, down to the seventeenth magnitude, tlie proportionate in(*rease of numbers, which is at first three per magnitude, falls progressively until at the seventeentli it is less tl\an two. Beyond this it is tilmost wholly a matter of inference, but the progression is so steady that ^Ir. (''hapman and Mr. Melotte have reduced it to a fornnda wdiich, within tlie as<*ertained range, adiuits of very little latitude, and shows that at about the twentydhird or twenty-fourth magnitude we should have reached <me-half of the total, and that this total would lie between one and two thousand millions. 1 say it is a matter of inference, because liardly any material wuis availalde to carry on (he counts. Two })lates, howtuer, were forth- coming, one by that keen observer, Mr. l)'Ksteri-e. and one from Mount AVilson, and these when counted confirmed the forecast num- bers in reassuring fashion beyond the twentieth magnitude—tliat is to say, down to stars 100 million times as faint as those, of the first magnitude. NionbcvH nvd efiitirah^ut lujht of fJio ~ U) - 0.9 0.0 o.a- 1.0 1.0- 2.0 2.0- 3.0 3.0- 4.0 4.0- 5.0 6 . 0- 6.0 6.0- 7.0 7.0- a 0 8.0- 9.0 9.0- 10.0 10.0-11.0 11.0- 12.0 12.0- 13.0 13.0- 14.0 14.0- 16.0 15. 0- 16,0 16.0- 17*0 17.0- 18.0 la 0-19.0 19.0- 20.0 All stars fainter than 20. 0 .\'iiriil>er. Ivciuivalont iinnitH^r of first Sirius. [ .stars. 11 .1 Curiiur. 6 M r«mlauri. i 2 8 14 i 27 17 73 18 189 19 650 2(J 2, 200 35 6, (iOO 42 22, 5.50 56 65, (XXI 65 174,000 69 426, 000 68 miJXHt 60 2, 020, (XK) 51 3, 960, 000 40 7, 820. 000 31 11,040,m 22 25,400,000 16 38, 400, 000 10 51,6(X),0(K) 6 76, 000, 000 3 3 '('ut.uls to TnaKiiitude w. 33 .50 68 87 113 148 190 246 311 380 448 508 659 599 630 662 668 678 684 687 690 There is the result, between one and two thousand millions—I sup- pose somewhere about as many as the people on the globe. I confess CENSUS OP THE SKY—SAMPSON. 191 to a feeling of a kind of relief in finding that the total is measurable and, comparatively speaking, moderate. It may be well to add a few sentences in consideration of the validity of the conclusion, which is and must remain, an extrapola- tion beyond knowledge, a summation to infinity of a series not com- pletely known. We begin by admitting that we are dealing only with the sensible universe. There may bo dark stars; in fact, we know that there are, because some of them have been detected in occulting the bright ones, as in the case of Algol. Natui*ally these are not counted. Nor do we reckon with the j)ossible ])iesence of a])Sorbent matter in space, by whicli the magnitudes of all the stars seen wotild recede progressively, so that at the end of the series their light would be extinguished. Nor do we profess to unravel the details of globular clusters—we can not do everything. For that matter, there is infinite detail in a drop of blood or an atom of gas. We take the stars as we find them, "llie relevant question is the ]Kvssibility of a sudden break or a gradual cluinge in the progression after tlie 20 terms that have been so care- fully examined. There would seem to he a certain kind of control in the total light received, but this proves illusory. The total of starlight is a sensible amount, but it is very small. Idle table shown above is taken from a ])aper by Mr. Chapman. It shows that for the ascertained magnitude up to the twentieth tlie total light emitted is e(iuivalent to (kS 7 first-magnitude stars, which again has been ])ut as e(|ual to the hundredth part of full moonlight. If we include all the remaining stars, following the formula, the cfjui valent addition would be only three more first-magnitude stars. Ihit this tells us very little, for if the progression were so altered that the total numlier w(‘re infinite the total light could easily still he finite, owing to the reducing effect of liigher luagnitude. We leave off our summation at a point where each additional mag- nitude is adding more stars than the last. If tins went on the number would be infinite. But, according to the formula, between the twenty- third and twenty-fourth magnit\ides thei’e is a turning point, after which each new magnitude adds less than before. The actual counts have been carried so near this turning point that there is no reasoii- Jible doubt of its existence. Gi\en its existence, the number of stars is at least finite. That is a conclusion that I regard as open to very little doubt. As to the value of the sum, naturally we can be less positive. But all tlie indications of the earlier terms must be mis- leading if the margin between one and two thousand millions is not enough to cover the whole. It is sometimes said that the British amateur astronomer, to whom in the past so much enterprising construction and so much 192 ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. sound and brilliant observation is due, has disappeared. No doubt the growth of organization continues to add strength proportionately to the great observatories. I imagine that the number of excellent amateurs to be found at any one time was never large. While we can produce mesi like Mr. George Higgs or Mr. Franklin-Adams, whom unhappily we have lately lost, or Mr. D’Esterre, who happily is with us, we need not be anxious. Prof. Hale—^liimself, like Herschel and Gill, an amateur turned professional—once defined an amateur as a man M'ho pursued astronomy because he could not help it. Mr. Franklin-Adams satisfied this test. Sir David Gill tells how, in 1903, he came to tlie Cape with the “incongruous double purpose” of curing the rheumatism and neuritis, which at that time almost incapacitated him, and of jdiotogra piling the southern heavens. While the moon shone he retired to the sanatorium at Caledon, and at the end of a fortnight, against the best adi ice, he would emerge to sit up at nights and expose his plates. He has left the world a great gift and happily has placed it in trust with the best possible hands, those of Greenwich Observatory, and it has been dealt with there as it deserves, with the unassuming mastery that so well be- comes that great house, by the astronomer royal, Mr. Chapman, and Mr. Melotte. We can not dispense with discussion and with theory, and I would be the last to depreciate them, Init I think you will feel we always owe a special debt of gratitude and aifection to the inde- fatigable, the truth-loving race of observers. GUN KEPOET NOISFU—ACTION OF THE MAXIM SI- LENCER AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REPORT NOISE AND BULLET-FLIGHT NOISE EXPLAINED. By IIiKAM Berc^y Maxim. [With 7 platos.J AVhen a gun is discluirged it is the conmioii idea that there is a single noise heard—the rei)ort noise. That such is not the case, and that there arc two entirely se])arate and distinct noises has been proved in a very interesting manner by the advent of the Maxim silencer. The history of the research work which led np to this device is very instructive and well worth recording. When the work was undertaken, at the beginning the object was to annul report noise so tliat concealment of ])osition, partly attained by smokeless powder, would be completed. When the firing line be- came invisible there was only loft the report noise to indicate its position and also its strength or number of guns. To attain this object, it was thought only necessary to check the suddenness of the release of the high pressure powder gases into the atmosphere. This pressure, in the caliber 30 United States service Springfield rifle, was approximately 10,000 pounds per square inch, when the base of the bullet emerged from the ban*el muzzle. A de- vice must be found which would present an unobstructed path for the bullet, but this path must not be available to the gas, at least easily. The search for a path which would give a bullet an absolutely un- impaired passage, and yet would check gas at 10,000 pounds pressure per square inch, was a long one. For a year it persisted without results. Its successful ending came in a very interesting though extremely prosaic manner. The essential element was a hole which would be pervious to a, rifle bullet but impervious to high-pressure gas. One morning, after taking a bath and pulling the plug in the tub drain hole, the water was given an accidental twist and the* * Eqprinted by permission from Science Conspectns, vol, 6, No. 2, 1016. 193 194 annual KEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITITTION, 1916. familiar little whirlpool ^vas created. It attracted the eye and finally the mind, since there was a hole through wliich water was passing but slowly, notwithstanding the fact that the drain plug was removed. In a flash the analogy was apparent. It was obvious that centrifugal foi*ce prevented the water from passing thi*ough the hole rapidly. If tlie i)owder gasc^s in a gun were given the same vigorous whirling action, they would also ac(iiiire centrifugal force, and, if their outlet hole were located at or approximately at the center, they would exit relatively gradually. They simi)ly could not exit until they had slowed down at least a little. The search was ended. A little gas whirling device was (prickly made and adjusted to the bari'el of a rifle and the fii‘st shot fired was the first (priet rifle shot ever dischai'ged from a high-power rifle. When shooting was done in several different places, it began to be apparent that the nois(^ depended upon the jflace, at least when a high-power rifle was used. It seemed to be impossible to eliminate a certain sharp ‘‘crack.’’' The character of this crack was similar to a Avhiplash crack. It was entirely different from the more dull b(X)iu of the report. By accident it was found one day that this “crack” noise existed a long way down the range. A listener locaited at the r)00-ynrd mark on a 1,000-yard I’ange, detected the crack nois(^ ap- I)arently overhead. This indicated immediately that it was con- nected with the bullet flight in some manner and was entirely sepa- rate and apart from the report noise. Tests were made to bring out additional facts, and some of these are instructive. It was suspected that the bullet flight ci’cated a bow Avave, creating a little zone of com})i*essed air which mo\ed out from the trajectory, and that this Avave Avas heard l)y reflection. The person shooting the gun ahvays heard a different noise from the per- son located at a distant point doAvri the range. A terrain Avas selected on the extensive meadoAvs on the Connecticut Biver bank beloAv Hartford, whei’e a sei'ies of clumps of bushes and small trees existed. There were three separate clumj)s in front of Avhich the bullet from a Springfield service rifle could be made to pass. When the gun was fired, the listener at the gun heard three separate sharp cracks, and a low rattle of many minor cracks. This pointed fairly coimliisively to the fact that the boAv Avave aauis reflected back from each of these clumps, and separate noises were heard from each, because they were separated by enough distance to give a distinguishable interval. It was then thought that firing doAvn a railroad track which ran along the open meadoAv, and had telegraph poles at regilar intervals, would give a good test. This was done, and the result was a rapid succession of cracks, just as had been anticipated. GUN REPORT NOISE—MAXIM. 195 Then it occurred to the writer that if he could find a place to shoot where there would be no object from which reflection could occur, he ought to secure (juiet shooting. It seemed a difficult condi- tion to find until he bethought himself of getting up on a knoll away from trees and other objects and shooting stiaiglit up into the air. There would be no objects up in the air to reflect back the bow waive, and, if the theory were correct, such shooting should be almost en- tirely quiet. It was with much interest that a suitable ])lace wais searched out. One was finally found, and tlie first firings w^ere felt to be of great moment. The first shot told the story, for the only noise W'as the puff of gas fi*om the silencer, which sounded very soft and low\ There w’as absolutely no bullet flight sound heard. The bow^ wave went on and on and never returned. The next tiling was to locate the limits of this bullet flight noise. It evidently persisted in certain guns while in others it never oc- curred, wdiile in still others it occasionally occun-ed. Bullets from various cartridges were fired and it very soon develofied that when the bullet velo(‘ity reached the velocity of a sound wave, the crack became noticeable. When the bullet velocity fell beloW' the velocity of sound, there w^as no crack noise. The velocity of sound then ap- peared to be the critical point above Avhich the ordinary bullet could never be fired quietly. It developed that the .22 caliber smokeless cartridges, exce])t in the case of the long, gave (|uiet shooting, be- cause their iclocity was below' 1,085 feet per second. The long (‘artridge appeared in some cases to be above this Nclocity though not ahvays. There was evidently un-uniforinity. The long rifle cartridge was always beautifully quiet, as was of course also the short cartridge. The .22 W. It. F. cartridge, which is a special high power, seemed to be just oji the critical line. For example, in a. box of 50 cartridges, about half would shoot w ithout bullet flight noise, wdiereas the other half would make a loud ci’ack. lATth all the larger caliber regular cartridges bullet flight noise occurred. By using special loads, they all gave quiet shooting. In some cases very heavy bullets wore used, and the sti*iking energy maintained in spite of the lowor velocity. The rediuod velocity of course reduced the distance at which accurate shooting could be accomplished. Two hundred yards always w^as possible, howover, wdth bullet velocity of 1,000 feet per second, wdiich is woll inside of the critical iioint. Before the question w^as considered settled, it was thought neces- sary to make various shaped bullets. Some were made of approxi- mately perfect stream line shape. Others were made with a central hole all the way through the bullet. A copper gas check was used over the base when firing, and this fell off as soon as a bullet left the gun barrel. There never Avas a single piece of evidence upon w^hich to hang a theory that the noise w^as in the slightest degree altered. 196 AKNDAL mPom SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTIOK, 1916. Then came the desire to actually see this peculiar manifestation and, incidentally, to conclusively prove the silencer. It was always a bit difficult to prove to the ordinary mind that the noise heard when shooting a rifle equipped with a silencer was made out in the air beyond the silencer and tliat the latter should not be held accountable. The United StJites Navy, through their Ordnance Department, produced the best photograidis which have been taken. These were made by mounting the gun in a dark room and setting up the camera with an open shutter along the line of bullet flight. Two vdres lead- ing from an electric condenser were dropped down direcily beside the trajectory so that the bullet would short circuit these wires when it x^assed and create a sx)ark, the duration of which was of radio frequency, possibly something approximately one five hundred thousandths of a second. This almost inlinitely short exposure gave a clear x>hotograph of the bullet and the variation in density of the air in the bow wave caused a variation in the refnuition of the light, causing less light to fall where the ])ressure was high and more light where the pressure was low. Beautiful [)ietures of the noises made when the gun is discharged woi'C obtained. Some of these are sliown herewith. A series were taken showing the noises when the service rifle without silencer was fired and another series with the silencer. In the former, the report noise is shown, the birth of the bullet flight noise, and the bullet itself. In tlie latter the eutii'e absence of report noise is shown and the very high efficiency of the silencer dem- ontrated. Plate 1 (photo I) represents the condition existing immediately following the emerging of the bullet at the muzzle of the Springfield rifle without silencer. The two vertical wires are shown and the bullet is enveloped in the mass of powder gases and can not be seen. The first wave appears to be made from a rush of air out of the muzzle and the main report noise w^ave is shown just back of it, being the broad dark line, irregular in places. Plate 2 (photo J) represents conditions just a bit later. The bullet lias emerged from a cloud of powder gases and has just begun the creation of its bow wave. It is shown puncturing the main report noise which shows particularly strong in this picture. By looking Ca^’efully the noise waves set up by flying particles of nnburned OTiokeless powder can be seen. Plate 3 (photo N) represents conditions still later and out beyond the disturbance of the blast of gas from the muzzle. The bullet flight bow wave has developed further and the greater velocity of the bullet over the report noise wave is very well shown. It is not plain at* this time why the main report warve should be divided at the rear bf tb bullet. This completes the series of photographs taken with<^ GUN KEPORT NOISE—MAXIM. 197 Plate 4 (photo A) represents the fii^st picture with silencer on the rifle. The bullet is shown emerging from the muzzle of the silencer, the bow wave of bullet flight noise is shown and there is absolutely no sign of any report noise. Indeed, there seems to be no disturbance created at all except the bow wave from the bullet. Plate 5 (photo B) re]^resents the conditions just a bit later. The bow wave and also a stern wave from the bullet is shown, the dis- charge from the silencer, bnt absolutely no report wave. Plate 6 (photo E) represents a still later period, the bow wave being distinctly shown and the wake of the bullet. The stern wave has begun to disappear, for what reason it is not quite plain. Plate 7 (photo F) represents a still later time and the wake of the bullet is the principle point of interest. This seems to partake of a spiral motion. Tlic bow wave and the remnants of tlie stern wave are shown, but no report wave. Having now shown the conditions existing at the muzzle of a fire- arm, equipped with a Maxim silencer, and proving as conclusively as seems possible that the noise of the gun is eliminated and that the only noise remaining is the bullet flight, we may ask the practical results. These have been very carefully studied from every imagin- able angle, t'ield tesis, accuracy tests, and tests at night have been conducted oflicially by war departments with bodies of troops equipped with silencers. Briefly summarized, these amount to the following 1. The most important advantage on a shoulder rifle seems to be the diminution of sound on one’s own firing line, which permits oflicers’s commands to lie heard during periods of the most rapid and concentrated fire. Without the silencer the human voice can not bo heard. 2. The concealment of position of the firing line and the conceal- ment of the number of guns comprising it. This is a natural advan- tage which might be imagined. 3. Improvement in marksmanship because of reducing the tend- ency to flinch. The elimination of the concussion entirely and the reduction of the recoil by 50 per cent makes the modern military rifle a much more gentle gun. and the rank and file in innumerable military tests always make higher scores than with the bare rifle. 4. Elimination of muzzle flash at night makes location of the shooter invisible. This is supposed to constitute an important mili- tary advantage. The aspects of a quiet shooting firearm in the case of assassins is of interest. We have seen that we can not secure quiet shooting unless we have bullet velocity below 1,085 feet per second. Except in 22-caliber this requires specially loaded cartridges for all calibers. 73830^—sm 1016 14 l98 annual BS!t>OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. furthermore, the silencer, being a gas check device purely and sim- ply and applicable only to the muzzle, the ordinary revolver can not be silenced because of the joint between the cylinder and the barrel allowing the gas to escape if it is checked at the muzzle by the silencer. Thus the assassin’s favorite arm is unsilenceable, to coin a word. In the case of the automatic pistol it is almost an impossibility to attach the silencer and moreover the almost instantaneous opening of the breech permits a back blow and usually upsets the ejection of the empty shell enough to cause a jam. So we can not expect to see the automatic pistol silenced as things stand to-day. The assassin will have to design a small arm with a breech mechanism constructed on the lines of a rifle if he is to take advantage of any silencing device. Such a weapon does not exi.st at the present time. Photograph Taken Directly at Muzzle of Rifle without Silencer. Photograph Taken about 4 Inches from Muzzle of Rifle without Silencer, •'thsor.ian Report, 1916. — Maxinn. PLATE Note little grains of burning sntoku les'^ f>fnv<ler, cacU ere it Lug small bi Smithsonian Report. 191 Photograph Taken Directly at Muzzle of Rifl Plate 'HOTOGRAFH TaKEN ABOUT 2 INCHES FROM MuZZLE OF R:FLE WITH SILENCER. SILENCER IS 1 INCH DIAMETER: BULLET IS .300 DIAMETER. son'ian Report, '',916 Photograph Taken about 6 Inches from Muzzle of eport, 191 6. — Maxi Photograph Taken about 8 Inches from Muzzle of Rifle with Silencer. MOI.KdTLAR STRIT(’TFKE AND LIFE.* I>y Amk JNctet, of Chcniii^tr]/ <t1 the l‘nircrHit}i of (U orva. Of }iJI Ihf* problems of nut lire tlu* one deserving the most intense iiderest is undoubtedly that of life. Its solution concerns at tlie same time the whole range of natural and physical sciences, and it des('rves to l>ecoine the objective of all the exhaustive methods of lesearch now at their disposal. And yet among the sciences bio- chennstry is the ])rincipal one upon which falls the task of this re- search. In fact, it is not at all doubtful that, if not life itself, at least the phenomena that it manifests in living things may be en- tirely of chemical origin. But hiocluuuistiy itself is based on pure organic chemistry. In fact th('. fundamental condition for intelligently interpreting a phenomenon is to have exact knowledge of the agency by which it is unfolded. Now, it is the function of organic chemistry to supply us in this particular case with this knowledge by establishing the nature of the materials of which living things are composed. To separate, to purify, to characterize, to analyze the innumer- able compounds derived from animals and plants have been the pri- mary objects of organic chemistry. But it has not stopped there; it has pushed on further to learn what may be called the constitution of these bodies; that is to say, the actual architecture of their mole- cuh^s, the exact place that each of their atoms occupies, and the rela- tions that those atoms bear to one anothei*. It has succeeded in the great majority of cases, thereby accomplishing an immense task that may rightly be regarded as one of the most remarkable achievements of human intelligence up to the present time. I hasten to add that the enormous amount of labor that these researches have required has not had its source alone in that specu- lative interest connected with all new loiowledge. Chemists who ^Address at the opening meeting of the ninety-seventh session of tlm helv^tlque dcs Sciences naturellcfi, held at Geneva, September 12 to If), 11)15. Translated, by per- miesion, from Revue Sclentiflque, Paris, November 13-20, 1915, and from author’s revised pamphlet i Extralt des Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles, Geneva, 1916.” 109 200 ANNUAL REFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. have broken up all the organic molecules, who have identified the constructive plan of these minute edifices, have been urged on by two other motives of a far more immediate import. The first motive is the attractiveness of synthesis. It is acknowl- edged that the artificial re[>roduction of a natural compound can be brouglit about only wlien the composition of that natural com- pound is known in its minutest details. Whenever an attempt is made to proceed in any other way, to put the cart before the horse, as they say, and to work haphazard, the i-esiilt is invariably a failure. The latest example of this is the fruitless attempts to make artificial rubber. In the second place cliemists have given their close attention to questions of composition because they are not. slow to lecognize the fundamental fact that all the ])ropei-ties of organic c()m|U)unds physical, chemical, and physiological—stand in intimate relation to this composition. It is not the (juantity nor the nature of tlie materials emj^loyed in the construction of a building that makes of it a church, a theater, or a railway station. In the same way it is neither the specific kind nor the number of the atoms of a molecule that makes of an organics comi>oimd a coloring material, an anti- septic, or a perfume; it is simply the way in which tlie atonrs are grouped one with the other. To know this method of gi'ouping will be to possess the means of propar-ing at will and ai one stroke any given new compound with predctermiiual j)roperties. A mass of relations of the highest interest between tlie composi- tion and certain )iroj)erties of substan(‘(‘s have thus Uam established, such as their color, their staining quality, their density, their flavoi-, their polanzation, their therapeutic action, etc. But all branches of this study have not been explored: in ])articidai. no attempt has yet been made to connect their biological projiei'ties with the struc- ture of molecules. This is the subject that I should like to discuas at this time, and I begin by limiting it to the three following questions: (1) Is there a relation between the chemical composition of a substance and the part it plays in the interior of a living organism? (2) Is there a condition of molecular structure Avhich makes a substance useful, inactive, or harmfid in sustaining life, which makes it a food or a poison ? (3) Is there a like condition by which the material of a living cell is distinguished from that of the same cell when dead ; in other words, does death result in changing the architecture of the mole- cules? Before answering these questions it seems desirable to specify clearly with what particular phase of the theory of constitution my discussion will have to do and be assured I shall limit myself to MOLEOULAB STBUOTOEE AND LIFE—PICTET. 201 what is strictly necessary. It will be sufficient for the purpose of my demonstration to bring to your attention the principle of organic classification. As the result of 50 years of patient researches it has been ascer- tained that the approximately 200,000 organic compounds now known, however great their diversity, belong, from the viewpoint of their molecular structure, to only two types. In the first type, the atoms of which they are formed, whether saturated or unsaturated compounds, are joined in a nearly recti- linear chain of greater or less length. The central part of the mole- cule forms a sort of vertebral column to which in turn other atomic groups are joined laterally. In the second type these same atoms are joined under the influence of similar attractive forces, but form closed chains. The structure of the molecule is now not a string of atoms but a ring. And on this ring similar circular groups are applied just as the tissues of a fruit are built up on its stone or kernel. Hence we have the distinction between compounds with open chains and those with cyclic radicals. This distinction lies at the very foundation of organic classification. It corresponds, for ex- ample, to what in zoology is the division between vertebrates and invertebrates, and is not without analogy to it, for it is founded on the conformation of the structure and on the symineti’y of the being, whether it l)e an animal or a molecule. From a theoretic point of view the two gj*eat classes of organic compounds are separated by a great gap. But this is not insupera- ble. In many cases, by suitable reactions, it is possible to act on the molecules of substances in such a way as to close an open chain (cyclisation) or to break a closed chain (cyclolyse) . Thus it is possi- ble to pass experimentally from one type to the other. It is true that this transition is incomparably easier in one case than in the other. One of the characteristics of the closed chains is their stability, considerable chemical energy being always required to disorganize them. On the other hand, cyclisation is more easily effected, although it demands a certain degree of energy, required for the bending of the rectilinear chain and the welding of its ter- minal atoma What are the forms of energy needed to produce this reeult? In the fii'st place is heat. Berthelot &rst shelved this by passing through red-hot tubes an entire series of open-chain substances. He thus obtained numerous cyclic compounds, and in patiiculat the gipcater part of those that in combination constitute coal tary a by- product of gas manufacture from which the modem chemist has obt tained so inany valuable derivatives. On the basis of the^ experi- ments, Berthelot likewise founded his well-known theory of the 202 AKKtTAT. REPOBT SMITHSONIAN TNSOytTXTTION, 19X6. formation of coal tar. According to this theory, coal in course of distillation is decomposed into very simple gaseous products with open-chain molecules, and these products by impact with the sides of the heated retort undergo cyclisation. We shall see hereafter what estimate should be given to this explanation. But the cyclic compounds are found nbt in coal tar alone; they are met witli in substances which luive never been subjected to the action of great heat, su(‘h as petroleum. They are found above all in abundance in living organisms and, in particulai*, in plants. Here the agent causing the cyclisation is no longer heat ejiergy, and a further search will be ne(‘essary to determine what it is. Firsf, however, permit me to make an observation. From what I said awhile ago it might appear that the properties of an organic compound must differ completely according to whether that com- pound belongs to the class of bodies with open chains or to those of cyclic form. But investigations so far recorded show this is not always the case. In both groups are found alcoliols, acids and bases, substances having taste or odor and others not. substances that arc poisons, and others that are harmless. Chemical industry draws in- diflPerently from either group its }>erfumes and its explosives, and also its thei-apeutic medicines. Color alone seems to be found in connection with cyclic structure, and yet on]y to a limited extent. It might be concluded that these properties are but slightly or not fit all influenced by the architectural structure of the molecule; that they depend essentially on the nature of the external groupings which encircle this structure and which appear to be the same in both cases. This would be a strange fact. It is hard to understand how so essential a thing, from the theoretic viewpoint, as the structure of the molecule is not reflected in the fundamental properties of the material. But according to my personal observations this anomaly, which would be inexplicable, does not really exist. I believe I may, in a measure, affirm, on the conti'ary, that there is always a harmony in the fundamental properties of the material which are regulated by the nature, either cyclic or linear, of the molecular structure. These properties are the ones which come into play in all manifesta,- tions of life. It is this which I shall try to prove. In order to study vital phenomena in their greatest simplicity, they must be observed not only in animals but also in plants. Con- sider then the green plant, the organism upon which devolves the task of transforming the mineral substances it contains into organic materials, and finally into living matter, which the animal needs only to decompose and oxidize in order to utilize the energy that they contain in a potential state. Wihat is the mechanism of this marvelous synthesis? Our present knowledge is very imperfect; but we do know the intermediary prod- MOUECULAE STKUCTOEE AND LIFE—PICTET. 203 ucts through which this takes place. These are the formic and glycolic aldehydes, sugars and starch, numerous vegetable acids, asparagin, glycerin, fats, lecithins. These substances exist in all plants. They are found in each living cell, together with the pro- teins which are essential constituents of protoplasm. They rightly appear then as the foods of this cell. However, if the constitution of these bodies be considered, the fact is striking that their molecules are made up only of open chains of atoms. None of them shows the cyclic structure. There is thus ob- served a fundamental relation between the constitution and the role of vegetable substances. All those that may be legitimately consid- ered as the direct and successive products of assimilation, all those that contribute to the building up and nourishment of living proto- plasms, belong to the first class of organic compounds. But these substances ai-e far from being the only ones that the vegetable kingdom furnishes us. Besides these the plant produces an infinite variety of others which human industry constantly searches for, not only to utilize them as foods, but also to profit by any of their other propeidies. Thus, for example, the great group of essential oils, turpentines, and camphors, many representatives of which constitute our perfumes or our highest prized condiments. There is also the long series of colorants and vegetable pigments, from chlorophyl to that interesting group of anthocyaiiins, or flower- pigments, the systematic study of which is being taken up by our former colleague, Willstiitter. There are the various resins, the rubbers, the tannins, the glucosides, the various bitter or astringent principles. Finally, there arc all those numerous nitrogenous and basic compounds grouped under the name of alkaloids and which, chiefly, because of their remarkable physiological action in the ani- mal organism, have furnished our most valuable medicines. Is the part that these substances play in the plant the same as that of compounds of the first category? It is generally believed other- wise. And yet many physiologists still accept it to-day and see in these substances reserve food materials that the plant wall utilize when the time comes to build up its tissues. I do not at all share this view and for the following reasons: These substances seem to me not at all like the first, that is, indis- pensable to the development of plants, since many plants do not have them. They are not found, as are the others, inclosed in the seeds or in the roots. They are never met with in the living cell, from which they seem to be excluded, but are mainly in the tissues or in special receptacles where they are localized and stored separate from the great tract of protein formation. They do not disappear but on the contrary are accumulated during the life of the plant They 204 ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1&16, are, then, certainly not intermediary products in the building up of the living protoplasm. Search must be made elsewhere than in a process of assimilation for the origin of these compounds which, without nutritive value for the plant ai'e, however, often produced by it in considerable quantities. What then is their origin and their signification ? Some years ago in connection with this subject I advanced an hypothesis relating specially to alkaloids. This hypothesis luwing been accepted with some favor, I extend it to-day to all compounds of the same character. I admit that, far from being products of assimilation, they are products of denutri- tion. They rei)resent the losses of vegetal metabolism. They cor- respond to what among animals are urea, inic acid, glycocoll, biliary pigments, etc. It is, in fact, not conceivable that the biological syn- thesis of proteins, any moi'e than synthetic operations in vitro gen- erally, could be made with a theoretical yield, witluait leaving some secondary products, some residues which could no longer be utilized. Conversely, using the tissues, all the phenomena of assimilation and of combustion must produce in plants as well as in animals some corresponding losses, nitrogenous oi* otherwise. All these j)roducts are not simply useless, hut they are injurious to the maintenance of life. They represent poisons from which the organisms of both kingdoms must be freed at any cost under penalty of toxication. The animal can do this by expelling them; but the plant, deprived of excretory organs, can do this only very imper- fectly. It must be content to retain tliem and is restricted to render- ing them inofinnsive by keeping them outside of the vital circulation and preventing them from reentering the living cell from which they have been expelled and from exercising their toxic influence on the protoplasm. And we find that it does tliis, for the compounds in question are never found actually present in the interior of such cells. The cell wall thus becomes a sorting place of useful and poisonous substances; it is permeable to the fii*st, impermeable to the second. Can an explanation be given of the mechanism that regulates this sorting? No physical characteristic (such as solubility, ionization, the col- loidal or crystalline state) distinguishes the two kinds of substances from each other. No difference in chemical composition exists be- tween them ; they are formed of the same elements, which are those of protoplasm itself. It clearly follows, then, in my opinion, that only ft difference of molecular structure can explain their opposite be- havior. Let us now see what is known of their constitution. Besearches in this subject have led to the remarkable result, the fiqal consequences of which are not yet known, tluit all these products cyclic The carbon atoms of the turpentines, of MOLKOITLAR BTRCTCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET. 206 camphors, and of tannins, the carbon and oxygen atoms of the anthoeyanins, the carbon and nitrogen atoms of chlorophyll and of all the alkaloids, are uniformly joined in closed chains. We have seen that it is exactly the reverse with the nutritive sub- stances of the cell. 1 see plainly in this dilferent disposition of the atoms the reason why the molecules of one group should penetrate the living cell, and why those of another group would be excluded. A straight wire will penetrate a narrow o])ening if introduced end- wise, but will not pass if made into a ring. Likewise the inter- molecular passages of the cellular walls permit the passage of the flexible strings of open chains while they oppose the entrance of the massive and rigid rings which form the cyclic molecules. Moreover the waste products of metabolism ai*e pi'iniarily bodies with open chains, like the substances from which they are derived. It is therefore only after an impact that they acquire the cyclic structure which renders them inoffensive. There is here a reaction of the living plant against the toxic, substances that it produces, and this 1‘eaction consists in a niodilication of the internal structure of these substances; the plant is defended against these poisons by cyclising them. There are therefore in the vegetal organism two ])arallel processes of synthesis, one which, reuniting the atoms by simple juxtaposition, forms the long open chains that will result in the formation of the conqffex molecule of the proteins, the other, carrying on a veritable street inspectiom cleans the organism of all the detritus left over from the first synthesis, isolating all particles no longer available for constructive mettibolism as well as those thrown off hy destructive metabolism. This hypothesis, being announced, it remains to verify it by ex- periment and to show how cyclisation operates in the plant. This is what 1 now proceed to do, at least so far as it applies to the alka- loids. Starting Avith the idea that, in organic s3mthesis, the best way to attain the end is to imitate nature, I have ahvays sought in my attempts to artificially reproduce vegetable alkaloids to work under conditions as nearly as possible identical with those of the living plant. This idea has been followed in recent Avork in my laboratory by MM. (lams, Spengler, Kay, and Malinowski, and by Mile. Finkelstein work has been carried on upon the synthesis of berberine and a number of the alkaloids of opium. We have uniformly chosen as the starting point of our operations, on the one hand, such substances as are knoAvn to be formed in plants by the decomposition of the proteins, and, on the other hand, compounds, such as formaldehyde, which are derived in part from the carbonic acid of the air. In the condensation of these with each other we obtain certain cyclic alkaloids identical with those pro- duced in vegetable tissues. I have thus succeeded, in collaboration 206 ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, with M. Chou, in directly obtaining certain alkaloids, hydrolyzing in vitro the albumens themseh^es in the presence of formaldehyde. It therefore seems well proved that the alkaloids have their origin in the plant by eyclisation of the products of decomposition of the proteins; and, by analogy, it is justifiable to attribute the same origin to all similar com])oimds. In resume, we obser\e a complete parallelism in the two grand divisions of organic compounds, between tlie form of their molecular structure and the role they play in the plant or-ganism. Only com- pounds with open chains are capable of maintaining life in this organism, while compounds with closed chains, found in abundance in certain plants, are merely waste products, without nutritive value, rendered inactive by the fact of their eyclisation. An ideal plant ought to contain none at all. But a serious objection is at once raised to this conclusion. Any chemist oi* botanist will make it. He will say: In the list of substances which, in the plant, do not contribute to the formation of its proto})lasm, 3-011 have omitted the most important, cellulose, that material, morphologically indispen- sable, which, in all plants, forms the cell walls and ducts and plays a fundamental role in the mechanical protection of the pj*otoplasm by affording the covering needed for its organization into more or less rigid and resistant tissues. It seems indispensable, continues my opponent , that the substance upon which this function de^olves should possess a chemical sta- bility sufficient to resist tlie multiple activities carried on within the plant. It must be independent of the general action of metabolism. If the ideas that you have developed are correct, they say, this independence would result from its molecular structure, and cellu- lose, like ever}^ other compound that the plant excludes from its vital activities, would possess the cyclic structure. But all chemical treatises place cellulose, as w(‘ll as starch, among the open-chain compounds; and this fact alone is enough to overthrow the entire basis of your theory. I recognize that this objection would be unanswerable if it rested on solid ground; that is to say, on an exact knowledge of the con- stitution of cellulose. But this constitution has not yet been de- termined, and the analogy with starch is not enough to establish it. I believe, on the contrary, that cellulose should be far removed from starch in the classification and be placed among the com- pounds of cyclic structure. A series of experiments that I have carried on with MM. Kamseyer and Bouvier offer iiroof of what I advance. These experiments bring out the following consider- ations : The chemical phenomena which cause the decomposition of the plant after its death vary according to the conditions in which MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PTOTET. 207 they take place. If the plant be left to itself in the open air its nitrogenous materials at once undergo rapid putrefaction with the formation of ammonia, which is restored to the soil, and carbonic acid, which returns to tlie atmosphere. Tlie nonnitrogenous mate- rials, and in particular cellulose, resist much longer, but they also finally disappear, due to a slow combustion of which the agent, either direct or indirect, is the oxygen of the air. If the dead plant, instead of l)eing left in the open air, is more or less covered with earth, this action of the oxygen is retarded, and the formation of earth molds are aided, substances very little known from the viewpoint of chemistry but (*on(*erning which we do know they are products of the incomplete oxidation of cellu- lose and present some characteristic's of phenol, that is, of cyclic compounds. If, finally, these same vegetable materials are entirely protected from the action of the air, either by submersion in water or by being buried deep in the earth, as occurs in great geological displacements, they undergo none tlie less a slow transformation. But this is no longer an oxidation, it is a decomposition of a special character, the principles and ag(mcies of which we do not know, although we do know perfectly the final products. These are our fossil fuels of various ages, as lignite and bituminous and anthiacite coals. There is no doubt that in this instainc it is cellulose which furnishes the essential material of coals. In this transformation the cellulose loses a part of its oxygen and liydrogen, and is consequently enriched in carbon. But this decomposition taking place at low temperature, affects only the periphery of the molecule; the carbon nucleus is not affected. It must therefore be admitted that the fundamental struc- ture is the same in coal as in cellulose, and that determining it in the former establishes it at tlie same time in the latter. Unfortunately, though coal has been used for two centuries as a fuel, though for a hundred yeai’s there have been obtained from it by distillation thiee products of such great industrial importance txs illuminating gas, coal tar, and coke, yet there remains an almost total ignorance of its chemical nature. Can you infer its nature from the products of this distillation ? It is known, as I have said, that coal tar is formed exclusively of cyclic compounds. It is the same with coke. The fact that it furnishes aromatic acids by distillation as- sures us that the atoms of carbon which compose it are united in closed chains. Can it be said that the same structure may be at- tributed to the materials as to their derivatives? Such an inference would seem to be absolutely unjustified, ba'RUse during the distilla- tion of coal these materials have been subjected to temperatures of 800^ to 1,000°, and wo are told by BertheloCs experiments that these temperatures are the cause of the cyclisation of all the open chains* 208 ANNITAI. BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. To avoid the force of this objection, it would be necessary to elimi- nate the cyclising action of heat during the decomposition of coal. This is what I have attempted to do with the assistance of my two expert collaborators. In operating the distillation of coal in vacuo, so as not to admit of an increase in temperature above ISO®, we ob- tained a special coal tar and a new kind of coke. But in studying this vacuum coal tar and coke we have assured ourselves that each of them, like oi-dinary coal tar and coke, are exclusively of cyclic nature. We conclude from this that the cyclic compounds pre- exist in coal and certainly form its majoj* [)art. From these ex- perimental results there follow, in our opinion, the three following conclusions (1) Berthelot's tlieory of the formation of coal tar can not be con- sidered as accurately intci’preting the facts. All the derivatives of coal tar which chemical industry has utilized in such a brilliant man- ner, are no longer believed, as formerly, products of heat action. It is not at all to the heat of the gas jets that is due their well-known aromatic radical so ri(;h in valuable pi'operties. This radical al- ready existed though in a more hydrogenated condition, in the plants of the cai'boniferous age. All chemistry of the aromatic com- pounds thus owes a dependence on plant chemistry. (2) Vacuum coal tar is in reality nothing more than petroleum, having its odor, density, fluoi'escence, and weak rotatory power. All the definite compounds that we have derived from it are found to be identical with those other compounds isolated from the petroleums of Canada, California, and Galicia. We therefme verify for the first time, a relation of a chemical order between these two natural prod- ucts of such higli importance, coal and petroleum. Does this rela- tion imply a common origin, and can it serve as an argument for those who claim that petroleum, like coal, is of plant origin? For my part I believe so, but to enter into a discussion of that point would be too far from my subject. (3) If coal, as we believe we have demonsti*ated, is formed of a mixture of cyclic substances, one could hardly fail to attribute the same structure to cellulose, which, of all the substances contained in plants, is the one that plays the greatest part in the formation of coal. The objection that my opponents would make in this respect therefore falls and my liypothesis conversely finds a new example for its support. With one span we will now bridge the entire distance separating the first products of plant assimilation from its final product, namely, living matter. And it should be understood at the outset that I employ this tei*m living matter ” only as an abbreviation, and to avoid long circumlocution. You should not, in reality, attribute MOLECULAB STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET. 209 life to the matter itself; it has not, it can not have both living mole- cules and dead molecules. Life requires an organization, which is that of cellular structure, but it remains, in contradistinction to it, outside the domain of strict chemistry. It is none the less true that the content of a living cell must differ in its chemical natui*e from the content of a dead cell. It is entirely from this point of view that the phenomenon of life pertains to my subject. It is therefore from this view point that it remains for me to examine whether the ideas I have presented can be used for its interpretation. A living cell, both in its chemical composition and in its morpho- logical structure, is ;ni oiganism of exti-aordinary eomplexity. The proto])lasm that it incloses is a mixtiii'c of very diverse substances. But if there be set aside on the one hand those substances wliich are in process of aasimilation and on the other those wliich are the by- products of nutrition, and which are in process of elimination, there remains oidy the protein or albuminous substances, and these must be considcM'cd, if not the essential factoi- (d' life, at least the theater of its manifestations. These alone, in fact, possess those two emi- nently vital faculties of building up tlu'ir molecules within the cell itself and of reacting to the slightest innnenecs of a physical, chemi- cal, or mechani(‘al nature. They are therefore classified among the most reactive organic compounds that we know, and it is their very reactivity which makes them the supporters of vital phenomena. During ihe life of the cell they am in a state of perpetual ti’ansfor- mation, and are found in a state of stable eqnilihrinm only upon the death of the cell ; or, better to say, tliis death is only the result of the stabilization of the [irotein molecules. • Is tliis stabilization a chemical process, in the sense that it brings about a modification of the inolccnlar structure? To ascertain if such be the case, and what this modification is, it is necessary to know the constitution of both living albumen and dead albumen. Chemistry, however, is totally ignorant, or nearly so, of the consti- tution of living albumen, for chemical methods of investigation at the very outset kill the living cell. The slightest rise in temperature, contact with the solvent, the vci*y powerful effect of even the mildest reactions cause the transformation that needs to be prevented, and the chemist has nothing left bt^t dead albumen. It is therefore only dead albumen that chemistry has been able to siudy. Thanks to the investigations of a host of eminent men of science, we now know, if not in all its details, at least in great part, the constitution of the albumens. It is known in particular from the special point of view that occupies our attention, that the extremely complex molecule of these bodies is formed of an assemblage of a 210 ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. very great number of cliains, some of whicli arc formed wholly of carbon atoms, others of atoms of carbon and of nitrogen, but which for the most part are of closed chains. The albumens obtained from dead tissues are therefore of cyclic structure. Is it the same with those albumens which still fonn an integral part of living proto])lasm ; and liow do we know this? A very inter- esting observation of Loew will be oll'ered as a beginning of my answer to these questions. Loew has stated that all those, chemical rejictions wliich in vitro arc susceptible of attacking the aldehydes and the primary l)ases, or which act on the aldehyde and aminogen groups which characterize them, that all these rcactioris, are inva- riably ]joisonous to living protoplasm. Idiese same reactions are, on the other hand, witlumt any inllueiu'c on dead albumen. Loew logically concludes from this that the molecule of livijig albumen incloses the said groups, while the molecule of dead albumen no longer possesses them. These two groups of atoms, throughout the whole extent of or- ganic chemistry, posses?; some very active though o]>posite character- istics which tend to react upon one anotluM* by an interchange of their elements. This exchange does not take place in living albumen, since the two groups arc here in a coexistent stale; this bex'ornes effective on the death of the cell, for neither of the two groups can any longer he discovered in dead albumen. The stabilization of the protein molecule Avould therefore be due, according to Loew, to the saturation of the one by the other of these two groups. Tliis obsei'vation appears capital to me: hut its author has not at all, it seems to me, followed the conclusions to their end. I wMl try to do this for him. On acxxmnt of their very nature these grou})s of atoms of which I speak could not in any case form an integral part of a closed chain. Both lieing monovalents they could form jiart only of open chains. Their existence in living albumen, ther’efore, necessaril}^ implies the presence of these chains. But the union of two atomic groupings forming part of an open chain could not be made unless there was a closing of this chain ; at the same time the disappearance of two active groups necessarily also involves the loss of a part of the activity of the resultant complex, just as a man who joins his hands or crosses his arms loses to a great extent his means of action. The stabilization of living albumen, therefore, involves a cyclisa- tion. In closing the open chains in themselves the albumen of the cellular protoplasm enters into equilibrium and repose. Its period of activity is ended in the same way as that of all the substances which have contributed to its maintenance. For those and the others cyclisation is death. MOLEOULAK STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET. 211 In this case it is a moinenhiry death, understand, and destined to be followed after more or less delay by a resurrection which brings back into circulation tlie tcmj')orarily inert atoms. It is clear, in fact, that if all cycliscd molecules should indefinitely persist in that state all life would soon disappear from the surface of our globe, but then all that 1 have said applies only to organic compounds which form ])art of the living plant. When a plant dies other agents intervene which proceed more oi’ lcs.s rapidly to the destruc- tion of all the jnolecules and to a geiiei-al decyclisation. The dead plant forthwith becomes a pi'ize of the microbes of jnitrefaction, which attack its albumens, and of the oxydizing ferments which bum its cellulost'. Or we may substitute the digestixe ferments of herbiverous animals, which are expially cyclolitic. Here, as else- where, the vegetable and animal kingdoms arc complements one of the other and interdependent, and these same atoms, passing from one to the other in the aggregate of diverse structure.s, sustain the eternal existence of both. Such are the considerations that 1 proposed to sulmiit to you on the relations existing between molecular stiaicture and life. 1 have raised only a small corner of the veil that hides the mystery, but 1 belicA'e 1 have answered the three (juestions with xvhich I began, by showing: (ll That the phenomena of life are deixendent upon a special .structure of the organic Jiiolecule; (2) that only the dis- position of atoms in open chains permits the maintenance and the manifestations of life; (It) that the cyclic structure is that of the substances which have lost this faculty; and (4) finally that death results, from the chemical i)oint of view, by a cyclisation of the elements of the protoplasm. The serpent which bites its tail, the symbol of eternity among the ancients, might well become, to the modern biological chemist, the symbol of death. I have spoken only of plant chemistry. It remains to examine whether my interpretation can ap])ly likewise to the ixhenomena which take place in the animal organism. But I can not, nor do I wdsh to, longer tax your patience, for I have already taken too long a time in testing it. IDEALS OF (llEMlOATv INVESTIO AT10N.‘ By Theodoke William Btciiahds. In the present address I shall try to put before yon some of the ideals of chemical investigation. Our present elVorts and our hopes for the future are founded upon past acapiisitions; therefore I shall call your attention first to the gradual develoi)ment of chemistry. Less than three centuries ago an outspoken student of nature some- times faced tlje grim alternatives of excommunication, imprisonment, or death. To-day he no longer needs to conceal Ids thoughts in cryptic speech or mystic symbolism. Although the shadow of in- comprehensibility may still darken the langauge of science, mystery is no longer necessary to protect the scientihc investigator from per- secution. The generally recognized value of the truth within his domain gives him the right to exist. The courage needful for the task of addressing this august assem- bly on a to})ic concerning chemistry is, therefore, of a different order from the courage required for such a task in the days of Galileo. The problem to-day is not how to obscure the thought, but, rather, how to elucidate its inevitable complications. Modern chemistry has had a manifold origin and tends toward a many-sided destiny. Into the fabric of this science men have woven the thought of ancient Greek philosophers, the magic of Arabian alchemists, the practical discoveries of artisans and ingenious chemi- cal experimenters, the doctrine of physicists, the stern and uncompro- mising logic of mathematicians, and the vision of metaphysical dreamers seeking to grasp truths far beyond the reach of mortal sense. The complex fabric enfolds the earth—indeed, the universe with its far-reaching threads. The history of the complicated evolution of chemistry is pro- foundly significant to the student of human thought. Long ago, at the very dawn of civilization, Hindu and Greek philosophers were deeply interested in the problems presented by the nature of the uni- 1 Oi*ation delivered before the Harvard Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa In Sanders The- ater, Cambrids?o, Mass., on June 19, 1916. Reprinted from Science, N. S., vol. 44, pp. 37-45, July 14, 1916, and Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, vol. 25, pp. 1-10, Sept., 1910. 73839°—-SM 1916 15 213 214 ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. verse. They speculated intelligently, although often with childlike naivete, concerning energy and the structure of matter, but tliey forebore to test their speculations by experiment. They builded better than they knew ; their ancient atomic hypothesis, ardently sup- ported but inade(iuate]y applied two thousand years ago, now finds itself installed in the innermost recesses of chemical theory. Inde- pendently, ancient artisans and medieval alchemists, dealing with the mysterious actual behavior of things, acquired valuable acquaintance with simple chemical processes. After much chemical knowledge of facts had been gained alchemy sought the aid of philosophy. Thus little by little order was brouglit into the chaos of scattered expe- rience. But strictly chemical knowledge alone was inadecpiate to solve the cosmic riddle; it had to be supplemented by knowledge of heat and electricity—agencies which produce profound alterations in the chemical nature of substances. Thus the study of pliysics was combined with that of chemistry. Again, since mathematical gen- eralization is essential to the study of physics, this disci])line also was of necessity added to the others. All tluvsc po^verful tools taken together having failed to penetrate to the ultimate essence of things, imagination is invoked, and physiochemical dreams to-day conceive a mechanism of infinitesimal entities far beyond our most searching powers of direct observation. Chemistry has not grown si)ontaneously to its present estate; it is a product of humau mentality. The science which we know to-day is but an echo of the eternal and incomprehensible “music of the spheres ” as heard and recorded by the minds of individual men. Im- personal and objective although matter and energy may be, their appreciation by man involves much that is subjective. The history of science, like all the rest of human history, is, as Emerson said, “ the biography of a few stout and earnest persons.” Robert Boyle, self-styled “ the skeptical chymist,” a gentle spirit skepticalonly of the false and vain, pure-minded aristocrat in an age of corruption; Mikhail Lomonosoff, poet, philosopher, philologist, and scientific seer, far outstripping contemporary understanding; Antoine Lavoisier, whose clear mind first taught man to compre- hend, after thousands of years, the mighty stolen gift of Prome- theus; John Dalton, Quaker peasant, who found convincing chemical evidence for the ancient atomic hypothesis; Michael Faraday, a blacksmith’s son, whose peerless insight and extraordinary genius in experiment yielded theoretical and practical fruits beyond the world’s most daring dreams—^these men and a few score others are the basis of the history of chemistry. The science has not come into being, Minerva-like, full-grown from the brain of Jove; she has been bora of human travail, nursed and nourished from feeble in- CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—EICHARDS. 215 fancy by human caretakers, and she sees the universe to-day through human eyes. The diversified origin of chemistry has shaped the varied con- temporary application of the science and its many-sided destiny in the years to come. Chemistry has wide theoretical bearings, but at the same time is concerned with the crudest and most obvious affairs of manufacture and everyday life. Chemical knowledge must form an essential part of any intelligent philosophy of the nature of the universe, and alone can satisfy one manifestation of that intense in- tellectual curiosity which to-day, no less than of old, yearns to understand more of the fundamental nature of things. On the other hand, rational applied science to-day must follow in the footsteps of the swiftly advaruung strides of theory. The law's of chemistry can not be adequately applied until they have been discovered. Chemi- cal insight, concerned wdtli the intimate changes of the substances w^hich are all about us as wxdl as Avithiii our bodies, furnishes us with the only means for employing material things to the In^st advantage. Chemical processes appertain in large degree to medicine, hygiene, agriculture, and manufacture; these i)r(x*esses depend iiix)n law^s of w^hich the perfect understanding is essential to the full development of most of the activities of civilized life. However oblivious we may be of the inexorable law^s of chemistry, we are ever under their swuiy. Our consciousness is housed in a mortal shell, consisting primarily of compounds of less than a score of chemical elements. The physiological behavior of our bodies is inevitably associated with the chemical changes or reactions among highly intricate chemical unions of these few^ elements. The driving tendency or immediate cause of the reactions which support life is to be found in the chemical affinities and respective concentrations of the several substances. Our bodies are chemical machines, from which Ave can not escape except by quitting our earthly life. The nature of the chemical elements and tlieir compounds therefore pre- sents one of the most interesting and important of all problems of- fered to mankind. Tliat the study of chemical problems of life is consistent Avith the study of man in a biological, a psychological, or a spiritual sense, is obvious. To-day the epigram ‘‘ The proper study of mankind is man” must be greatly broadened in order to corre- spond with modem knoAvledge. These words regarding the origin and significance of chemistry serve as an introduction. Your committee has honored me by the request that I should tell you something about the object and out- come of my oAvn endeavors, and these could be made clear only by reAdewing the peculiar nature of chemistry. In my case the in- centive to the pursuit of science was primarily that intense curiosity 216 ANA^^tJAL RKI'ORT SMITHSOJ^IAN IKSTITUTION, 1016. m ' concerning the nature of things Avhich echoes down the ages from the time of the ancient philosophei’S. To tlie feeling of curiosity, as time went on, was added the perception that only through a knowl- edge of the fuiidainencal laws of chemistry can men use the re- sources of the world to the best advantage. Any further gain in this knowleilge must, sooner or later, directly or indirectly, give mankind more power. Even an abstract clieniical generalization, must ultimately be of ])riceless seiwice to humanity, beiaiuse of the extraordinarily intimate relation between theory and ]n-actice. The field is w ide and it is traversed l>y many paths. Among these one must be chosen and persistently follownnl if ])rogress is to be made; and in my (‘ase that one was the study of the fundamental attributes or properties of the chemical elements and the relation of these projierties to one another. The work w as undertaken w ith the hope of helping a little to lay a solid foundation foi- our under- standing of the human environment. What, nowy are the fundamenlal attributes (d the ('hanents ? Eii*st and foremost among these stands v/vvV/A;^— t lu* manifestation of the all-pervading and mysterious force of gravitation possi'ssed by all forms of matter. Hand in hand with this attribute of weigdit goes the equally inscrutable property of inertia—that tendency wdiicli causes a bod}^ once in motion to keep on moving forevcT in the same straight line, if not acted upon by some new force. Tthe idea of inertia, conceiv^ed by (lalileo and amplified by Newton, wnis one of the starting points of both modern philosophy and modern ])hysi(‘s. So far as wx^ know weight and inertia run })arallel to each other. Of any two adjacent bodies, that having greater weight has also greater inertia. Hence they may be determined at one and the same time, and this Siamese-twdnlike conjunction of |)roj)erties establishes itself at once as perhaps the most fundamental of all the attributes of matter. Next porba])s comes volume, the attril)ute which enables matter to occupy space, w ith the coi*ollaries dealing with the changes of volume caused by clianges of temperature and pressure. Other fundamental properties are the tendency to cohere (which has to do with the freezing and boiling points of the liquids) and the mutual tendency of the elements to combine, almost infinite in its diversity, which may be measured by the energy changes manifest- ing themselves during the reaction of one substance with another. These are only a few^ of the important properties of the elements, but they present an endless prospect of further investigation, in spite of all that has been done during the past hundred years. For as yet we know only the surface of these things, and comprehend but little as to the underlying connections between them and the reasons for their several magnitudes. Why, for example, should oxygen be a gas, having an atomic weight just four times as great as that of CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIOKS—RICHAEDS. 217 helium, and why should it have an intense affinity for sodium and no affinity whatever for argon or fluorine? No man can answer these questions; he can discover the facts, but can not yet account for them. Tlie reasons are as obscure and elusive as the mechanism of gravitation. But we shall not really understand the material basis upon which our life is built until we have found answers to questions of this sort. In order to correlate the properties of the elements, and to attain any comprehension of their significance, one must first exactly ascer- tain the facts. Therefore, my endeavor has been to institute sys- tematic series of experiments to fill the gaps in our knowledge of the actual plienoinena. In much of this work I have had the invaluable aid of efficient collaborators, for which I am grateful. The atomic weights were the first of the fundamental properties of the elements to receive attention in carrying out this plan. These, as eveiwone who has studied elementary chemistry knows, represent the relative weights in which substances combine with one another. They are called atomic weights rather than merely combining pro- portions, because they can be explained satisfactorily only by the assumption of definite particles which remain indivisible during chemical change. Even if some of these particles or so-called '•'atoms” suffer disintegration in the mysterious processes of radio- active transformation, the atomic theory remains tlie best interpre- tation of the weight-relations of all ordinary chemical reaction. In- deed, it is entrenched to-day ns never before in man’s history. The determination of atomic weights is primarily a question of analytical chemistry—a question of weighing the amount of one substance combined with another in a definite compound—but its successful prosecution involves a much wider field. First, the sub- stances must be prepared and weighed in the pure state, and, next, they must be subjected to suitable reactions and again weighed with proof that in the process nothing has been lost and nothing acci- dentally garnered into the material to be placed on the scale pan. The.se, rexjuirements involve many of the principles of the new ]:)hysical chemisti-y, so that the accurate determination of atomic weights really belongs as much in that field as in the field of ana- lytical chemistry. At Harvard during the last thirty years the values of the atomic weights of thii-ty of the most frequently occurring among the eighty or more chemical elements have been redetei’inined. From data secured here and elsewhere is compiled an international table of atomic weights, revised from year to year by an authoritative com- mittee composed of representatives of various nations. The values thus recorded are in daily use in every chemical laboratory through- out the woild, serving as the basis for the computation of count- 218 ANNUAL REUOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1D16. less analyses performed by the analytical chemist, whether for tech- nical or for scientific purposes. This practical utility of atomic weights, although not fcn^gotten, was not tlie prime incentive in the work under discussion. The real inspiration leading to the protracted labor of revising these fundamental quantities was the hope of finding some clue as to the reasons for their several magnitudes and for the manifest but incomprehensible relationships of tlie elements to one another. The unsolved cosmic riddle of the meaning of the atomic weights may have far-reaching significance in another direction, because the atomic weights may be supposed to hold one of the keys to the dis- covery of the mechanism of gravitation. The mutual attraction of the earth and sun, for example, must be due to the countless myriads of atoms which compose them, ea(*h atom poss(^ssing, because of its own appointed I'elative atomic weight, a definite if infinitesimal gravi- tational force attracting other atoms. If we could discovcu’ the rea- sons for the individual atomic weights we should probably gain a far better understanding of the all-embracing force built up of the infinitesimal effects repi-esented by their individual magnitudes. Among the striking facts to be (‘onsidered is the constancy of gravity (and therefoi’e of the sum total of the weights of all the atoms concerned) as shown in many ways. Moreover, not only is the sum total of the weights of the atoms remarkal)ly constant, but also in many cases the values for the individual elements are found to be numbers of amazing constancy. Silver from all parts of the world and from many different ores yields always the same value; copper from Europe has the same atomic weight as the native metal mined under the bottom of Lake Superior; and yet more wonderful, the iron which falls from the sky in meteorites having their birth far beyond the terrestrial orbit has precisely the same atomic weight as that smelted in Norway. Many atomic weights therefore must be supposed to be constant, whatever the source of the elements. Although thus w^e laiow^ only one kind of copper and iron and silver, evidence has recently been discovered which points toward the existence of at least two kinds of metallic lead. Every sample of ordinary lead always has exactly the same atomic weight as every other sample; but lead from radioactive minerals—lead which seems to have come from the decomposition of radium—has neither the same atomic weight nor the same density as ordinary lead, although in many properties, including their spectra, they seem to be iden- tical. This recent conclusion, reached only two years ago at Har- vard, has been confirmed in other laboratories, and it now seems to be beyond question. Whatever may be the ultimate interpretation of the anomaly, the solution of this cosmic conundrum must surely give us a new idea of the essential nature of matter. Indeed, the CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHAEDS. 219 fascinating subject of radioactivity bids fair to give us in many ways an entirely new insight into the innermost structure of the atom. During the progress of the study of the combining proportions of the elements, it became more and more evident to me that the atomic weights should be considered not only in relation to one another but also in relation to many other essential distinguishing properties of the elements. This wider problem involved a great extension of the experimental field. Among other attributes of the various forms of mattei', compressi- bilities, surface tensions, densities, dielectric constants, heats of re- action, and elect^*omoti^e forces have begun to receive attention, and already many new data liave been accumulated. The explanation of the nature of these researches would take us fai’ beyond the scope of this present address, l)ut their object deserves attention. This object is the correlation of the various properties into a consistent whole, in the hope of ti'acing the unknown physical influences which determine the nature of the elements. The rigorous science of thermodynamics enables us to predict in logical and precise fashion some of the relations between physical properties. My hope is not only to aid in providing accurate experi- mental basis for calculations of this kind, but also to achieve the cori’clation of different properties, apparently independent of one another from a thermodynamic point of view, thus, perhaps, enabling one by inductive reasoning to penetrate further into the causes whicli lie back of all the attributes of matter. In attempting to follow this inductive path comparisons of the properties of the elements have been made in two different ways. On the one hand, a given property of one clement has been com- pared with the same property of another. For example, the ques- tion, Which of the two elements, cobalt or nickel, has the heavier utomr’ was answered by parallel determinations, using the same methods, conducted side by side in the laboratory. Cobalt was found to possess the higher atomic weight. On the other hand, the attempt has been made to discover a rela- tion between the different, apparently quite distinct, properties of a single element. For example, one may ask: “ Have the low melting and boiling points of phosphorus any connection with its small density and its large compressibility?” Here one compares various properties of the same element, and one seeks to discover if all are based upon some common, ultimate characteristic of phosphorus, of which the properties are mei*ely symptoms. The inductive methods used in comparisons of this sort can not be explained here. They are partly statistical, partly mathematical, 220 ANNUAL KEPPKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. and partly graphical. From the nature of the problem, which in- volves many unknown variables, perfect mathematical exactness is not to be expected. Nevertheless, little by little, one may hope to trace the conflicting tendencies and ascribe them to a few common causes. With the help of these methods the tentative conclusion has been reached that the space occupied by the atom and molecule in solids and liquids is highly significant. The actual atomic bulk or volume is diminished but slightly by moderate mechanical pressures and by cooling even to the absolute zero; but it is very greatly a fleeted, apparently, by the mutual attractions of the atoms, called cohesion and chemical affinity. Usually the less volatile a substance (that is to say, the more firmly it is held together by cohesion) the greater is its density and the less is its compix^ssibility, other things being equal. Greater cohesion is associated with greater compactness. Likewise, the existence of powerful chemical allinitv between ele- ments forming a compound is usually associated with great decrease in volume during the act of combination, and conseipient increase in the density of the product in relation to the average density of the constituents. Thus, we can hardly escape the inference that both cohesion and affinity, by pulling the atoms together with enormous pressure, actually exert a compi^essing eflect upon the atoms, or at least upon the space which they demand for their occupation. The result of each of these compressing agencies is found to be greater the greater the compressibility of the substances concerned— a new evidence of the i-easonableness of the inferen(‘e. Not always are these efliects easily traced, because the situation is often complicated, and the several elTects are siqierposed. Nevertheless, enough evi- dence has been obtained to leave but little doubt, at least in my mind, as to the manner of working of the essential agencies concerned. But we need not dwell upon this tentative hypothesis. Many more data and much more thought are necessary to establish it in an impregnable position, although no important inconsistency has thus far Ixicn i)ointed out in it. At pi-esent it may be looked upon as valuable because it, like other hypotheses of this type, has stimu- lated thought and experiment concerning the fundamental facts with which it deals. As the years go on, the recent contributions to the study of atomic weights and volumes and other properties will be sifted and tested; and such contributions as may stand the test of time will take their places among the multifarious array of accepted chemical facts, laws, and interpretations accumulated by many workers all over the world. CHEMICAL INVE^TICtATIONS—RICHARDS. 221 But we may well ask: What use in the years to come will man- kind make of this knowledge gained step by step through the eager study of many investigatoi‘s? Chemistry has, indeed, a many-sided destiny. A. mere catalogue of the countless applications of the science, whicli underlies many other sciences and arts, would demand time far exceeding the limits of this brief discours(‘.. Some of the more obvious uses of chemistry have become daily topics in the public press. America is gradually awakening to the consciousness that, because every material object is com])osed of chemical elements and pcvssesses its ])roperties by virtue of the natui’e of these elements, chemistry enters more or less into everything. We })erceivc that chemical maruifactui’cs must be fostered, and also that chemical knowledge must be applied in many other industries not primarily of a chemical nature. Although chemistry j)lays so prominent and ghastly a role in war, her greatest and most significant contributions are toward the arts of peace. Even explosives may be highly beneficent; they may open tunnels and destroy reefs, furthering friendly communication between men; dig ditches for irrigation; helj) the farmer in his planting; and in many other ways advance the constructive activities of mankind. Again, poisonous gases, confined and liarnessed within safe limits, may render valuahh^ aid to humanity in preparing precious sub- stances otherwise unattainable. Such obvious and well-recognized offices of chemistry need no further presentation to this intelligent company. Neither is it necessary for me to call your attention to the services which science may render to agriculture through the chemical study and enrich- ment of the soil in ]me])aring it for the development of those subtle chemical mechanisms called ]dants, upon which Ave depend for our very existence. There is a further beneficent ])ossibility worthy of more than pass- ing mention—namely, that which arises from the relation of modern chemistry to hygiene and medicine. Already your attention has been called to the indisputable fact that the human body is, physiologi- cally considered, a chemi(*al machine. For this reason, future knowl- edge of chemical structure and of organic reaction may perhaps revolutionize medicine as completely as it was revolutionized by the devoted laboi-s of Pasteur—not by doing away with his price- less acquisitions of knowledge, but rather by amplifying them. Chemistry inay show how germs of disease do their deadly work through the production of subtle organic poisons, and how these poisons may be combated by antitoxins; for both |)oisons and anti- toxins are complex chemical substances of a natui*e not beyond the possible reach of chemical methods already known. In that far-off 222 ANNUAL MFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. but not inconceivable day when the human body may be understood from a chemical standpoint we shall no longer be unable to solve the inscrutable problems which to-day puzzle eA^en the most learned hygienist and physician. Is not a part, at least, of the tragedy of disease a relic of barbarism? A race which could have put as much energy and ingenuity into the study of physiological chemistry as mankind has put into aggressive Avarfare might have long ago banished many diseases by discoA^ering the chemical abnormalities Avhich cause them. May not the study of subtler questions, such as the nature of heredity, also lead us finally into the field of chemistry in our search for the ultimate answer? Even psychology may some time need chemical assistance, since the process of thinking and the transmis- sion of nervous impulse are both inextricably associated Avitli chemi- cal changes in nervous tissue; and CA^eii memory may be due to some subtle chemical effect. In the realm of thought there can be no question of the blessed service already performed by science in dis- pelling grim superstitions which haunted older generations with deadly fear. In brief, more power is given mankind througli the discoveries of chemistry. This poAver has many beneficent possibilities, but it may be used for ill as Avell as for good. Science has recently been blamed by superficial critics, but she is not at fault if her great potentialities are distorted to serwe malignant ends. Is not this calamity due rather to the fact that the spiritual enlightenment of humanity has not kept pace Avith the progress of science? The study of nature can lead an upright and humane civilization ever higher and higher to greater health and comfort and a sounder philosophy, but that same study can teach the ruthless and selfish hoAV to destroy more efficiently than to create. The false attitude toAvard Avar, fostered by tradition and by the glamor of ancient strife, is doubtless one of the influences which have held back mankind from a wider applica- tion of the Golden Rule. There is, in truth, no conflict between the ideals of science and other high ideals of human life. With deep insight, a poetic thinker on life’s problems, in the opening lines of a sonnet, has said: Fear not to go where fearless Science leads, Who holds the keys of God. What reigning light Thine eyes discern in that surrounding night Whence we have come, , . . Thy soul will never find that Wrong is Right Our limited minds are confined in a limited world, with immeasur- able space on all sides of us. Our brief days are as nothing com- pared with the inconceivable aeons of the past and the prospect of illimitable ages to come. Both infinity and eternity are beyond our CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS. 223 mental grasp. We know that we can not hope to understand all the wonders of the universe; but, nevertheless, we may be full of hope for the future. Step by step we gain in knowledge, and with each step we acquire better opportunity for improving the lot of man- kind and for illuminating the dark places in our philosophy of nature. Although we shall none of us live to see the full develop- ment of the help which science may render to the world, we rejoice in the belief that chemistry has boundless service still in reserve for the good of the human race. THE EAETII: ITS FIGURE, DIMENSIONS, AND THE CONSTITUTION OF ITS INTERIOR.^ By T. 0. OjiAAiHEiiTjN, Hakky Fieij)ing IIkid, John K. JIayfoiiu, and Fuank ScniJOHINGElt. I. THE INTEHTOll OF THE EARTH FROM THE VIEWIH)INT OF GEOLOGY. ]5y T. ( /. C' II a AI BERLIN. For some time i)ast tliere lias been a marked drift of geologic opinion from the older tenet of a molten earth toward the conviction that the earth is essentially solid. This trend has been quite as much due to the contributions of kindred sciences as to the growth of geologic evidence, but geology has made its important and concurrent contributions to it. The great granitic embossments that constitute the most dis- tinctive feature of tjie oldest known terranes were formerly regarded as solidified portions of a primitive molten earth and tluis seemed to serve as witnesses to the verity of the former liquid state. A few jT.ars ago, however, it was determined—almost simultaneously in several countries wliere critical studies on these formations were in progress—that these granitic masses are intrusive in older formations that had previously been formed at the mrface of the earth. These surface formations have thus come to stand as the most ancient ter- ranes now Imown. These earliest accessible deposits imply the pre- existence of a suitable foundation formed at a still earlier date. Neither the surface sediments nor the intrusives give any clear intimation that formations beneath them are different in origin from themselves. So far, then, as the record runs, it testifies to substantial solidity in the outer part of the globe. The record implies, indeed, that some molten matter was present, but gives no certain measure of the ratio of the molten to the solid part. At po stage covered by the lithographic record, indeed, is there ^Eeprinted, by permission, from Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, September and October-December, 1916. 225 226 AKNTJAL REPOBT SMITnSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. determinate evidence that a molten condition was preponderant even in the interior. The interior conditions of the earliest as well as the later stages are to be reached only by indirect rather than immediate inference. Under the influence of inherited presump- tions, it may seem to many still probable that the interior of the mature earth was once dominated by a molten condition at some remote stage, but the evidence of powerful inthrusting of the igneous element into even the earliest terranes, so often shown in the oldest intrusions, seems to imply that the molten element was ever in the strong gi asp of stresses of the type normal to a rigid globe. This harmonizes with the belief that the liquid matter was then only a minor and passive factor, not a controlling one. If the earth were once wholly molten, the material for all the stratified rocks of later ages must have l)een derived from the primi- tive crust after it was formed and forced into positions of erosion, or else from matter extruded through it. Tliis primitive feeding ground should, it would seem, be a notable feature on the geological map. The absence, according to present knowledge, of any great area of rocks bearing the distinctive characteristics of the supposed con- gealed surface greatly weakens the assumption that the postulated molten state ever obtained, at least in the mature earth. A study of the stress conditions of the interior of the earth seems to call for a similar reversal of the inferences once drawn from the igneous rocks. From the earliest well-recorded ages, tlie exterior of the earth has given evidence of broad topographic reliefs taking the form of great embossments and broad basins. These surface con- figurations must have conditioned the localization of extrusions and the deployment of the effusive material. If the lavas arose from a general and abundant source of supply wdiich was responsive to gen- eral and powerful stresses, vestiges of these conditions should be found in vast volumes and broad deployments of the lava floods. If, on the other hand, the molten material formed but a fraction of the whole mass, and was variously distributed through it, the result should be a multitude of driblets squeezed out here and there in such special situations as the controlling stresses required, or else a multi- tude of limited intrusions forced into weak portions of the earth body where the stresses were less imperative. The latter rather than the former seems to accord with the testimony of the record. Now there is abundant geological evidence that the earth body has been subjected at repeated intervals to strong compressive stresses, by which its outer portion has been folded into mountainous ranges or pushed up into great plateaus, while masses of con- tinental dimensions have been raised, relatively, to notable heights, and the bottoms of basins and deeps have sunk reciprocally to even greater relative depths. The internal stresses which these deforma- THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 227 tions imply should have made themselves felt proportionately on any great mass of liquid in the interior, if it were in existence, and extrusions proportionate to the greatness of the deformations should have accompanied such diastrophism. But, while liquid ex- trusions took place somewhat freely at the times of great dias- trophism, it was not, at least in my judgment, at all commensurate with the deformativc stresses implied by tlie diastrophic results shown in the solid material. Nor was the topographical concentration of the extrusions indica- tive of their origin from a molten interior or from really great residual reservoirs of liquid rock. If such ample sources of liquid had existed, they might naturally have iK'en expected to have given forth, under the great stresses then seeking easement, correspondingly great floods of lava which would have gone far to fill the great basins into which they must chiefly luiva‘. flowed. -Yet no single lava flood seems to have attained more than an extremely small fraction of the mass of the earth, or even of the known solid matter of the immediate region of tlie outflow. Even when the sum total of the most massive series of successive floods in a given region are taken together—though the successive issues stretched over a considerable period—the]^ rarely rise above a most insignificant fraction of earth mass, or even of the regional segment of it with which' they are associated. Instead of really massive flows, implying ample sources of supply and great forces of extrusion, the record shows ratlier a multitude of little ejections or injections of more or less sporadic distribution. The logical implication of these is the preexistence of a multitude of small liquid spots, or liquifiable spots, scattered widely through the stressed earth masses and yielding to stress as local conditions re- quired and where local conditions required. This inference is pointedl}^ supported by the great variations in altitude at which lavas are now given forth and seem to have always been given forth so far as the record goes. The most impressive illustrations of this are found in current volcanic action where the relations in altitude are precisely known. So far as ancient condi- tions can be restored, they appear to fall into the same general class as existing conditions. Current outpourings of lava range from the sea bottom to altitudes of many thousands of feet above sea level, a vertical range of several miles. Extrusions occur at these signifi- cantly diverse altitudes simultaneously or alternately or in almost any time relations, and sometimes in the most marked independence of one another, in spite of the natural sympathy wdiich such events might naturally manifest in a common stressed body. A multitude of facts of detail, some of which are singularly cogent, imply that the lava sources of present volcanoes are disconnected from one an- other in the interior, and are hence independent in action, as a rule, 228 ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, though sometimes they show sympathy without showing evidence of liquid connection. The sources of lava seem to be meager in general, and the eruptive agencies seem to be controlled by narrowly local conditions. There is an absence of evidence that the lavas in the craters or in the necks of volcanoes are parts of great liquid masses below, responsive to the common stresses of a large region. Thus geological eAudence, wlien critically scrutinized, seems to be distinctly adverse to the existence of even large reservoirs of molten matter within the earth ; it points rather to the ])resence of scattered spots, very small relatively, on the verge of liquefaction, which pass by stages into the liquid form and are then forced out by the dif- ferential stresses that abound in the earth laxly, or are embodied in the liquid itself, each such local liquefying center commonly giving forth driblets of lava and gas at intervals, nom^ of which often rise to moi’e than an extremely minute fraction of the earth mass or even of the subterranean mass contiguous to the volcano. A revised view of the nature and location of earth stresses seems also to be required by what is now knoAv of earth conditions. Under the former dominance of tlie tenet of a molten globe it was natural to assign to the stress differences of the earth a distinctly superficial localization and limitation; they were thought to be affections of “the crust” almost solely. IIy<lrostatic pressures were of course recognized as affecting the deep interior, but these were obviously balanced stresses, and Avere ineifectiA^e in deformation. The stresses supposed to give rise to the great reliefs of the eartlfs surface Avere thought to be very superficial. But the stresses imposed by known deformative agencies are not all superficial, nor are their intensities always greatest at the surface. According to Sir George Darwin, the stress differences generated in the eartli by the tidal forces of the moon are from three to eight times as great at the center of the earth as at the surface. So, also, according to the same authority, the stresses engendered by changes in the rotation of the earth are from three to eight times as great at fhe center as at the surface and are graded betAveen center and surface. The tidal stress differences are relatively feeble but are perpetually reneAviMl in pulsatory fashion. Those that arise from rotation belong to the highest order of com- petency. The stress difference that would arise at the center of the earth from a stoppage of the earth’s rotation would, according to Darwin, reach 32 tons per square inch. Changes of the rate of rota- tion are almost inevitable when great diastrophic readjustments take place. Such periods are to be regarded as critical times at which great floods of lava should be poured forth from the interior if liquid material were there in great Amlume ready to respond to the changes of capacity which the deformations of the earth’s sectors and the chaiiges in the spheroidal form would inevitably impose. THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH. 229 Not to detain you with other considerations, the foregoing seem best to comport with an essentially solid state of the earth’s interior, if they do not point rather definitely to such a state. Even if they stood alone, they would seem to make a prevailing solid state the most tenable working hypothesis. But they are far from standing alone; the geological evidences are strongly supported by considerations that spring from several kindred lines of inquiry. The testimony of astronomic evidence is given below by Dr. Schlesinger. The import of seismic studies, the subject of Dr. Reid’s contribution, lends very special support to the view that the interior of the earth is elastico-rigid at least to the extent that distortional waves pass through its interior. It seems certain already that this condition prevails throughout much more than half the volume of the earth; concerning the rest, the deep interior, the seismic evidence is perhaps still to be regarded as indeter- minate. But on the seismic evidence it does not fall to me to dwell. The tidal studies of Hecker, Orloff, and others lend support to the tenet of a rigid earth but they fall somewhat short of con- clusiveness. The brilliant exi>erimental determinations of Michelson and Gale, correlated with the computations of Moulton, have carried the evidence to the point of preliminary demonstration. They need only to bo adequately repeated and verified to become final, so far at least as elastic rigidity can be indicated by the response of the earth body to solar and lunar attractions. The special feature of most critical value in tl)^ demonstrations of Michelson and his col- leagues is the high degree of elasticity shown by the almost instan- taneous response of the earth to the distorting pull of the tide- producing bodies. This cuts at the very base of concepts founded on the supposed properties of a viscous earth. These tidal determi- nations of elasticity are in close accord with the seismic evidences. The two are happily complementary to one another. The one deals with the earth as a whole under a rhytlimical series of in- creasing and diminishing stress differences springing from exter- nal attractions; the other deals in an intensive vibratory way with earth substance by sharp short stresses that call into action its most intimate structural qualities. While it is wise, no doubt, to refrain from resting too much on these early results of relatively new and radical lines of inquiry, until their results shall be more mature, their prospective import is radical and decisive in favor of a solid earth not only, but of an elastico-rigid earth. Assuming that the present import of these inquiries will be amply justified by more mature research, it is pertinent to bring into consideration the corollary they so distinctly imply, viz, that the molten and viscous material in the earth, or at least in its outer half, if not throughout its deep interior, is a negligible factor in general studies, and enters 73839®—SM 1916 16 280 AKKtTAL BEPOET SMITHSOKIAN IKSTIT0TION, 1916. into general terrestrial mechanics only as a subsidiary feature. It seems necessary to limit liquid and viscous lacunag—^if there are lacuna) in any proper sense at all—to such moderate dimensions that they do not seriously kill out distortional waves passing through the outer half of the globe in various directions, for seismic instruments show that these waves retain their integrity with surprising tenacity through long traverses. It seems equally necessary to limit the liquid and viscous factor rather severely if the interior structure is to be susceptible of so prompt a response to twelve-hour stress pulses as is implied by its almost complete elastic fidelity. In the light of thevse determinations, strengthened not a little by their concurrence with the later geological determinations, the work- ing hypotheses of the earth student can scarcely fail to take shape according to the dynamic tenets implied by a rigid earth. The limitation of liquid and viscous matter thus imposed quite radically conditions all tenable views of magmas and of vulcanism, and thus bears upon the origin of igneous matter. No small part of petrologic effort in past decades has been spent on the differentia- tion of magmas. To a notable degree these efforts have proceeded on the assumption, conscious or unconscious, that differentiation took its departure from an original homogeneous magma such as might arise from residual portions of a molten earth. Indefinite lapses of time, and such conditions of quiescence as are naturally assignable to residual reservoirs of lava, have been freely assumed as working conditions without much question as to their reality. Under the hypothesis of a molten earth passing slowly into a partially solid earth and retaining residual lacuna) of molten matter as an incident of the change, these assumptions are quite natural. On the other hand, under the hypothesis of a pervasively rigid earth, affected by stress conditions that are constantly varying in intensity and in dis- tribution—and subject to more radical changes at times of periodic readjustment—the existence of such residual magmas becomes at least questionable, perhaps improbable. Still more questionable is the assumption that the multitude of little liquid s})ots supposed to arise within the elastico-rigid mass always have conformed to one type or to one set of types. The inherent probabilities of the case seem to point strongly to a wide variation in nature of these local bodies due to selective solution or to differential fusion. The liquefying action that brings magmas into being under this view is presumably con- ^ trolled by the same chemical and physical principles as the solidifying 'phases of the same cycle. The logical presumption is that at all ^ages of a magma’s career from its inception through its growth, climax, and decline to its final solidification, selective action will be ih progress more or less and that no stage will be entitled to be regarded as original or parental in a special sense, such a sense, for THE INTEBIOR OF THE EARTH. 231 example, as might be appropriate if the lava were the residue of an inherited original state and were merely differentiated by fractional crystallization as it passed toward solidification. While these contrasted views of the history of magmas are nat- urally connected with views of the genesis of the earth, they are not limited to this connection. They are inherent in the very relations of solid and liquid matter; they have a more or less important place irrespective of the earth’s genesis; they would raise even keener ques- tions than they do if the earth were supi)osed never to have had a genesis, but to have always existed. An element of no small importance to a revised concept of the interior of the earth has arisen from geodetic studies on the dis- tribution of densities within the earth. As the geodetic point of view is to be presented by its foremost exponent, Di*. Ilayford, it is per- missible for me merely to refer to certain geologic bearings. On the assumption that the eaifli was once in a molten state, the inference is unavoidable that a perfect state of isostatic equilibrium wuis originally assumed by the surface, and that its primitive con- figuration was strictly spheroidal. The material must have been ar- ranged in concentric layers according to specific gravity, and each layer should have had the same density at e\ery point. All such reliefs of the earUi’s surface as have since arisen as well as all such differencCvS of si)e<‘ific gravity as now exist in the same horizon must have been superinduced upon this originally perfect isostatic state. With good reason therefore these inequalities have heretofore been supposed to be relativTly shallow. It is difficult to account for them, then, even hy])othetically. On the hypotl)esis that the earth grew up by heterogeneous accretions, it is an equally natural inference that differences of specific gravity extend to great depths. In an en- deavor to find out the bearings of geodetic data on the distribution of densities, Dr. Ilayford tested four assumptions, all of which he found measurably compatible with liis geodetic data. From these he derived the respective compensation dejdhs of 37, 7G. 109, and 179 miles, these being the horizons to which differences of density ex- tended and below whicli they vanished or became negligible. Now all these depths are notalffy greater than had been assigned as prob- able depths of differentiation in the traditional molten earth. On the other hand, the highest figure. 179 miles, was derived from a curve drawn specifically to represent the probable distribution of densities in an earth of platietesimal growth. The distribution represented by this highest figure fits the geodetic data quite as well as either of the other assumptions of distribution, though drawn on a strictly natu- ralistic basis. If it could be said that geodetic data demonstrate that the actual differentiation of specific gravities extends to depths of 232 ANNtTAL BEFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. the order named, such considerable depths would distinctly favor an accretionary origin as against a molten origin. But the determina- tion is inconclusive. While it is possible, within the broad terms of the planetesimal hypothesis, to suppose that the rate of accretion was so fast as to give rise to a molten planet, such a result seems to me extremely improbable under the actual conditions of the case. The growing planet should have become capable of holding a considerable atmos- phere by the time it attained one-tenth of its present mass, i. e., about the mass of Mars. After this the protective cushion of the atmos- phere should have greatly checked the plunge of the planetesimals and thus have largely dissipated them into dust in the upper atmos- phere where the inevitable heat of impact would be promptly radiated awaj^ The dust presumably floated long and came gently to earth, so that, while the total heat generated by impact was large, the mean temperature of the earth body was probably never above the local solution or fusion point of the more refractory material during the later stages of growfh, and perhaps not at any stage of growth. Fol- lowing out as ivell as may be the probable rates and conditions of growth, the most tenable concept of the state of the earth’s interior under the planetesimal hypothesis is as follows: The condition of the nuclear portion supposed be formed from one of the knots of the parent si)iral nebula and constituting a minor fraction of the mass of the earth, say 30 or 40 per cent, is left in- determinate by present lack of knowledge of the physical state of the knots of s]nral nebulae. If these ai-e gaseous—which is rendered doubtful by tlieir lack of strict sphericity—the nucleus was doubt- less originally molten. If the constituents of the knot were held in orbital relations, their aggregation might have been slow enough to permit a solid state of even this portion. The matter added to the nucleus as planetesimal dust, or as planetesimals reduced in mass and speed by the atmosphere, probably retained its solid con- dition, with negligible exceptions, throughout the proceas of ac- cretion, except as selected portions passed into the liquid state and became subject to extrusive action. An intimate heterogeneity nat- urally prevailed throughout the whole mass so aggregated. A se- lective process, however, probably brought in the heavier matter faster and earlier than the lighter matter, for the magnetism of the earth should have aided gravity in gathering in the magnetic metals, while the inelastic planetesimals, predominantly the heavy basic Ones, when in collision destroyed the opposing components of their ,mot^ and hence yielded to the earth’s gravity sooner than the inore elastic ones. Relatively high specific gravity in the material of the deep interior is thus thought to have arisen at the outset and to hay0 been increased by the selective vulcanism that came into action THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH. 283 as growth proceeded. Special emphasis is laid on the selective nature of vulcanism under this hypothesis. The intimate mixture of planetesimals and planetesimal dust gave rise to a multitude of minute contacts between particles of different chemical and physical properties, and hence there arose wide differences in the solution points. As the tem])erature in the growing planet rose, the more soluble portions passed into the liquid state by stages long Ixjforc the remaining larger portion reached the temperature of solution. In a stressed glote certain of whose stresses are more intense to- ward the center than toward the surface, the solutions were forced to work in the direction of least resistanct^—for them generally out- ward—carrying out heat of liquefaction and leaving behind the less soluble larger portion whose temperatures were inadoijuate for fur- ther liquefaction until there was a renewed accession of heat. The mechanism thus automatically tended to remove the most soluble con- stituents by progressive stages, wdiile it tended to preserve the solid condition of the remaining mass. The hy])othesis thus supplies a working mechanism whose results fall into full accord with the states of the interior implied by tidal investigations and by seismic data, while the distribution of specific gravities naturally assignable under it accords w^ell with the best geodetic determination thus far made. The adaptation of such an earth to isostatic adjustment can scarcely be more than hinted at here. The grow’th of the earth should have given it a concentric structure, while its highly distribu- tive vulcanism, together with some of its deformative processes, should have given a vertical or radial structure, the two conjoining to give a natural tendency to prismatic or pyramidal divisions con- verging tow'ard the center. The most powerful of all the deforma- tive agencies—rotation—required for the adaptation of the earth to its changes of rate such divisions of the earth bo(H as would re- spond most readily to depression in the polar and bulging in the equatorial tracts reciprocally or their opposites. As urged else- where, this accommodation seems best met by three pyramidal sec- tors in each hemisphere, with apices at the center and bases at the surface, the sectors in opposite hemispheres arranged alternately with one another. Very simple motions wdlhin these sectors would satisfy the larger demands of rotational distortion, while the subsectors into which these major sectors would naturally divide, as stresses required, would easily accommodate the nicer phases of adjustment. This primitive segmentation to meet rotational de- mands—which were most urgent during the stages of infall—fur- nished a mechanism suitable for the easement also of a portion of the deformational stresses that arose from other sources, among them gravitative stresses arising from loading and unloading by erosion 284 ANNUAL KEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19W. and sedimentation. A gravitational adjustment by the wedging up and down and laterally of such sectors is thus offered tentatively as a working competitor to theories of adjustment by fluidal or quasi fluidal undertow. The necessary brevity of this statement leaves this new hypothesis little more than a crude suggestion that gravi- tative adjustment (=isostasy) may perhaps take place as fully as the case requires in a highly rigid elastic earth, affected by vertical schistosity and an adaptability in wedging action, without resort to flowage or even quasi flow age. II. CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH, AS INDICATED BY SEISMOT.OGICAU INVESTIGATIONS. By Hakry Fikt,i)in(j Reid. In 1888 Milne predicted that earthquake disturbances would be registered by seismographs at great distances from their origin, a prediction first verified when the earthquake of April 18, 1889, whose origin lay off' the coast of Japan, affected tlie horizontal pendulum which von Eebeur-Paschwitz had set up at Potsdam to study the attraction of the moon. Milne was so convinced of the correctness of his idea and of the importance of the results to be obtained that in 1893 he established an observatory on the Isle of Wight to record earthquakes from distant regions; and he also suc- ceeded in having inslimments of similar model set u]) at observatories very widely scattered in various parts of the world. Wertheiin in 1851 showed that a disturbance in the interior of an elastic solid would break up into two groups of waves, longitu- dinal and transversal, which would be propagated at different rates, and as their velocities are so great that they can not be separated from each other in the laboratory he suggested with rare insight that their separation might first be noticed in connection with the propagation of earthquake disturbances.^ A few years later Lord Rayleigh showed that a third kind of wave could be propagated along the surface of the earth.^ Seismologists naturally looked for indications of these three groups of weaves in their seismograms, but it was not until 1900 that Oldham succeeded in showing definitely that the seismograms of a number of Milne instriiinents gave clear evidence of the existenw. of three groups of waves. Oldham also published a diagram, which was an extension of Seebach’s so-called hodograph,” .showing the relation between the time of transmission of each group and the distance from the earthquake origin, measured ; la propagation du movement dans les corps solldes et llquldes,” Ann. de Ghlmie 0t tSM, vol. 21, p. U). » Waves Propagated Along the Plane Surface of an Elastic Solid,” Proc. I^ondon Boo,, 1855, vols. 47, 50. THE IKTEEIOB OF THE EAETH* 235 along the surface of the earth. Milne soon improved these curves by adding observations of a large number of recorded shocks.^ The curves of the first and second “ preliminary tremors,” as Milne called the first two groups of waves, are curved, indicating that the velocity of transmission increases with the distance from the origin; a conclu- sion which had already been drawn from earlier, but less accurate, observations. Milne attempted to explain this by assuming that the path of the seismic disturbance lay along the chord and not along the earth’s surface; this practically shortens the distance to the observing stations, and if tlie curves are plotted, with distances measured along the chord, tlie curvature is considerably diminished; but later and more accurate observations show that even under this assump- tion the velocity still increases with the distance. The conclusion is unavoidable that as the path of the disturbance sinks deeper into the eaith the velocity increases. The interior of the earth then is not a homogeneous but a refractive medium, and the patli of the dis- turbance can not be straight but must be curved with the concavity turned upward. This condition had been described by A. Schmidt as early as 1888 .^ Seismologists now believe that the tliree groups discovered by Oldham are respectively the longitudinal, the trans- verse, and the surface waves. The transmission curve of the latter is a straight line indicating that the waves are transmitted with uniform velocity along the surface of the earth. They have affected seismographs after having passed completely around the earth. It can not be said that the evidence, that the first two groups are re- spectively longitudinal and transverse, is complete; but it is suffi- cient, ill connection with theory, to make seismologists fairly con- fident that the conclusion is correct; and the passage of transverse waves through the earth to gi*eat depths is proof that, to those depths, the earth is solid; for transverse waves can not exsit in a liquid. Further, since the velocity of transmission depends on the ratio of the elasticity to the density of the medium, and since both the longitudinal and transverse waves increase in velocity with the depth below the surface, both the elasticity of volume and the elas- ticity of figure of the earth, not only increase, but increase more rapidly than the density as we penetrate below the surface. The earth therefore is not only rigid, but its rigidity increases toward its center; though seismological evidence does not yet prove that this characteristic extends to the very center itself. The next step was to determine the path of the waves in the earth and their velocity at different depths; the data for these determi- nations were the times of arrival of the earthquake waves at various * Rep, of Com. on Selsmol. Invefstlg., B, A. A. S., 1902, p. 7. ® “ Wellenbewegung und Erdbeben/’ jahreshefte filr Vatcrlands NaturJeunde in Wiiri-^ temherg, 1888, p. 248. 236 AKKtAL' RSSPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916* distances from the origin ; these times are collected in the transmis- sion curvea At first sight this seems an insoluble problem ; but, thanks to a remarkable mathematical theorem of Abel, it is not. It is clear that the time of arrival of an earthquake disturbance at a distant station will depend on the path followed and the velocity in different parts of the path, and if we make the reasonable assump- tion, which is borne out by observation, that the velocity is every- where the same at the same depth, then it is evident, if the velocity increases continuously with the depth, that the transmission curves will be continuous without breaks, and their curvatures will no- where make a sudden change. The matliematical solution of the problem has been obtained by Wiechert, Bateman, and others; and concrete results have been obtained by Wiechert and his assistants, so that we now know the paths of the wuives and their velocities with a fair degree of accuracy, at least to a considerable distance below the surface. But the questions arise, Do the velocities increase con- tinuously with tlie deptli; and if so, How? questions which could be answered by the study of perfect transmission curves; but even imperfect curves yield some information; which, however, may be so faulty that it must be received with great caution. Milne, who has done such excellent pioneer work in seismology, was the first to pro- pose and attempt to answer these questions.’ He thought the trans- mission curve could be satisfied by supposing the earth to consist of a solid core having a radius of nineteen twentieths of the earth’s radius, and surrounded by a thin shell. The core was of uniform density and elasticity, so that the velocity of propagation in it was uniform, and the paths of the rays would be stiaight lines. The velocity in the shell was much less than in the core. These condi- tions satisfied fairly well the very imperfect transmission curve of 1902, but they may be dismissed without furthei* consideration, for such an earth could not satisfy the astronomic requirements, which exact, at the same time, the proper mean density and moment of inertia. Benndorff in 1906 thought he found evidence of a central core of about four-fifths the earth’s radius, surrounded by two shells, the outer one having the same thickness as Milne’s.^ In the same year Oldham deduced from the transmission curves a central core of not more than four-tenths the earth’s radius in which the velocity was distinctly less than in the surrounding shell.® Neither of these arrangements have been shown to conform to the astronomic require- ixients* Oldham’s conclusions are based on what he considers a * Rep. of the Com. on Selsmol. Investigation, B. A. A. S., 1903, p. 7. . » Ueber die Art der Fortpflanzungsgeschwlndighelt der Krdbebenwellen in Erdlnnern," Mitt. d. Er^hehen Com, k. Akad, Wise, in Wien, 1905, Nos. 29 and 31. •Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, Quart, Jour. Geol. 8oc.. 1906, vol. 62, 1^ 456. THE IKTEEIOB OF THE EARTH. 237 distinct break in the transmission curve of the transverse waves at distances between 120"^ and 150"^ from the origin; but when we re- member that fully 95 per cent of the energy of an earthquake shock comes to the surface within the hemisphere having the origin as its pole, we see that the data for great distances must l>e too imperfect to yield very reliable deductions. Many years ago Itoche showed that it was quite possible to deter- mine a distribution of density in the earth which would be discon- tinuous at several levels, but which would still be astronomically satisfactory. Weichert, in 1897,‘ showed that such a system might consist of a central core of radius about 4,000 km. or three-fourths of the earth’s radius, consisting of iron with a density of about 8.3, surrounded by a stony shell about 1,500 km. thick and with density varying from 3 to 3.4. It was natural that he should examine the transmiasion curves to see if they supported his ideas; and at The Hague meeting of the International Seismological Association in 1907 he announced that they did. At the Manchester meeting of the same assoiuation in 1911 he announced the existence of two shells around the central core. In 1914 Gutenberg (one! of Wiechert’s assistants) amiounced the existence of three shells.^ fin addition to ordinary times of transmission, Gutenberg also used the times of waves reflected at the earth’s surface and the variations in the amplitude; it is evident that a wave which crosses the boundary of the core will experience reflection and refraction; and whichever part is later observed at the surface of the earth will have a distinctly smaller amplitude than the Avave which just missed penetrating into the core. The following table shows the positions of the boun- daries of the shells and of the core, and the velocities of the longi- tudinal waves P and of the transverse waves S; it will be noticed that it is only at the boundary of the central core that any marked sudden change in velocity occurs. Depth, kilome- ters. Velocity, kilometer- seconds. P. S. 0 7.17 4.01 1,200 11.80 6.59 1,700 12.22 6.86 2,460 (13.29 113. 15 7.32 7.20 2,900 /13, 15 t 8.50 7.20 4.72 6,370 11.10 6.15 » Ueber die Massonverthellung im Innern der Erde,” T^achr. k. QeselU. WUft. OiJttinaen, 1807 ; Math,-phys. Kl., p. 221. »Ueber Erdbebenwellen,” VIIA. Nach, k, Oeaelh. Wisa, Odttingen; MatK-phya, KL, 1914, p. 1 ; references to the earlier numbers of the series are given in this paper. 288 ANTOAL BSPOM SMITHSOKIAK IKSTITUTIOK, im The remark regarding Oldham’s results applies also here, namely that it is questionable whether the observations at distances greater than 100® or 120® are sufficiently accurate to justify such definite conclusions. Gutenberg had the advantage, however, of more accu- rate observations than Oldham, and also of measures of amplitudes. There is no a priori reason why the earth might not be made up of a number of shells, but there should be satisfactory evidence for any proposed system; and it must be shown to satisfy the astronomic requirements; or, at least, not to contradict them. Gutenberg’s system dot's not correspond with AViechert’s system of 1897. In the latter a marked change in physical properties occurs at a depth of 1,500 km. ; in the former, at a depth of 2,900 km.; and in crossing into the core, the ratio of the elasticity to the density, according to Gutenberg,. rapidly loses six-tenths of its value. This change might be. the result of a great increase in density or a great decrease in elasticity; it may be questioned whether the former is compatible wdth the astronomic re(iiiirements, and whether the latter is com- patible wuth the high rigidity Avhich we know the earth, as a whole, has. So far no answ^er has been given to these (questions. In 1879 George and Horace Darwin attempted to determine the rigidity of the earth by measuring the deviation of the vertical under the attraction of the mexm. If the earth yielded like a fluid, its surface w^ould always remain at right angles to the vertical, and a pendulum would remain relatively stationary for all positions of the moon; if the earth w’ere absolutely rigid, the moon’s attraction would deflect the pendiilmn an extremely small amount, but an amount capable of being measured. The Darwins did not obtain definite results because the disturbances of their pendulum w^ere greater than the deflections they attempted to determine. A little later von Eebeur-Paschwitz attacked the same problem with better success, using a horizontal pendulum. Hecker, in Potsdam, and Orloff, in Dorpat, have repeated von Eebeur-Paschwutz’s experiment; and both found values for the average rigidity of the earth comparable wdtli that of steel. But, what was most remarkable, and what is still unexplained, the rigidity was apparently greater in an east-west than in a north-south direc- tion. Orloff, experimenting at a gi’eater distance from the ocean, found a smaller difference than Ilecker did, and it has been sug- gested that the tides of the ocean are the cause of the difference. The International Seismological Association, at its Manchester inb^tin in 1911, made plans to repeat the experiments in Paris, in central Canada, in the middle of Southern Africa, and in the middle of Russia; but no reports have yet come from these stations. In the autumn of 1913 Michelson attacked the same problem by a new method, which seems capable of yielding more accurate THE INTEBIOB OP THE EABTH. 239 results than the horizontal pendulum* He measured the deflection of the vertical under the influence of the moon by what was prac- tically a water level 500 feet long, sunk 6 feet in the earth.^ Michel- son’s results for the east-west rigidity do not differ greatly from those of Orloff ; but his north-south rigidity is somewhat less than Oi'loff’s. Michelson’s experiments also show that the viscosity of the earth must be as great as that of steel. These experiments are of great interest; they should be repeated at various places, and especially at places symmetrically situated with respect to the great oceans, and on midoceanic islands, in order to determine how far they are affected by the oceanic tides. We can say in conclusion that the transmission of transverse earthquake waves shows that the earth is solid, at least to a great depth below the surface; and that experiments on the deflection of the vertical show that it is quite as rigid and as viscous as steel. There are still difficulties in the interpretation of the observations, but their elucidation can not alter the general character of the conclusions. III. THE EARTH FROM THE OICOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT. By John F. Hayfoud. This is a broad topic on which much intensive thinking has been done by many men. It is impossible to treat it adequately or com- prehensively in the short time available. In this address an attempt will be made to so concentrate atten- tion on a certain few points as to tend to clarify existing ideas and to correlate tliem. An attempt will also be made to help in locating the lines of least resistance to future progress in the study of the earth. The size of the earth, as well as its .shape, is now knowm with such a high degree of accuracy that the errors are negligible in compari- son with the errors in other parts of our knowledge of the earth. The probable error of the equatorial radius is less than 1/300000 pait, and of the polar semidiameter is about the same. The three physical constants of the earth, and of its different parts, on which you are now asked to concentrate your attention are the density, the modulus of elasticity, and the strength. It is important to know as much as possible about the density. The more one knows about the density in all parts of the earth the more surely and safely one may proceed in learning other things about the earth. * “ PreUmlnAry Results of Measurements of the Rigidity of the Earth,’* The Astro* physical Journal, 1014, vol. 39, p, 07, 240 ANl^t^AL REFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTlTtmON, 1916. The modulus of elasticity at each point in the earth controls the behavior of the earth under relatively small applied forces. The strength of the earth, at each point, as measured by the stress- difference at that point necessary to produce either slow continuous change of shape or rupture, decides the behavior of the earth under the greater forces applied to it. As to density we know that the earth’s surface density is about 2.7, that the density probably increases continuously with increase of depth, that the density at the center is probably about 11, that the mean density is about 5.G, and that within a film at the surface of a thickness of about one fiftieth of the radius of the earth there is isostatic compensation whicli is nearly complete and perfect as be- tween areas of large extent. The manner of distribution of the isostatic compensation with respect to depth, and the limiting depth to which it extends are but imperfectly known. Nevertheless it appeal's tliat above the depth, 122 kilometers, the compensation is nearly com})lete even though there may be some compensation extending beyond that depth. Two general lines of evidence are avaihible in determining the modulus of elasticity of the earth, that from earthquake waves, and that from earth tides. There are many inherent and extreme difficulties in the way of securing reliable evidence as to the modulus of elasticity from earth- quake waves. To 1013 the accuracy of available observations of tides in the solid earth was insufficient to furnish a basis fpr reliable conclusions. Nevertheless the estimates of the modulus derived from these early observations wore a fair approximation to that given by the very recent and much more accurate observations. Dr. Michelson and those associated with him in the observation of earth tides at the Yerlces Obsen^atory since 1013 have developed a method of observing which is of a new order of accuracy such that the minute changes of inclination at a given point due to earth tides may be determined with an error of less than 1 per cent. These observations make the modulus of elasticity of the earth as a whole about like that of solid steel, namely, (8.G) (10^^ C.6.S.). It is the modulus of elasticity of the earth as a whole which is measured in this case. It is eminently desirable to determine if possible whether the Ipodulus of elasticity varies with increase of depth. The Michelson apparatus possibly opens the way to such a determination. Suppose thkt the apparatus is used on the shore of the Bay of Fundy. Twice a day a large excess load of water is placed in the bay by the tidal oscillation and as frequently the water load is reduced below normal. The stresses produced in the body of the earth by these changes of THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 241 load applied over an area only about 80 miles wide are probably con- fined almost entirely to the first 100 miles of depth. The magnitude of changes of inclination produced at an observing station on the shore by the changing water load would, therefore, be dependent pri- marily on the modulus of elasticity of the material below and around the bay to a depth of less than 100 miles. The observations might serve, therefore, to determine a modulus of elasticity of the surface portion of the earth rather tlian of the whole earth. Turn now to the third of the physical constants, which it was pro- posed to examine, namely, the strength. Among the forces which w^e may consider as furnishing tests of strength are: (1) The forces involved in earthquakes, (2) the weight of continents, and (8) the weight of mountains. The forces which produce the more intense earthquakes evidently cause stress differences locally, which are beyond the breaking strength of the material. However, from earthquakes we may obtain but little information as to the strength of the earth material, be- cause the intensity of the stress differences can not be relial)ly de- termined. We know simply that the intensity exceeds the breaking strength of the material at the points of rupture. It is uncertain how great are the maximum stress differences pro- duced by the weight of continents. One great difficulty in computing these stress differences arises from the fact that the isostatic com- pensation of continents, now known to exist, reduces the stress differ- ences much below what they would otherwise be. Love computed the maximum stress differences thus reduced as 0.07 ton per square inch. Darwin computed the greatest stress difference due to the weight of the continents, without isostatic compensation, as 4 tons per square inch. If each of these computations were based upon assumptions, which cori-espond closely with the facts, one should be warranted in drawing the conclusion that the maximum stress difference caused by the actual continents, siqiported in part by the actual isostatic com- pensation, is between 0.07 and 4 tons per square inch, and that it is mucli nearer to the smaller than to the larger value. But a close examination of cither of these computations shows that it is based upon assumptions made to simplify and shorten the computations, which assumptions depart widely from the facts and tend strongly to make the computed stress differences much smaller than the actual. For example, both Darwin and I^ove used in their computations hypothetical continents, represented by regular mathematical forms, in the place of the actual continents with their many irregularities. The maximum stress difference caused by the actual continents is necessarily much greater than would be produced by the assumed smoothed out, regular, symmetrical continents. 242 AKKITAL KEPOKT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTIOK, 1916. Similarly no adequate computations have been made to determine the maximum stress difference due to the mountains. Darwin com- puted the maximum stress difference produced by two parallel mountain ranges^ of density 2.8, rising 13,000 feet above the inter- mediate valley bottom, to be 2,6 tons per square inch. Love, for the same mountain ranges, but with isostatic compensation taken into account, computed the maximum stress difference to be 1.6 tons per square inch. In this case the computation indicates that the isostatic compensation reduced the maximum stress difference to but little more than one-half what it would otherw ise be. Here, again, both the computed maximum stress differences have l)een greatly reduced by substituting hypothetical smoothed-out mountains in the place of the actual, irregular, unsymmetrical mountains. To the person who is trying to get a tnie picture of the i)rescnt state of stress in the earth, two very important facts are made evi- dent by a comparison of tlie Love and the Darwin computations. Firet, the existence of isostatic computation greatly reduces the stress differences wdiich would otherwise be produced l)y the w eight of the continents and mountains. Second, the depth at which the maximum stress difference tends to occur is evidently very much less with iso- static compensation than wdtliout it. These two conclusions, based upon the differences betw^een tlie Iavo computations, are apparently reasonably safe even in spite of the same wild assumptions on which both the computations w ere based. Note that even a little information as to the distribution of densi- ties—a little information al)out isostatic compensation—profoundly modifies the conclusions as to tlie state of stress in the earth. It should, therefore, be clear why it wns so emphatically stated in an earlier part of this address that information as to the distribution of density in the earth is necessary in order to make safe progress in learning other things about the earth. Is the earth competent to withstand without slow yielding the stress differences due to the w^eight of continents and mountains, the isostatic compensations being considered? From the computa- tions by Darwin and Love, considered in the light of the assumptions made by them to simplify the computations, I estimate that it is probable that the actual mountains and continents with all their irregularities of shape and elevation possibly produce stress differ- ences in some few places as great as 4 tons per square inch, and certainly produce stress differences at many places as great as two- tenths of a ton per square inch. The material would certainly yield Slpwly under such stress differences especially when they persist eontihuously over long periods of time and throughout large regions, it'our tons per inch is the breaking or rupture load for good granite, THE IKTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 243 one of the strongest materials existing in the earth in large quantities. Two-tenths of a ton per square inch is the safe working load used by engineers for good granite. There is abundant evidence from laboratory tests that the so-called yield point on which the engineer bases his estimate of safe working load for a given material is a function of the length of time the load is applied and the delicacy of the test. The longer the time of application and the more refined the test to determine the permanent yield the lower the observed yield point. In the case of the test in progress in the earth the time of application is indefinitely long and the test is extremely refined inasmuch as the minimum rate of yielding which may be detected is exceedingly small. If an engineer wishes to know whether a bridge, or foundation, or building, or railroad rail is yielding under stress differences which have been brought to bear upon it he looks for evidence of distress, for rivet heads popped off, scaling from the surface, settling, cracks, or even changes in microscopic structure. The geologists have made very extensive corresponding examinations of the earth. Everywhere they find evidence that the earth has yielded. On the one-fourth of the earth’s surface exposed to examination, the land, there is no part for wliich the evidence does not indicate past uplift, or subsidence, or horizontal thrust, or cracking under tension, or cracking produced by shear, or microscopic yielding in detail such as produces schis- tosity, for example, or some other form of past yielding to stress differences. The physicist studying the earth must take this over- whelming mass of evidence into account and must conclude that the earth habitually yields slowly to the stress differences brought to bear upon it. Please note that I do not assert that the stress differences are all due to gravity. I propose now to state what are in my opinion ])rol)ably the lines of least resistance to future progress in studying the earth from the physical standpoint. I propose to outline what I believe to be the most effective methods of attack, and to indicate some of the con- clusions which will probably be reached. I am led to this procedure by two considerations. First, I finddt possible to state certain of my opinions as to the net outcome of past investigations most clearly in that form—and time presses. Second, I indulge the hope that such an outline which is frankly an expression of judgment based on evidence miK’h too weak and conflicting to l>e proof, may possibly kindle the imagination of some man or men, and so lead to vigorous attacks upon the problem and to future pmgress. In attacking the problems of the earth one should assume at the outset that the phenomena exhibited are very complicated, that they are probably due to various simultaneous actions, and that the vari- ous actions are probably closely interlocked, modifying each other, 244 ANNUAL BE1?0BT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. though some are probably primary in importance and others sec- ondary, Hence the most effective method of attack is probably one which includes a general correlation of apparently widely separated ideas and facts gathered from physicists, engineers, geologists, chemists, etc., and at the same time includes intensive attacks in detail on one after the other of single features of the problems which aidse and an intensive working out of the possible consequences of said features. It should be recognized at the outset that no observed behavior of the earth clearly warrants the assumption that the material of which it is composed differs radically in any way from that acces- sible at the surface. It should be assumed, therefore, that through- out the earth the materials are a mixture differing from the mixture found at the surface only as the extreme pressure and temperature conditions at great depths directly and indirectly produce differences. It should be kept clearly in mind that the geodetic evidence from observations of the direction and intensity of gravity indicates simply the present location of attracting masses, the present distri- dution of density. It furnishes no direct evidence whatever as to past distributions of density or as to changes in density now in progress. But an understanding of the present distribution of density within the earth, especially near the surface, is so necessary to a true understanding of the present state of stress and of viscous flow in the earth that an understanding of the geodetic evidence is fundamental to progress. Computations should be made in extension of those which have been made by Darwin and Love. The new computations should, however, deal with the actual irregular continents and mountains, not with regular substitutes. The computations should also take into account the bulk modulus of the materials composing the earth; that is, these materials should be assumed to be compressible. Such computations will no doubt be both difficult and long. I believe that even a moderately vigorous attack along this line Avill show’^ con- clusively that the earth does not behave as an elastic body under the large loads superimposed upon it by the continents and moun- tains. I believe that the computed stress differences will be found to be so large that the computation will be essentially a proof of viscous yielding. Next make the contrasting assumption that the material compos- ing the earth is competent to withstand but little shearing stress, and that the pressure at any point is that due to gravitation acting on the mass in the column extending from the point vertically to the surface. Let it be assumed that isostatic compensation exists, is uniformly distributed with respect to depth, and is complete at depth 123 kilometers. Consider the actual topography and form a mental THE INTEKIOE OF THE EARTH. 245 picture as accurately as possible of the viscous flows which would take place on the assumption that at each level the material would flow horizontally from regions of greater pressure to regions of less pressure along lines of maximum rate of change of pressure, and that the time rate of such viscous flows would tend to be propor- tional to the space rate of change of pressure. The flows would all be found to be away from beneath high regions toward low regions, from continents toward oceans, from mountains toward valleys. After such a picture has l)een clearly formed assume that the iso- static condition is disturbed by long-continued erosion and deposition, producing changes in tlie surface elevations and surface loads. On the same assumptions as to the nature of tlie viscous flows as before, form a new picture of the viscous flows wdiich W'ould now be in prog- ress. It will be found that under the new^ conditions the viscous flows near the surface would still be away from high areas and toward low areas, but in general they would ]>e slower than before. At greater depths, liowever, it will be found that the viscous flows would be undertows from regions of recent deposition toward re- gions of recent erosion. These undertow flows would in general tend to be in the direction opj^^osite to recent surface transportation of material. This picture would serve as a first approximation to an understanding of tlie mechanism of isostntic readjustment. The underto'svs would be found on these assumj^tions to extend to a con- siderable depth, certainly more than 122 kilometers. Next one sliould picture the changes in density which would be produced by the viscous flows. The density should be pictured as decreasing in regions from which material is being carried away by the flow and increasing in regions to which the material is being carried. It wdll be noticed as soon as such a picture is formed that every undertow flow at any level tends to equalize pressures at louver levels. This will have a strong tendency to make the prevailing undertows occur at much higher levels than they otherwise would. Let it be assumed that the viscous material offers some small re- sistance to shear and still have elastic properties to a slight degree. The condition assumed originally that the pressure at a point de- pends simply upon the weight of the material above that point will be disturbed thereby. Form as clear a conception as possible of these disturbances and the modifications of the flows produced by them. I believe the modifications will be found to be important and that they will be found to be such as tend to confine the effects of surface changes of load to a depth which is a small fraction of the mdius. So much for the direct effects of gravity which it seems im- portant to picture clearly. Next study other effects, some of which are indirectly produced by gravity. 73839“--SM 191(b—-17 246 AKKtTAL EEFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. First study the modifying effects of changes of tcmperaturo. Wherever viscous flow takes place in the quasisolid poidions of the earth there heat is necessarily developed in amount equivalent to the mechanical energy expended in overcoming the resistance to flow. This will tend to increase the volume of the material, to increase the prevssure, and to raise the surface above the region of viscous flow. It is probable also that the iiuu-easc of temperature will tend to weaken the material, thus emphasizing the weakening produced by the damaging mechanical effects of tlie (low. This temperature effect is probably locally important. Beneath areas of recent deposition the timq)erature of a given part of the buried material will slowly increase for long periods of time, on account of heat conducted up from below and prevented by the new blanket of deposited material from rising to the surface so freely as before. Conversely, beneath the areas of recent erosion the temperature of a given ]>ortion of material will decrease. The ultimate limit of change will tend to be in each case not greater that about V C. for each ?>^2 meters of depth of erosion or deposition. These tcm]xu’ature changes tend ultimately to lower areas of recent erosion and to I’aise areas of re(*ent dc^posi- tion, possibly as much as one-thirtieth of the thi(‘kness of the erosion or deposition, the temperatui-e effect taking place much later tluin the erosion or deposition which initiated it. Study next the effects which may be computed from the bulk modulus of elasticity. Beneath ar(‘as of erosion a given particle of maiter tends to rise by an amount which may be computed from the bulk modulus of material, and similarly a particle tends to fall be- neath an area of dei)osition. If the depth to which the elastic. ])he- nomena extend is as great as 122 kilometers and the bulk modulus is 500,000 kilogi’ams per S(]uare centimeter (corresponding to granite) the rise or fall of a particle near the surface', will tend to be at least one-fiftieth part as great as the thickness of tlie material eroded or deposited. This is a cliange so large as to lun e considerable effects in modifying or magnifying the actions which would otherwise occur. Possibly tliis elastic change is imu'h larger tlian the esti- mate here given. Of course if the erosion or deijosition takes place in a small area only, such elastic res])onse will be largely inhibited by surrounding material on which the load lias not l)eon directly changed. But under large areas of erosion or deposition such action must take place and extend to depths jiossibly as great as 122 kilometers. Study next the modifying effects, on the phenomena already pic- tured, of chemical changes which are pi’o!)ably produced in the eaAh by changes of pressui-e. The expression “chemical changes” is here used in the broadest possible sense. A relief of pressure at TUB IKTEBIOB OF THE EAETH. 247 any given point in the eartli necessarily favors such chemical changes as are accompanied by increase in volume and reduction of density. Increase of pressure tends to have the reverse effect. Such changes tend to reenforce and extend in time the eft'ects just referred to which may be computed from tlie bulk modulus of elasticity. It is important to estimate such changes as well as posvsible from all available evidence, such for example as that furnished by chemists, kv geologists, and by such investigations of rock formation as have been conducted at the geophysical laboratory in Washington. I believe the possible effects of this kind wdll he found to be so largo as to be of primary imi)ortance. Evidence has accumulated during the past few years wdiich makes it reasonably certain that wdth increased pressure, as at the great depths in the eaith, the rigidity and tl)e viscosity of the ma- terial also necessarily increases. This tends to cairse the viscous flow^s to take place at higher levels than they otlierwdse Avould. This should be taken into account. Next a reexamination of the conceptions so far former! should be made to ascertain to what extent and liow tliey Avould be .modified if one started Avith some other reasonable assumption as to the limit- ing depth of present isostatic compensalion or some other reason- able assumption as to the law^ of distribution of the compensation Avith regard to depth. Next full and extensive comparisons vshoiild be made between the hypothetical phenomena on the one liand pictured as made up ju'imarily of viscous floAvs. modified l)y some elastic effects, initiated in part by surface transfers of load, modilied by changes of tempera- tui*e, modified by chemical clianges and in the otlier Avays, and on the other hand the facts of the past as to the behavior of the eai'th recorded in the rocks and read by geologists and others. This com- parison should be used to the fullest possible extent to evaluate the relative importance of the various elements in the actions. In making this comparison of various hy|)othetical phenomena Avith the gi’cat accumulated mass of geological faids it should bo recognized at once that it is false logic to reason that if a giA^en hypothesis does not account for all the observed facts the hypothesis is necessarily eri’oneous. On the contrary it is true logic in dealing AAuth such a problem as the earth seen from a physical standpoint to reason that tlie more facts arc accounted for by a given hypothesis the more certain it is that said hypothesis is a statement of a con- trolling element in the complex phenomena and then to study the facts which appear neutral, or conflicting, Avith reference to tlie hypothesis, considering them as indicators of other elements of the 248 AKKtJAL RKPOET SMITHBONUN INSTITUTIOK, 1916. phenomena which one should attempt to embody in other supple- mentary hypotheses. I submit that in studying the earth it is a mistake to think that there is any necessary conflict between the idea that the earth be- haves as an elastic body and the idea that it is yieldiing in a viscous manner, A body may behave in both ways at once. The earth is probably acting largely as an elastic body under small forces which change rapidly and at the same time is yielding in a viscous manner to forces of larger intensity which are applied in one sense con- tinuously for long periods. The object of this address will have been accomplished if it serves in time to arouse the imagination and interest of some one and to guide him to greater eftectiveness in attacking the problems presented by the earth as seen from the geophysical standpoint. IV. VARIATIONS OP LATITUDE: TDEIR BEAUINO UPON OUH KNOWL- EDGE OP THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH. By Frank Schlesingkr. To review even hastily the contributions that astronomy has made to our knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the earth and the constitution of its interior would consume more time than I vaxr fairly claim as my share. Let me therefore pascs over those points that are on accepted ground and are matters of general agreement from the different points of view represented in this symposium; and let me dwell instead upon certain recent developments espe- cially in need of consideration, concerning which the astronomer desires the criticism and help of the geologist, the seismologist, the physicist, and the meteorologist. These developments have come to us directly or indirectly through a study of latitude variations, so that most of what I shall have to say wdll deal with this subject. Although variations of latitude are in a sense a very recent addi- tion to our knowledge, yet, on the theoretical side, at least, we find the beginning more than a century and a half ago. In 1755 Euler considered ‘Hhe rotation of solid and rigid bodies” in a memoir that is now recognized as the foundation stone for our edifice. He showed that if such a body is projected into space it will exhibit two kinds of rotation; the first of these is the familiar one that corre- sponds to the day in the case of the earth ; the other is more subtle and corresponds to the variation of latitude. By reason of this the axis of the diurnal rotation is continually changing within the body, progressing in a regular way, and coming back after a time to its ^rlier positions. An ordinary top gives us a simple example of this THE INTEBIOB OP THE EARTH. 249 kind of rotation. The spinner imparts to the top a motion of trans- lation as well as a rotation, and if we wish to study the rotation we must arrest the translation in some way. This we can do by letting the top fall upon a hard surface, in which the iron peg soon wears a minute hole for itself, and the effect is to stop the translation of the top without modifying seriously the rotation. Then we can see that, while the top is turning very rapidly around an axis, this axis is itself rotating in a comparatively leisurely way. Just the same thing is occurring with the earth—the point (or pole) at which the axis of the daily rotation j)ierces the surface of the earth is continually in motion. If we could take to the neighborhood of the pole a modern instrument and if we could observe there at leisure and in comfort, wo should have no j^articular difficulty in finding the position of the pole within a meter. But if we should repeat these observations a few months later, we should find that the pole had wandered away to some distance. To be sure, this distance would not be great, and all the wanderings of the pole that have thus far been observed could be plotted to true scale on the floor of a room not much larger than the one we are in. Of course, if the pole is moving, so, too, is the earth’s Equator; and thus the latitudes of all points on the earth are varying. Such wuinderings as these need not disturb the peace of mind of those gentlemen w^ho like to discover the Arctic or the Ant- arctic Pole, Under the circumstances that the polar explorer must woi-k and with the meager instruments he can transport, he is glad to determine his latitude within half a mile of the truth. We must understand that it is only in our time, and only after the lapse of many years since Euler published his memoir, that latitude variations have actually been observed. Tliere was nothing in p]nler’s theoiy to indicate how large a variation to look for, since this is a matter that depends upon the whole complex of “ initial conditions,” of which our knowledge is the very vaguest. But this theory does tell us what the peadod of variation should be, since this depends upon the shape of the earth and the distribution of the material within it, and precisely the information that is here needed is afforded by a study of precession. Applying this information, Euler was able to say that the period of the latitude variation should be 10 months. Bessel at Konigsberg, in 1842, later Peters at Pul- kova, Nyren also at Pulkova, Downing at Greenwich, and Newcomb at Washington, all searched their observations for evidence of a latitude variation having a period of 10 months, but all in vain. Astronomers concluded that if latitude variations existed at all, their extent was too sjmall to be detected by instruments of the precision that had then been attained. Toward the end of the nineteenth century vague whisperings that this conclusion might be incorrect seem to have been in the air. 250 AlSrNXJAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1910. But the first clear word to this effect came in 1888 from the lips of Kiistner, at Berlin. He had invented and applied a method for deter- mining the amount of tlie aberration of light; but he found that his observations gave well nigh impossible results, agreeing neither among themselves nor with earlier ]*eliable observations. By a nice chain of logic he was able to exclude one possible cx])lanation after another until there was left only the supposition that the latitude of his station liad changed while liis observations were in progress. Next he examined nearly contemporaneous observations made at other places, and when he found that he could account for certain puzzling discrepancies he no longer hesitated to announce that lati- tudes were variable after all. This announcement awoke the liveliest interest and encountered no little skepticism. Special observations were at once set on foot at various observatories in Europe and America, as well as at a station near Honolulu in the Sandwicli Islands. These islands are about opposite in longitude to the European stations, and this was the reason for establishing a station there. For obviously if the polo is really changing its ])hice, then the changes in latitude for two opposite stations will be the reverse of each other. When in 1893 this Avas found actually to be the case, other possible explanations for the observed phenomena at once fell down, and latitude varia- tions became for the first time a nniversally ac(*epted fact. Much time and effort have since l)een expended in attempting to formulate the “laws” of latitude variations and to give them a mechanical interpretation. But observation has shown that the variations are of unexpected complicity, and as a eonsec|ueuce we are still very far fi'om having satisfactory knoAvledge of this subject. By tlie same token it is probable that an iMtensi\ e study of these variations, particularly from points of view other than the astro- nomical, Avill teach us much concerning the interior of the earth as well as some of its surface j)henomena. It was the late Dr. Cdiandler, of Cambridge, Mass., who took the lead in investigating the nature of latitude Auiriations. By over- hauling ancient observations (made of course without any reference to the present sul)ject) he was able to trace the presence of the varia- tions back to the time of Bradley in the middle of the eighteenth century. Thus it happens that at the very time that Euler was writing the first theoretical paper on the subject, Bradley had already begun making the observations from which the actual existence of latitude variations might have been proven at once. Chandler was able to gather similar evidence from other miscellaneous series of observations and thus to set down a tolerably continuous record of the variations during a century and a half. However interesting a fact this may be from an historical point of view, it does not help THE TNTEBIOn OP THE EARTH. 251 very much in a practical study of the subject. There are two reasons for tliis: first, it is only for European stations (and for the most part only for Greenwich) that we have any knowledge of these earlier variations; the other component of the wanderings of the pole, namely that in the nuu-idian at right angles to the meridian of Greenwich, did not })egin to l)e known until very i*e(‘ently. Again, these ancient ohserx ations were undeilaken for certain definite pur- poses that they se]‘\ed as w’ell as could l)e expected for their time; but they wtu'C not intended and are not well suited for precise deter- minations of tlie latitude. Glose ac(juaintance wdth the subject has tauglit us that exceedingly delicate observations ai’e necessary to define the variations wdth ade<|uate accuracy, ff T held in my hands two plumb lines half a nudin* ai)aii;. they would not be (juite parallel to each othei*, though both are exactly vertical: if they w\n-e pro- longed tluw would meet somewdiere near the center of the earth, 4,000 miles below. The angle hetAveen them is little less than 0".02 and represents approximately the accuracy that is demanded and that has recently been attained in latitude observations. This success is due chiefly to the International Geodetic Association which has organized an ‘international latitude service” of high efficiency, and to whose efforts and experience are due the imi)rovements in instruments and methods that have made posible this extra oi’d inary degree of precision. Since 1800, the association has maintained six observing stations for this sole purpose, tw’o of these Ix'ing in our own country. One of the minor effects of the w ar that is now’ raging in Europe will he tlie discontinuance of some of these stations. One of the American stations has already l)een abandoned, and the same fate wn'll overtake the other in June. lOlH, unless some inde- pendent means of maintaining it, at least temporarily, presents itself soon.^ An interruption of these observations wmnld he a great pity, for this is one of the cases whei’e a continuous record is highly desirable. To return to Chandler and his w’ork on these variations, perhaps, the most important of his achievements wuis to show^ that the prin- cipal term in the variations, instead of having a period of 10 months in accordance wdth Eulei‘’s theoiy, has in reality a period of 14 months. This difference ex]dains the failure of Bessel and all the others, who preceded Kiistner, to find a latitude variation in their observations, for, relying upon Euler’s results, they had all tested their observations for the lO-month variation and had sought for no other variation. For the same reason, Chandler’s announcement of the longer period was received Avith incredulity in some quarters, Since this sentence was spoken the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey has secured legislation that guarantees the continuation of this station. 252 ANNUAL RKPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. and this feeling did not vanish until Newcomb pointed out that Euler had made a certain assumption regarding the interior of the earth that had in the meantime been univei*sally discarded. His period of 10 months applies in fact only to a perfectly rigid and unyielding earth. Newcomb showed that if the earth yields to defor- mation to the same extent as though it were composed throughout of steel, then Euler’s period would be lengthened to about 14 months. Here we have the first dependable determination of the rigidity of the earth, a result that has since been confirmed in several ways, par- ticularly by a measurement of ‘M)odily tides” in the earth. The 14-month term (or the modified Eulerian term as it is now called) has been under accurate observation for a quarter of a cen- tury. The period can probably (though not certainly) be regarded as constant. This is what we should expect, for a change in this period would call for a sensible alteration in the distribution of the material within the earth, or a change in the rigidity of the earth. The amplitude of this term presents a very puzzling problem. Its usual value is about 0".27, but twice in recent years it has jumped to about 0".40. Such a change could be accounted for by supposing that the earth had received a severe blow or a succession of milder blows tending in the same direction. We are reminded that both Milne and Helmert have suggested that there might be a direct con- nection between latitude variations and earthquakes. This sugges- tion was originally made by Milne very e^irly in tins century when the astronomical data necessary to test it were still very meager. It is to be hoped that the question will be taken up again in the light of the information that has been added during the past 10 or 12 years. Though the Eulerian term is the largest part of the latitude vari- ation, it is by no means the only important one. We have next an annual term with a maximum amplitude of about 0".20. We may say with some confidence that this term is seasonal and meteorologi- cal in its origin, but at present no more definite statement would be warranted. It was early suggested that ocean currents might cause this variation. These currents w^ould have to vary greatly with the season, either in the volume oi‘ the speed of the flow, or in its direc- tion; for an unvarying current would merely modify the Eulerian term once for all and would leave the latitude variations otherwise unchanged. A similar suggestion has been made with regard to air currents, and appeal has also been made to unequal deposits of snow aiid ice on two opposite hemispheres of the earth to account for the annual term. It seems to me that these explanations have not been subjected to the critical numerical tests that are possible and desir- able. The meteorological data are doubtless competent to enable us THE INTEIUOR. OF THE EARTH. 253 to compute at least the order of tlie effects in the latitude variations that we should expect from these various causes. Furthermore, the anmial term is probably variable in its amplitude, and it is important to ascertain how (if at all) these changes are related to the coire- sponiiing meteorological observations. One other term must be mentioned in this bi'ief summary. A few years ago Kiinura of Japan made the im])ortant discovery (the most striking contribution to astronomy that has ever come out of Asia) that the latitudes of all stations are affected by a variation that does not depend upon the longitude but which is the same for all points in the same latitude. Tn other words, there is present a variation that is not due to the wanderings of the pole. To ascertain more closely the nature of this term, the International Geodetic Asso- ciation extended its latitude service temporarily to the Southern Hemisphere, with the result that the term was found to be of pre- cisely the kind that would be caused l)v an annual wandering of the center of gravity of the earth to and fro along the axis of rotation. This must be regarded merely as an illustration and not as an ex- planation, for so great a change (about 3 meters) in the ])osition of the center of gravity is excluded on other and very conclusive grounds. No plausible explanation for the Kimura term has as yet made its appearance, and as a consequence the i‘eality of the term has been questioned from every possible point of A'iew. Many ex- planations have been advanced, each of whitdi sought to account for the term as merely an instrumental effect or the like, just as was the case 20 years earlier with the whole of the latitude variation itself. Against such attempts the Kimura term has held u}) very well. It is not too much to say that at the present time all l)ut one of the numerous explanations of this class have -been disposed of; this exception deserves a brief mention, particularly as it calls loudly for the attention of the meteorologist. Let us supi)ose that the layers of equal density in the atmosphere above a station are not horizontal, but that they are sensibly inclined. If this occurs without our knowledge, as it would under ordinary circumstances, then we should apply refraction to our observations in a slightly erroneous way and we should derive a value for the latitude that is not quite correct. Let us suppose further that this effect were a world-wide one and that in any given month there would he a pronounced ten- dency for the inclination to be in the same sense in all latitudes, north and south, as well as in all longitudes. Then we should have a set of circumstances that would account for the Kimura term as an atmospheric effect, and therefore it would be excluded as a real varia- tion of latitude. So far as the astronomer is able to testify, the evi- dence is against the occurrence of such tilts in the atmosphere. The 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. inclination required to account (inantitatively for the amplitude of the Kimura term is over 2 minutes of arc, or a slope of about one part in fifteen hundred, rresiimablj, in a few years we shall be able to say something' more definite as to the possibility of the existence of such conditions. My own opinion is that this explanation, like so many others of similai' cliaracter (hat have Iteen suggested foi’ the Kimura term, will lie found untenable. Furthei', I ventuie to think that latitude variations as a whole will lind their explanations less on the surface of the earlh and more in its interior than seems now to be the generally acceiiteil opinion. DKY LAND IN (JKOLOGY.i By AKTIfUK B. Coi.EMAN. IXTU()l>U(Tl<)N. After visits to Soiitli Africa, Australia, and India to study dry- land deposits it has become very evidtmt to the ^vriter tliat most of the earth is covered ^vith water, and also that a shij) is tlu‘ most tantalizing of all modes of ti*ave] for a <2:eoIogist, since cai)tains have a prejudice against anything of geological interest, such as ivx'k.s or reefs oi* shoals. After lyJOO miles of sheltered voyaging behind the great Australian bai*rier one may reach »lava without ever seeing a coral reef at close (luarters. Exce])t the oozes dredged from the d(‘ep sea and the contours of its bottom revealed by soundings, the three-quarters of the globe beneath the ocean have scarcely any message for the geologist. That the waves and the tides do im- portant geological work is true, but to hear the gi’owl of the bi‘eakers and to see them ])ounce on their pi’ey, one must travel in a small boat close to shore and not in an ocean liner. Even to study the action of the sea on the shore it is better to be on land. The dry shores of Lake Lonneville, as read by a (iilbert, gi\'e more instiaiction in regard to wave woi*k than all tlie foam and tumult of the surf on the strand. The geologist is essentially a land animal, and yet until recently most books on geology, esi)ecially textbooks, have had surprisingly little to say of the land and its conditions. The writers seemed all to belong to the blue-water school, so of their space has been given to the scai and its inhabitants. Tt is true that continents were mentioned, almost apologetically, when one came to the Cenozoic mammals, but even the Glacial period did not lift geology above tlie sea for some of the older writers, who preferred icebergs to glaciers for the manufacture of bowlder clay. 1 Presldcxitlnl address read before the society Dec. ‘2l>, 101 r>. Reprinted, by perrais Bion, from Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 27, pp. 175-102, Mar. ai, 1916. *^55 256 ANNUAL RKPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. This concentration on the sea and its life went to astonishing lengths in the more ancient parts of geological history. Like most of our older geologists, my first nourishment in the science was drawn from Dana’s ‘‘Manual.” Unfortunately that earliest of textbooks has been lost, but curiosity led me to glance over his fourth edition (1895) to see how tlie dry land fares in its pages. There is the usual fiery introduction to liistorical geology, dividing Archean times alliteratively into Astral, Azoic, and Archeozoic eons, with a lithic era beginning at 2,500^ F. and an oceanic era commenc- ing w^hen the earth had cooled to 500°, followed by eras of the earliest plants and the earliest animals as the boiling ocean cooled to en- durable temperatures. When the streaming waters had i)ermanently (*ondensed in the hollows of the original crust there was left a V- shaped nucleus of dry land about which the continent of North America was to be built up. After this encouraging start with a quite respectable dry-land area as a foundation, historical geology becomes submerged in seas, mostly shallow, until the end of the Silurian. Out of 11 1 pages devoted to this ])art of the world’s history the total number of lines referring to the land and its inhabi- tants amount to only one page, while the Devonian land ])lants and animals are gi^’en only 4 pages out of 40. It is true that most of the Carboniferous chapter is devoted to the rank growths of the coal swamps, but these amphibious plants have little to do with actual dry land. They never rise far above sc^a level and are frequently lowered beneath it to get a fresh (‘overing of mud or sand. The araucarias of the hills inland are barely mentioned, and it is not till one gets well on into the Mesozoic that the dinosaii rs compel the student to depart a little from the seashore. Even then there is a suggestion that at least some of the clumsy beasts preferred si)lashing along the mud flats or padvlling in the lagoons. There is no hint of lean (!reatui*es hastening with long strides to the shrinking water holes of a semi- arid region. Another stand-by of student days, this time in (lermany, was Credner’s “(Jeologie,” which uj) to the end of the Devonian gives 2 pages out of 58 to the land and its dwellers. Only 82J pages out of 300, up to the beginning of the Quaternary, have to do with terrestrial things, even the dinosaui’s almost escaping notice. Tlie dry land was evidently of small importance. It is not unnatural that in the beginning geology should devote itself mainly to things marine, for the favored haunts of men are almost all founded on stratified rocks. Werner’s idea of a world deposited layer by layer from a primeval sea seemed reasonable when he lectured in Freiberg, though the Bergakademie stands on ©mptive gneiss; and when William Smith began stratigraphic ge- ology, on an island where one can nei^er get many miles from the DRY LAND IN GEOLOGY—COLEMAN. 257 sound of the surf, he had to collect sea shells from the rocks as coins with which to date the formations. The regular succession of marine faunas in the stratified rocks laid the foundation for our clironology, showed the orderly develop- ment of living beings, and made possible the correlation of the rocks of different countries. The study of marine fossils was necessary to the building u]) of histori(*al geology on a sound basis, therefore, so that the ahnast exclusive attention given to the seas and their life was not unjustified. In those earlier days continents had a place in geology mainly as limiting the migrations of marine faunas or as providing s(Mliments for the shallow seas. In other respects they were largely negative things, vacuums where nothing took ])lace, since they provided no fossil-bearing beds, while the waters around tlicin were swarming with life and activity. It seemed <|uite the correct thing 35 years ago, wlien the older men among us were students, to spend most of our time bending over rows of braehiopods in museum cases and memorizing lists of type fossils, so as to fix the age of rocks we might encounter in our field work. In those days the wash of the waves and the smell of the seashore seemed to permeate geology, and dry land was seldom men- tioned or thought of by professors or students. Most of geology consisted of stratigraphy and invertebrate ])aleonlology. Bluff old (Vedner has some justification for devoting nine-tentlis of his his- torical geology to a consideration of the doings of the sea and its inhabitants. The land had scarcely been discovered. Even the ‘‘Age of Mammals” was named and subdivided in accordance with the proportions of extinct to living vshellfish and not from the rapid evolution of tlie mammals and their differentiation into the highest forms of animals the world has known. DISCOVERY OF THE T.AND. It can not be said that the early geologists entirely ignored the land. An unmistakable land surface, like the “ dirt bed ” of the English Purbeck, with its araucarian stumps still r(X>ted in the soil, was occasionally recognized, though such occurrences are almost un- known in formations older than the Carboniferous. It was recog- nized, also, that heat and drought best accounted for the beds of gypsum and rock salt found in several of the more ancient forma- tions, though the materials might have come from the evaporation of inclosed aims of the sea, and so might not be really continental deposits. The most typical land deposits, those of arid and of glacial cli- mates, were seldom recognized as such and were generally included among the marine stratified rocks, though the absence of fossils was 258 AKNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6. disquieting. Even the red sandstones, with their hot, desert colors, were often looked on as marine, or else possibly as formed in great lakes, because they conta ined no marine fossils. The ancient bowlder clays were merely coarst', water-formed deposits of some peculiar kind. In most cases, however, dry-land periods are not represented by deposits of any sort, but by the gaps in the se^pience of formations, for normal land conditions mean erosion and denudation. Their only record is usually a discordance, and a dry-land interval shown only by an nnconformity naturally ])assed almost unnoticed. Most of the cha}:iters of the world's history are written under water and show a strong l)ias toward tlie side of the water animals. The only continental deposits beside those of arid and glacial con- ditions which have a goral chance of being ])reserved and recognized are those of the coal swam])s, and they persist mainly because they are on debatable ground often invaded by the se;i. During much the greater ])art of the world’s history happenings on tlie land are recorded only in the most accidental way, as by some stray leaf or tree tnink or carcass drifting down a river to be buried in the mud at its mouth. It is seldom that land formations can be found on a broad enough scale to reconstruct continental surfaces and condi- tions. Though it is certain that lands and their inhabitants liave existed in unbroken succession from early times, the lands themselves arc in geology mostly sliadowy things. Mlietlier they were mountainous or flat we can only infer from the kind of sediments they sent down to the sea. During most of the world’s history the climate scorns to have been jaiild and moist, even to the poles, and deau’ts and ice sheets were apparently absent. We are living in an excoj^tional time character- ized by extremes of climate and are apt to think of such extremes as normal. AVlien Miocene plane trees grew luxuriantly on Spitzber- gen, in latitude 78"", the wlmle circulatory system of air and water must have been difl’erent from the one we are accustomed to. Ex- tremes of cold and perhaps also of dryness must have been largely absent. TheiT could have been no cold ocean (mrrents flowing beside warm lands to desiccate the winds blowing over tliem, as in southern California and nct^thern Chile, at the present time. The most char- acteristic land deposits, those of deserts and ice sheets, belong espe- cially to the short periods of stress and trouble separating the long, genial, but unenterprising, geological ages, and hence must be rela- tively rare in the column of formations. These comparatively unusual types of deposits began to attract at- tention about 60 years ago in Europe, and geologists of the Indian survey correctly interpreted the ancient Talchir bowlder-clays in 1859, DRY LAND IN GDOLOGY—COLEMAN. 259 With deserts before their eyes for comparison, they recognized also ancient arid deposits. In America not much attention was given to continental forUiations till Davis and his brilliant physiographic school, 25 years ago, began to ex]}1ain the Cenozoic beds of the west as dry-land deposits. At about the same time Walther and other Germans took up tlie cai’eful study of desert processes, giving tlie duo to the origin of ancient red sandstones and their acc(jm[)animents. Of late years most of us have paid at least brief visits to deserts and have felt the cliarm of tlu^ir bareness, tlieir loneliness, their dear, cool, night skies and h(»t oi’ange haze at noon, and l\avc watched the dusty pillars of the go-devils'’ trans[)ort a train-load of dnst across the Kalihari, or have seen the 1(AV daiu/e of tlie yellow sand grains as a hot wind builds U}) a bardinn in Aubta. We have seen the selective carvijig of the dt'sert sand-blast on roelvs of uiuMpial hardness, have wondei’cd at tlie brown desert varnish on exposeil ]’oek surfaces, and have S|)eciilated as to the origin of ‘‘calcia'te'' or 'dvankar.'’ Geologists are now on the alert ioi* continental, and es]>ecially desert, formations, and llau-e arc few red sandstones whidi Inne not been j)icked out of the marine I'aghag and set aside as belonging to the land. It is even ])o.ssii>le that the ])endulum has in some cases swung too far and will have <o swing hack again. Some of the red sandstones or shales handed over to the desert may yet disclose marine fossils and have to I'eturn to the seashore. A glance tlirough recent ((^xthooks of geology in English, Fremdi, and German shows how Avidely attention lias been given of late years to continental, and e^jceially desi'rt, formations. Arid conditions have been recognized, oi* at least suspected, in nearly all the main subdivisions of historical geology. They have been mentioned by one author or another in the l^leistocenc, tlie IMioccne, the iMiocene, the Eocene; the Cretaceous, and the Triassic; the .Permian, the Car- boniferous, the DcAonian, the Silurian, and the Cambrian; the KeweenaAvaii, and possil>ly one or two earlier of the ])re-Camhrian series. In fact, only tlie Jiu'assic and the Ordovician seem to ha\’e escaped the drought, and it may be that a more careful search through the literature would disclose deserts there also. A number of the suggestions noted are onlv^ tentative, however, and wide-spread and unmistakable desert formations seem confined to the Pleistocene, Triassic, Permian, Devonian, and late pre-Cambrian. Of these the Ideistocene deserts may be looked on as continuing to the present, the Triassic deserts form an aftermath of the arid conditions of the Permian, and the Devonian deserts seem less extensive than the others. The three times of grcaitest aridity appear to be: (1) The .PleivStocene continuing to the pi’esent; (2) the Permian-Triassic; (3) the late pre-Cambrian. ANKTJAL WPOUT SMITHSONIAK IlsrSTIttyTlOK, 1916. Though well known, it may not be amiss to recall some features of these three periods of widely extended desert conditions. ARID ZONES OF THE PLEISTOCENE AND PRESENT. The map of the world shows two zones which are largely desert, one in each hemisphere, with a broad zone of heavy equatorial rain- fall between. To the north of tlic northern desert belt there are moister conditions, and the same is true to the south of the southern one. There is reason to believe that Antarctica is arid, evaporation exceeding precipitation, and the same may be true of some Arctic lands. The precipitation on Spitzbergen is stated to be only 6 inches per annum. The two belts of deserts do not run quite parallel to the Equator. The northern one, beginning witli tlie Sahara and Nubian Deserts, in Africa, runs northeastward through the Aral)inn and Indian Deserts to those of central Asia, where tlie desert of (lol)! reaches nearly 50"^ of north latitude. In Noiili America desert conditions are less ex- tensive and do not extend hi^yond latitude “lO"" or 15'^. In the Southern Hemisphere tlie bodies of land are much smaller, and the deserts of South Africa, Australia, and South America are correspondingly small as comj>ared with those north of the Equator. Their southern limits are, roughly, 30"^, 40°, and 45° south latitude. Penck has shoAvn, I think satisfactorily, that these desert belts migrate toward the Equator in cold periods, narroAving the zone of tropic rains, and move respectively north and south in Avarmer periods. In the mildest geological periods it Avould almost seem as if the equatorial belt of Avarmth and moisture expanded to cover the w^hole earth, abolishing both deserts and ice-sheets, and these appear to be the normal conditions when peneplanatiou lias advanced far and shallow seas transgress AA idely over the continents^ ARID T'EKIOD OF THE PERMIAN AND TRTASSTO. Going back to Permian and Triassic times, much of tlie evidence has been buried or destroyed ; yet it is certain tliat deserts extended widely in many lands. Red sandstones, arkoses, and shales with mud cracks and footprints, beds of salt and gypsum, are reported from England, Germany, Austria, and Russia in regions now well watered. In North America there were the Avidespread red beds of tlie Rocky Mountain region and the band of desert sandstones extending from Prince Edward Island southwest to Virginia ; so that arid conditions covered far more of Europe and North America than noAV. In India » ple Pornien der LnndoberllJiche u. Verschiebungen der Kllmogtirtel, Koenlgllche, Preus. Afe.. Vol. 4, 1913. mr LAND IK GEOLOGY--OOLEMAN. 261 the Gondwana system includes great thicknesses of coarse sandstone with bands of conglomerate, supposed to be of fluviatile origin, ter- restrial deposits, but perhaps not of a specially arid kind ; ^ but no other references to Asiatic land conditions have been found. I. C. White reports a thick series of massive red and gray sandstones, prob- ably of Triassic age, resting on Glossopteris beds with coal seams in Brazil, but expresses no opinion as to the climate during the de- position of these upper beds. The basal conglomerate under the coal he thinks glacial.^ Red beds of sandstone and conglomerate to the thickness of 1,600 feet occur, according to Rogers, in the Karroo system of South Africa, but he puts them probably above the Tri- assic.'* Whether the 1,100 feet of Ilawkesbury sandstones of the Triassic in New South Wales, with their steep cross-bedding, bands of conglomerates, woi'in tracks and sun cracks, ini|)ly an arid period in Australia is perhaps uncertain, though they are undoubtedly con- tinental deposits.^ It will be seciii that land formations, often of a very arid kind, are found in most of the continents in Permian or Triassic times. They seem to occur rather later in the regions which endure the cold of the Permocarboniferous glaciation than in Europe and in our West- ern States, but the correlation is not very certain. These New Red ” deserts following on the heels of the severest ice age on record close ilie Paleozoic calamitously. It is not surprising that such extreme climatic changes put an end to the lush growths of the coal swamps, so that only hardy plants survived, and hastened the departure of the semiaquatic amphibia, while giving an impetus to the develop- ment of the reptiles as dry-land inhabitants. There must have been very dry conditions during the Upper Silu- rian (Salina) of America, as shown by the salt and gypsum beds of New York, Ohio, Ontario, and Manitoba; and the succeeding Old Red beds of Scotland and other European countries suggest a similar climate, but I have not found evidence of arid conditions on a wide enough scale to make it desirable to discuss them here. LATE PRE-CAMBRIAN DESERTS. Desert characters have been ascribed to sandstones, perhaps be- longing to the earliest Cambrian, but more probably the uppermost pre-Cambrian, in many parts of the world. They include apparently the Keweenawan and part of the Belt series in America, the Torri- donian of Scotland, part of the Gaisa beds of Norway, perhaps also the Sparagmite of Sweden and the Jotnian of Finland. Whether ' Oldham : Geology of India, 2d edition, pp. 150—151. “Brazilian coal fields, p. 31. “Geology of Cape Colony, p. 216. “Geology of New South Wales. SuesHmileh. pp. 158-160, 78839“—BM 1916 ^18 Siftg ANKtrAl. BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN iNSTITUTtON, 1916. the Matsap beds of Cape Colony and some of the Kuddapah sand- stones of India, described as shore deposits, or the Vindhian sand- stones and conglomerates should bo included is uncertain. If these are all of the same age and have been correctly interpreted as arid deposits, this was the most severe and extensive period of desert conditions known. In many places on the Canadian Shield the coarse red sandstones, usually with some conglomerate at the base, may be seen resting on an Archean surface of granitoid gneiss or Keewatin schist or Animikie slate, the original land surface of gently rounded hills and shallow valleys belonging to an ancient peneplain. In some outcrops the crumbling gneiss beneath, an old regolith, provides most of the materials for the basal conglomerate. This is true at various points on the north shore of Lake Superior and apparently also in Scotland, where the Torridonian rests on the Iiewisian. The Lake Superior Keweenawan, though much the best known, is on a small scale as compared with the areas of sandstone of the same age farther north in Canada. The Athabasca sandstones of Tyrrell, those of Great Bear Lake and of central Labrador, not to speak of smaller areas, indicate a very broad surface exposed to arid conditions in North America. These red sandstones still ocoupy not less than 50,000 square miles, and it is certain that much greater areas of such relatively soft and easily attacked rocks have been de- stroyed in the long dry-land periods of later times. It appears that in this desert period the arid districts were mainly in the Northern Hemisphere and to the north of latitude 48°—that isi, very much farther north than the belt of deserts of the present Northern Hemisphere. It is unknown, of course, to what extent Keweenawan rocks are buried to the south of Lake Superior or of Hcotland. The breadth of the belt as known in North America is at least 20°, since rocks of this age reach nearly to 70° north latitude in the region north of Great Bear Lake. The Gaisa beds on Varan- ger Fjord, in Norway, reach the same latitude, and the Scotch Torri- donian about latitude 58°. It is hard to imagine red soils, drifting sands, and the hot winds of deserts as existing in regions now tundra-covered and frigid ; but this seems to have been true in the more northern areas. GLACIAL PERIODS. far arid conditions only have been mentioned, but the best jpreserved land surfaces of the past are those sealed up unchangeably beneath glacial deposits. It seems absurd to couple together deserts end glaciers, so opposite to one another in every respect; neverthe- in running down the column of historical geology one finds these phenomena closely linked together, In almeet ell the BBY LAKD m GEOLOGY—COLEMAN, 263 periods where aridity has been proved there have been found also proofs of ice action, the two seemingly hostile conditions occuning either at the same time in different parts of the world or one after the other in the same region. We live in the closing stages of a great Glacial period, extensive ice sheets still surviving in Greenland and the Arctic Islands, as well as in Antarctica, and yet wide deserts are found in all continents save Europe. More or less certain evidence of ice action has been found in the Pleistocene, the Eocene, the Cretaceous, the Triassic, the Permian, or Permocarboniferous, the Carboniferous, the Devonian, or possibly Upper Silurian, perhai)s the Cambrian, certainly the late pre-Cam- brian, and the Lower Huronian. The list just given is closely par- allel to that given for the arid periods. Only four of these glacial times are of prime importance—those of the Pleistocene, the Permocarboniferous, the late pre-Cambrian, and the Lower Huronian. PLEISTOCENE ICE AGE. The Pleistocene ice age, from wliich the world is just emerging, unless this happens to be an interglacial period, is so familiar that little need be said of it. Bowlder-clay, moraines, and deposits formed by glacial waters occur over 6,000,000 square miles of the Northeni Hemisphere; smaller areas are found in the Southern Hemisphere, and Pleistocene moraines reach thousands of feet below the present glaciers on high mountains all over the world, even under the Equa- tor, showing that the climates of the wdiole world were affected. Be- neath the glacial deposits in many places there are characteristically smoothed and striated rock surfaces, though near the edges of the ancient ice sheets tliere are thousands of square miles where loose materials were not swept away to bedrock. The central areas were most effectively scoured, and in many places the rocks beneath, owing to unequal hardness, have been shaped into roches moiitonnees, forming hills well rounded on the side from which the ice advanced. Bowlder-clay is a highly specialized product of land ice; floating ice, such as floes or bergs, is not known to produce it, the materials dropped through the water when melting being necessarily more or less stratified. The ‘‘soled bowlders” or “striated stones” from bowlder-clay have special characters not caused by any other agency, such as mudflows or torrential action. They are manufactured arti- cles, easily recognized by one familiar with glacier work, and not to be confounded with stones scratched or smoothed in other ways. These familiar features are recalled because they serve as criteria fof the recognition of the ancient glaciations to be mentioned latert 264 AKKIUL AKPOET BMiraSOKlAK iKStlTtJTIOK, 1W6. ITie hummocky, moiitonn6es surfaces left by the Pleistocene gla- ciers on Archean rocks which have disordered structures and vai’y in durability are very characteristic and were once looked on as the di- rect handiwork of the ice sheets themselves. The clean and polished surfaces of fresh rock, generally well striated and often deeply scored, are eloiiuent of the stripping and grinding of the glacier, but the original surface forms have not been greatly changed, as will be shown later. Most of the great Pleistocene ice sheets gathered on comparatively low ground and reached scale vel, often occn[>ying large areas of shal- low sea-bottom as Avell as the land. Few of them began in mountain regions, and tlie flow of those on level ground vas caused by the slope of the upper surface of the ice mass and not by the inclination of the floor beneath. They could even mo\e uphill for thousands of feet, when the ice sheet was thick enough in the center, and their flow took place outward in all directions. Doubtless conditions were similar in earlier glaciations, and it is not necessary to assume great mountain ranges to account for them, as some geologists ha\e done. rPUlMOCAUBONIFKKOlJS JCK A(JE. The first undoubted proofs of ancient glaciation seem to have been found by the Blandfords in India, and the first memoir of the Indian survey (1859) contains a brief account of the Talchir tillite in central India, illustrated by a rough sketch. Soon after South African and Australian tillites of the same age were described. There was at first a good deal of skepticism expressed by European and American geologists as to the reality of the discoveries. Ramsay’s interpreta- tion of certain English bowlder conglomerates as glacial a few years before had been disputed, which cast doubt on the new reports from the far east and south. Was not the Carboniferous a tropical time, even in the Arctic regions? Glaciers and the steamy coal swamps did not mix well together. Since then, however, many northern geologists, including expert glacialists, have studied these marvelous deposits, and for a number of years no one has doubted their glacial origin, in spite of the fact that most of the localities are in what are now warm, temperate, or ev^n tropical regions. All the evidences for the ice action on a large SCJtle found in our Pleistocene are repeated, with the difference that the Pleistocene till ceases about 38° from the Equator, while the Tal- ehir tillite in India reaches well within the Tropics (18° North) and I^ermocarboniferous tillite in West Australia touches the Tropics. Iiq Sotith Africa the Dwyka tillite reaches 24° 30', or even 22®,^ and — literature see Glacial periods and their bearing on geological theorloa, by the Bull. Geol. Soc, Am., vol. 19, pp. 547-366, and bchuchert: CMmates of geologto lust., Pub. No. 192, pp. 263-298. ^ mY I^ND m GEOtOGY*--H:JOLEMAK^ 26? L C. White and Woodworth report similar tillites between 26® anc 30® in southern Brazil.^ New localities have been reported withir the last few years in Argentina ^ and the Falkland Islands ; ® but onlj few and unimportant occurrences are known in the Northern Hemi- sphere outside of India. They have been reported from Herat ir Afghanistan, Armenia, and the Urals; and in western Europe thej have been described from central France^ and the Frankenwald.^ In North America tillites, probably of the same age, have been founc by Sayles near Boston ® and by Cairnes on the Alaskan boundary.' A year ago, near Penganga Kiver, under the hot sun of India, ir latitude 19® or 20®, I walked across fields of ancient till strewn witi glaciated stones and bowlders and stood on a well-polished and stri- ated surface of Vindhian limestone, as typical as can be found ir Ontario or northern New York. This resurrection of an ice-workec surface of the Paleozoic, in what are now the sweltering Tropics, gives a glacial geologist something to ponder over; and to see the same things in Africa and Australia, only on a much larger scale, af I have had occasion to do within the last few years, raises some o^ the most thrilling problems in all geology. Our Pleistocene ice age, with its array of glacial and interglacia beds, was merely an imitation on a much smaller and less impressive scale of the tremendous Paleozoic ice age, which laid down in places 1,000 feet or more of till and included interglacial times long enmigl to form great coal seams, as in the (ireta beds of New South Wales. These ancient bowlder-clays and moutonnees rock surfaces of the southern continents bring us face to face with the most dramatic moment in geology, when a world, enervated by the moist, hot-house conditions of the earlier Carboniferous, found itself in the grip o the fiercest and longest winter of the ages, followed by the merciless droughts of the Permian and Triassic. LATK PRE-CAMBRIAN ICE AGE. Still more ancient tillites have been found in a number of regions sometimes described as Lower Cambrian; at others as Uppermost pre-Cambrian. In a few cases Cambrian fossils have been collectec in beds above the tillite, but, so far as I am aware, never beneath it. 1 Braziliftn oonl fields, pp. 11-15; and geological expedition to Brazil and Chile. Bull Mas. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 66, No. 1. •Keidel: Compte Rendu, Geol. Congress, XTI Session, 1914, p. 676. » Halle: Geol. Mag., ii. s., Dec. 5, vol. 5, pp. 264-205. * Compte Rendu, 1895, vol. 117, p. 265. Striated stones and angular blocks up t< 12 or 16 cubic meters arc described. ®J. B. G. G„ 1898, vol. 46, p. 09. Bowlders occur scattered through unstrattfled gray- w&cke In the upper Culm. ® Sayles and La Forge: Science, n. s., vol. 32, pp. 723-724; also Harvard Bull. Mu» Comp. Zool., vol.. .56, No. 2. ^G. S. C., Mem, 67, Alaska Boundary Survey, pp. 91-92, 266 AHJSrtTAL SMlTHgOKlAJ^ iKSIPITtTXlOK, %m. It is possible that there were two early ice ages, with an interval between ; but it seems more probable that they are of the same age and all really pre-Cambrian. The Australians believe that their more ancient tillites are Cambrian, however. Tillites have been suggested at two places in the Keweenawan of America. They occur in the Gaisa beds of Norway, where there is a striated surface beneath; perhaps also in the Torridonian of Scot- land. In Australia IIo^\chm describes an area of 460 miles by 260, and they are found also in Tasmania. They are reported from the Nant’ou formation in China; the Griquatown series in Cape Colony, where they have an area of at least 1,000 square miles, and near Simla, in India. The last two mentioned may be older than the Keweenawan. Sir Thomas Holland thinks the Simla tillite may even be as old as the ITuronian. These tillites belong to higher latitudes than those of the Permo- carboniferoiis, none coming nearer the Equator than 29^ ; but some of them occupy regions now warm temperate, ^\hile the ice sheets of the Pleistocene halted at about 38*^ in North and South America and 52° in Europe. In so old a period one can hardly evpect to find very complete evidence of the area covered by glaciers; but this ice age seems to have been more severe than that of the Pleistocene. • HimONIAN ICE \CE Much farther off in the abyss of pre-Cambiian time is the Lower Huronian Glacial period, thus far known with certainty only from the Canadian Shield, unless the tillite reported by Hintze from the Wasatch Mountains and that from Simla in India are to be referred to so early an age. A characteristic tillite with well-striated stones has been found in the famous Cobalt region, its hard bowlder-clay cut by the richest veins of native silver in the world. Striated stones have been found also 60 miles to the east, in the Province of Quebec, by member’s of Morley Wilson’s geological survey party and one from the original Huronian region, 160 miles to the southwest, has been figured by Collins.^ Areas of similar coarse bowlder conglom- erate or tillite, sometimes inclosing blocks tons in weight and miles jfrom their source, have been mapped at various points as far north- east as Chibougamau, 320 miles from Cobalt, and have been found also to the west of Cobalt. They are wddely scattered over the Cana- di^m Shield and were once much more extensive, covering, no doubt, many thousands of square miles. In most cases the tillite rests with gentle dips on the low hills and fhallolv valleys of a peneplain closely resembling the present Lauren- 1 G S C , Mem. 30, pp 88-97 ® G, S. C , Museum Bull , No. 8, plate mt lAm m moi^ 267 tian peneplain. In some places the tillite passes downward, with no visible break, into an old regolith due to the decay of the Lau- rentian gneiss or Keewatin greenstone beneath. In others the rock below has been smoothed and polished, though no stride have yet been found on it. It is impressive to come on this old land surface half way down in the pre-Cambrian succession, yet as thoroughly baseleveled as the neighboring undulating surface of gneiss and greenstone, from which rain and frost are now stripping the bowlder clay. The continent sealed up beneath the Huronian tillite looks as finished and as ancient as the Laurentian peneplain beneath the bowlder clay of the last ice age. The strenuous history of the world since Huronian days could add nothing appreciable to its hoary antiquity. Great mountain ranges had already been gnawed down to the bare crystalline founda- tions before the ice of the Huronian covered the surface with bowlder clay, and this all happened long before a trilobite was entombed in the mud of a Cambrian sea. Though the extent of the Huronian ice sheet is only imperfectly known, it is certain that a plain in all respexjts like that beneath the tillite stretches 2,000 miles northwestward to the Arctic Ocean and more than 1,000 miles northeastward to the edge of Labrador, for flat-lying areas of Animikie or Kew’eenawan rocks cover a dozen broad areas of similar peneplain in other parts of the Canadian Shield. The same plain slips gently under Silurian and Devonian sediments in the central depression of Hudson Bay, under Ordo- vician limestone and Potsdam sandstone in Ontario, and under Silurian, Devonian, and Cretaceous rocks toward the southwest. How far the unchanged pre-Huronian peneplam or its little changed successor extends southwestward beneath the stratified rocks is un- known. Much of this vast surface has been buried at one time or another and sheltered from erosion by marine sediments, and has since been disinterred scarcely modified, but it is probable that it was never all covered by the sea at once. Portions of it seem to have re- mained dry land as cities of refuge for the inhabitants in every inundation. That other continental nuclei have had similar histories may be considered certain. In Scotland and Scandinavia nearly horizontal pre-Cambrian beds, whether of glacial origin or not, cover a pene- plain closely like ours, and quartzites and conglomerates called pre • Cambrian may be seen resting with gentle dips on a similarly trun- cated plain in West Australia. Near Clackline, for instance, Huronian-looking quartzite rests on gneiss penetrated by pegmatiti) dikes, and at several places in the neighborhood of Kalgouilie ancl 268 AKNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAK INSI^TITTION, 1910. Koolgardie a somewhat tilted conglomerate, like that of the American Huronian, overlies the steeply dipping gneissoid rocks. PIIE-IIURONIAN LAND CONDITIONS. No unchanged land surface has yet been found below the peneplain just descrilxjd, but important land areas can be inferred with cer- tainty, though now obliterated by squeezing and folding and the metamorphism due to eruptive granites. The great development of clastic sedimentary rocks included under the names of Seine Series, Sudbury Series, Terniscaming Series, etc., widely distributed over the Canadian Shield, imply broad lands and even mountain ranges far older than those destroyed before the Huronian. They generally begin with a great basal conglomerate, so coarse and bowldery sometimes as to suggest ice action, but squeezed and rolled out and folded in w^lth other rocks in ways that make the find- ing of striated stones or a striated surface beneath quite hopeless. It is, however, highly probable that the climate was in general cool and moist, for the rocks are gray and often include arkoses, with little weathered feldspars, though Lawson speaks of the S(uno conglomer- ate in one place as “ fanglomerate ” of desert formation. The rocks as a whole suggest a continental origin, and their materials must have come from the weathering of land surfaces. Some of the gray- wackes and slates are very evenly bedded and show regular altera- tions of coarser and finer materials, caused by varying seasons, either warm and cold or wet and dry. They resemble the stratified silt and clay laid down in glacial lakes at the end of the Pleistocene. Seder- holm’s Bothnian slates, with seasonal banding, probably of somewhat the same age, show similar conditions in Finland. Land can be discovei’ed still farther down in the misty depths of time, for the pebbles of the Seine and Dore conglomcu’ates include far older sedimentary rocks derived from the Keewatin or Couchiching or Grenville series, showing vast destruction of land surfaces in pre- Laurentian ages at the very beginning of the geological record. These glimpses of American land surfaces in a past twice removed from the ancient pre-Huronian continent give one a strange vista into a dim anti(|uity almost infinitely remote from a dweller in the post-Pleistocene. There is no visible beginning to dry land on the continent of America. WHY SHOULD THERE BE DRY LAND? Though it is commonly accepted that there were lands in the ^rliest known times, there are geologists who hold a theory of the ojHigin of the world which logically excludes the possibility of land l&owiug itself above the sea. The original nebular hypothesis, if mr LAND m geology—coleman. 269 followed without mishap from the stage of a cooling gas to that of a liquid, and then of a solid, would result in a correct spheroid of rotation. The lithosphere thus formed would be covered by an un- broken hydrosphere, followed in its turn by an atmosphere. A good workman would certainly ha^’e come close enough to the ideal form of his world to prevent errors amounting to GO.OOO feet. A properly manufactured world, following the orthodox nebular process, would be completely covered by an ocean 8,000 or 10,000 feet deep. This ideal world without a continent or an island would have avoided manj^ difficulties. Land animals, blundering, bloodthirsty, even cannibal in tlieir crude instincts, could never have existed. The ocean itself might never have been inhabited if life originated, as is commonly sup])osed, under shallow-water conditions. How quiet and peaceable such a woidd wmuld have been ! One almost longs for it under the turmoil of present conditions. A world without land would have had its disadvantages, however. There could have been no geologists and no geology. But it is idle to speculate as to the possibilities of a landless world. The blunder w^as (‘ommitted and the lithosphere w^as so far warped out of shape that more than a quarter of it rises above the sea. One might inquire, liow^ever, whether the blunder might not have been rectified by providing more wuitcr, so as to drowm out the objection- able lands. We know that there have been times when much of the present continental area w\as encroached on by the sea. Was there more w’^ater then, or wu\s it merely differently arranged'i^ Large amounts of wuiter are wdthdrawui from circulation by tlie hydration of various minerals. Arc they balanced by the amounts restored as juvenile w\aters and the steam from volcanoes, assuming, of course, that vol(;anoes give off steam and not ammonium chloinde? Prob- ably most geologists take it for granted that the amount of water on the globe is nearly constant from age to age. The existence of dry land at all when there is so much water on the earth is a profound mystery not even j^lausibly explained by the nebular hypothesis, since it demands an inexcusable irregularity in the working of the nebular machinery. HAVE OCEANS AND <K)NTINENTS EVER CHANGED PLACES? Admitting that in the beginning the lithosphere bulged up in places, so as to foinn continents, and sagged in other places, so as to form ocean beds, there are interesting problems presented as to the permanence of land and seas. All will admit marginal changes affecting large areas, but these encroachments of the sea on the conti- nents and the later retreats may be of quite a subordinate kind, not implying an interchange of deep sea bottoms and land surfaces. The essential permanence of continents and oceans has been firmly held 2Y0 EEPOET SMITHSONIAH INSXITUTIOK, M6. by many geologists, notably Dana among the older ones, and seems reasonable ; but there are other geologists, especially paleontologists, as well as zoologists and botanists, who display great recklessness in rearranging land and sea. The trend of a mountain range, or the convenience of a running bird, or of a marsupial afraid to wet its feet seems sufficient warrant for hoisting up any sea bottom to con- nect continent with continent. A Gondwana Land aidses in place of an Indian Ocean and sweeps across to South America, so that a spore-bearing plant can follow up an ice age ; or an Atlantis ties New England to Old England to help out the migrations of a shallow- water fauna; or a ‘‘Lost Land of Agulhas” joins South Africa and India. It is curious to find these revolutionary suggestions made at a time when geodesists are demonstrating that the earth’s crust over large areas, and perhaps everywhere, approaches a state of isostaiic equilib- rium, and that isostatic compensation is probably complete at a depth of only 76 miles. Hayford’s results have been ably supported and applied by my predecessor, Dr. Becker, in his address last year, but some geologists hesitate to accept them. Barrell, after an elaborate discussion of the whole question, thinks the equilibrium much less complete than Hayford’s results would suggest, but his arguments do not seem entirely convincing.^ Great stress is laid on the sub- marine deltas of the Nile and the Congo as loads which should have depressed the floor on which they were laid down, but have not done so. It should be remembered, however, that we know them only from soundings, and that assumptions regarding them are more or less hypothetical. On the other hand, the delta of the Mississippi seems to conform to the theory of isostasy, and there are numerous examples of depression going hand in hand with the formation of shallow-water deposits quite in accord with the isostatic theory. The 14,000 feet of coal measures at the Joggins are an instance. But more convincing still is Fairchild’s demonstration that a wave of elevation followed up the retreat of the ice front during the closing stages of the Glacial period. The thickness of ice near its margin could not have been more than a few thousand feet, perhaps half a mile, which would mean in weight of rock only 750 feet. If the stiff carapace of the earth in the State of New York yielded to so slight a change of load it is hardly credible that 9,900 feet of sediments spread over 75,000 square miles of sea bottom off the coast of Africa could have no effect. If I understand Barrell’s discussion aright, his differences from Hftyford’s conclusions are rather of degi’ee than of kind. He thinks the earth’s crust more rigid and considers adjustments to change of » Articles on the strength of the earth’s crust. Jour. Oeol., vols. 22 and 28, DRY LAND IK GEOLOGY—COLEMAK. 271 load much less complete, and also that they are carried out by slow movements in the “asthenosphere” much below Hayford’s level of complete compensation at 76 miles below the surface. He would probably agree that on the broad scale continents are buoyed up because they are light, and ocean bottoms are depressed because the matter beneath them is heavy. He would admit that to transform great areas of sea bottom into land it would be necessary either to expand the rock beneath by several per cent or to replace heavy roclc, such as basalt, by lighter materials, such as granite. There is no obvious way in which the rock beneath a sea bottom can be expanded enough to lift it 20,000 feet, as would be necessary in parts of the Indian Ocean, to form a Gondwana land; so one must assume that light rocks replace heavy ones beneath a million square miles of the ocean floor. Even with unlimited time, it is hard to imagine a mechanism that could do the work, and no convincing geological evidence can be brought forward to show that such a thing ever took place. Discussing this question not long ago in the Journal of Geology, Prof. Chamberlin showed that the only typical case of deep-sea deposits found on land, the well known one of the Barbadoes, occurs on one of the great hinge lines around wdiich motions of the earth’s crust take place and has no real hearing on the change of ocean bot- toms of continents^ The same may be said of the deep-sea deposits on Timor, in the East Indies, recently described by Molengraaff.^ In position Timor is almost the counterpart of the Barbados in the West Indies. The distribution of plants and animals should be arranged for by other means than by the wholesale elevation of ocean beds to make dry-land bridges for them. W. D. Matthew’s excellent paper on climate and evolution suggests w^ays in which this may be done more economically. The elevation of mountain chains by folding or the overriding of blocks might be expected to ipake trouble for the isostatic theory ; but the two best knowm examples, the Rockies and the Himalayas, seem to be approximately in isostatic equilibrim. In the case of the Hima- layas, the youngest and highest of the great mountain systems, it is staggering to find nummulitic beds 20,000 feet above the sea; but however it was managed, enough light material seems to have been introduced beneath to float the mountains at about the proper height. We may conclude that, broadly speaking, the dry-land areas have always been where they are now^ The adjustments of the boundaries of land and sea have been confined to the mai*gins of the continental masses. * Jour. (Jool., vol, 22, pp. 131, etc. * Kouinklljke Akad. v. Wotonsohappen, Amsterdam, deel 24, pp 415-430. 272 ANNtJAL JffiPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1918. TELEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. There are certain teleological features of the relations of land and water to which attention may l)e drawn in closing. Without water, no life such as we know would be possible. On the other hand, uniformly deep water over the whole earth, such as might have been e.xpected in a rigidly mechanical scheme, would probably not have provided the conditions necessai’y for the development of life. An apparently accidental lack of homogeneity in the eai'th allows lighter parts to rise above what would otherwi.se have been a univensal sea. The combined efforts of the epigene forces since the earliest known times ha^'o been directed toward the destruction of continents and islands and their reduction to shoals completely covered by the sea, but their efforts have always Ix'en foiled by movements originating in the earth’s interior. No continent seems to have been completely submerged since Triassic times. The life of land plants and animals appears to have been uninterrupted since that time on all the con- tinents. There has been perpetual oscillation in respect to the area and eleva- tion of land exposed, but on the whole the balance has been care- fully maintained. But for the presence of oceans of water, of an abnormal lightne.ss in some parts of the earth’s crust, and an unfail- ing balance for .50,000,000 years between the forces of elevation and of destruction, life such as ours would have been impos,sible. Can we look on these surprising adjustments as merely accidental? THE PETKOLEUM RESDUKCES OF THE UNITED STATES.* By liAuiHi AuNor.D. JN'rUOjniOTlON. In 1908 wlion llio n^itarion for llie uoiisorvalioii of oiir ininoral and other imtura] resoui‘ces was at its liei^ht, a |)a[)or was prepared by Dr. David T. Day on ‘‘The Petroleum Resources of the TTnited States.’' “ It was the privilejre of the writer to contribute some of the data upon which Dr. Day based his conclusions. Since the prep- aration of that article much development Avork has been done in this country, new fields have been opened up, and the possibilities of the older fields have been more closely studied. The present paper is intended as a revision of Dr. Day's thesis in view of the latest in- formation pertaining to the subject. The writer wishes to acknowl- edge his indebtedness to the following, among others, Avho have contributed data used in the i)reparation of these estimates: James H. Gardner, M. J. Munn, Prof. L. C. Glenn, Prof. G. 1). Harris, and Eichard E. Ilice. kxti:nt OB THE lucTuomorM fields. The oil fields of the United States usually are (dassified as the Appalachian, Lima-Indiana, Illinois, Mid-Continent, Gulf, Eocky Mountain, California, and Alaska. AppalaeMan field.—The Appalachian field extends from south- western New Yoi\ through Avestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky, into northern Ten- nessee. The formations yielding the oil throughout this field in- clude those of the Devonian and Carboniferous. The oil occurs along the axes and on the flanks of anticlines, parallel in general with the strike of the Appalachian Mountains, and on minor ter- races or other structures associated AAuth them. Occasionally it has iRepriuted by permission from Economic Geology, A^ol, 10, No. 8, December, 1915. *Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 394, pp. 30-50, 1909. 274 ANNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, been found in waterless synclines. The reservoir rocks are prin- cipally sandstones and coarse sediments. The oil from this field is of the best quality in the world, yielding a high percentage of the lighter oils such as gasoline and kerosene, and is utilized entirely for refining. It is of paraffin base and varies in gravity from 25° to 50° Beaume (0.0032 to 0.7778 sp. gr.), the heavier grades coming only from the southern end of the field. The price of tlie “ Penn- sylvania grade” oil is always high, ranging up to $2.50 per barrel. The average daily production of the wells is low, being 0.2 to 0.4 barrels in 1911. This field is almost completely developed except the portions in Kentucky and Tennessee, and e\'en here recent pros- pecting has resulted negatively in a majority of cases. l/irmi-IndiwnAi field .—The Lima~Indiana field covers a considerable portion of northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana. The oil is derived from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Carboniferous, largely from the Trenton limestone, the reservoir lock being porous dolo- mitic lenses or beds or sandstones. Favorable structures, such as half domes, terraces, etc., on the flanks of the Cincinnati uplift, Usually harbor the commercial deposits. The oil is of paraffin base, varies in gravity from 30° to 35° Beaume (0.8750 to 0.8484 sp. gi\), carries a little sul])hur, and is utilized entirely for refining purposes. The average initial daily production of the wells up to 1911 was 15.5 barrels; the average daily production per well was 0.7 barrel for that year. This field also is practically outlined, although new pools are even yet being occasionally discovered. Illinois field —The Illinois field occupies a strip of territory along the La Salle anticline in the southeastern part of the State. It also extends a short distance into Indiana. The oil is derived largely from the Pennsylvanian and a little from the upper Mississippian (both Carboniferous), and o<:curs principally in well-defined sand- stone horizons along the crest of the asymmetric La Salle anticline. Impregnation is governed locally by the lithology. A little of the oil comes from limestone. The oil is of paraffin base, although locally carrying some asphalt, ranges in gravity from 28° to 39° Beaume (0.8860 to 0.8284 sp. gr.), and is used principally for re- fining purposes. The average initial daily production up to 19H was 63 barrels ; the average daily production of the individual wells for the same year was 4.2 barrels. With the exception of some possible territory in the western part of the State the Illinois pro- ductive area is well defined at the present time. Mid^Continent f>eld .—The Mid-Continent field comprises the pools iu Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, and northern Texas. The oil is secured from the sandstones of the Pennsylvania (Carbonifer- ous) formations in domes, half domes or terraces, and local anti^ cliue# on the flanks of the great Ozark uplift. The oil is of paraffin PETROLEUM RESOURCES—^ARNOLD. 275 base, varying in gravity from 27*" to 41° Beaume (0.8917 to 0.8187 sp. gr.), and is used for refining. It is piped to the Gulf and also to Indiana and other eastern States. The development in this field has been plienoinenal during the past few years, some of the pools being exceedingly productive. The average initial daily production of the wells in 1011 was 110 barrels; the average daily x)roduction 8.6 barrels. A fair percentage of the region embraced in this field yet remains to be prospered, the bulk of the untested land lying in Texas. Gulf field ,—The Gulf field includes the pools lying along the coastal plain of Louisiana and Texas. The oil occurs for the most part in domes or quaquaversals associated with salt and gypsum deposits. The age of the containing rocks ranges from Cretaceous to Quaternary. The reservoir rock is usually porous doloinitic lime- stone or sandstone. The oil of northern Louisiana occurs in Cre- taceous and Eocene rocks along an iiplilt or fold. The oils of the Gulf field vary greatly in composition; those in the strictly coastal belt vary from irc to 27.7"^ Beaume (0.9655 to 0.8878 sp. gr.) and are of asphalt base; those of northern Louisiana vary from 25° to 43.6° Beaume (0.f>031 to 0.8065 sp. gr.) and are of paraffin base. Sulphur usually accompanies the heavy oil. The lighter oils are used for re- fining, the heavier for fuel. Some of the individual wells have been exceedingly productive, a daily flow of 75,000 barrels being recorded for one at least. The pools usually are quite short-lived. In 1911 the average initial daily flow for the Gulf coastal pools was 257 barrels; for northern Louisiana, 1,176 barrels; the daily average for the field, 60 barrels. Some territory still remains untested in this field. Rocky Maujitain f£ld.—The Kocky Mountain field embraces pools in Wyoming and Colorado and as yet untested deposits in Utah and New Mexico. The oil occurs in beds of Carboniferous, Triassic (?), and Cretaceous age, nearly always in sandstone interbedded with shale, though occasionally in fracture zones. Typical dome structure is the most favorable location, but occasionally commercial deposits occupy monoclines or interrupted monoclines. The oils from the older formations vary in gravity from 18° to 24° Beaume (0.9459 to 0.9091 sp. gr.), are of asphalt base, and are used largely for fuel; those from the Cretaceous vary from 32° to 48° Beaume (0.8642 to 0.7865 sp. gr.) , are of paraffin base, and are refined, yielding high per- centages of gasoline, kerosene, and distillates. The productivity of individual wells usually is not large, the average daily yield per well being about 25 barrels in 1913. The potentialities of the Bocky Mountain field are not great, unless the extensive deposits of oil shale of northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah are taken 276 ANNtJAL EBPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916* into account* As these deposits will require a distillation process for the recovery of their oil contents, they are not included under the head of free oil deposits. Califmmia fdd .—California is the greatest producer of petro* leuin of an,y State in the Union, It secures its oil from rocks of Cretaceous to late Tertiary age, the great bulk coming from the Miocene. Nearly every type of structure peculiar to the coast ranges yields commercial quantities of oil, anticlines, domes, plunging anti- clines, monoclines, and fault zones being the principal soujtcs. The reservoir rocks usually are sand and sandstone, though fracture joints in slialc hold oil in at least one district. The oil is ])ractically all of asphalt base, although paraflin up to 1 |)er cent is found in a little of the oil fVom the Cretaceous and Eocene. The oil vai’ies in gravity from to 35*^ Beaume (0.1)859 to 0.8481 sj). gr.), about 70 per cent of it being topped or refined. Much of the heavy oil is used for fuel and road dressing. The prod\ictivity of individual wells has reached as high as t58,000 barrels daily; the average daily ppoduc- tion per well was 45.2 barrels in lOlIh The oil districts of Cali- fomia are practically outlined to-day and little in the way of addi- tional acreage is to be ex])ected in the future. Alaska field ,—Small quantities of oil have been obtained from the Jurassic rocks of western Alaska and the lower Tertiary of eastern Alaska. The oil occurs in sandstone along well-defined and sometimes faulted anticlines. The oil varies in gravity from 39"^ to 45.9° Beaume (0.8284 to 0.7958 sp. gr.) and is of an excellent refining grade. The wells so far drilled are small producers. The commercial productivity of the Alaskan deposits yet remains to be proven. Other fields .—In addition to the Slates mentioned as occupying the above fields, oil occurs in small (|uantitics in Michigan (a con- tinuation of the Peti’oleo, Canada Jield) and Missouri (a continuation of the Oklahoma conditions). These States and Alaska together produced but 7,792 barrels in 1911. Alabama and Mississippi also arc said to have possibilities. IMPOKTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES AS (JOMPAKED WITH OTHER (T)UNTUIES. The following table, compiled under the supervision of J. D. Northrop, of the United States Geological Survey,^ giving the pro- duction of (jrude petroleum in 1914 and from 1857 to 1914, in barrels, illustrates the relative importance of the various oil-producing coun- tries of the world. 1 Mining and Scientific Treas, Aug. 14, 1915, p. 248. PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARKOLD. 277 Table l.^WorWs produrMon of crude petroleum in and 1857 to lOlIf, with percentage of production hy countries, in barrels of gallons. Country. 191 4 1857-1914 Production. Per cent. Prcxluction. Per cent. United States 265,762,535 66.36 .3,3.35,457,140 59.63 Russia - 67,020,522 16.71 1,622,233, 8-15 29.00 Mexico 21,188, 427 5.20 90, .359, 869 1.62 Roumania 12,826,579 3.20 117,982,474 2.11 Dutch East Indies 1 12,705,208 3.17 138,278,392 2.47 India 3 8,000,000 2.00 73.979, 919 1.32 Galicia 3 .S, 033, 3.50 1.26 131,873,601 2.36 .Tapan ... i 3 2, 7.38, .378 .68 27,051,158 .48 Peru 1,917,802 .48 14,306,972 .26 Germany 3 99.5,764 ,25 12,965.569 .23 Egypt 777,038 .10 1,086,728 .02 Trinidad 64.3,53.3 .16 2,069,4.30 .04 Canada 2J4,R0.5 .0,5 23, 493, 610 ! .42 Italy 39, 518 .01 802,229 .01 Other coiintrlpj^ i <620,000 .16 1,322,000 .03 Total 11 400,483,480 100.00 5,593.262,030 100.00 1 Includes Britislj Borneo. 3 Includes Formosa. > EvStimated. < Includes 600,000 barrels produced In Argentina. The relntive importance of tlie States in the Union is shown in the accompanying table, which gives the marketed production for the year 1914. In the case of two of the States at least, the marketed production is below the estimated production, tlie discrepancy being accounted for by oil put in storage. The actual production of Cali- fornia was probably around 103,000.000 barrels, with possibly 7,000,000 barrels “shut in,'’ which might have been produced. The estimated production of Oklahoma was 98,000,000 barrels. Table IT .—Production of petroleum in the United Sitate}^, hy Pfates, in ldl \ and 1857 to JiU'i. in barrels of gallon>(. Alaska California Colorado Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Michigan Missoiirl New Mexico... Now York Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania . Texas West Virginia. Wyoming Otner Total 19M I 18,57-1914 0 ) 99, 775,327 222,773 21,919,749 1,33.S456 3, 103, 585 .502, 441 14,309, 435 741,273,559 10,649,143 232,326,616 102,82.3,798 28,547,074 9,095,970 89,895,433 72,712 938, 974 (3) 8,636,352 432,762,004 73, 631, 724 461,833,460 8,170,335 754,180,215 20,068,184 203,799,381 9,6S0,a33 260,232,815 3,560,375 7,964,944 7.792 265,762,535 | 3,335,457,130 ’ Included in Other,’' * Included in Pennsylvania. FACTORS GOVERNING THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Before entering into a discussion of the probable future production of petroleum in the United States, it will be well to outline the various factors which govern this production. These, factors may be divided into two groups, natural and artificial. 73889"—SM 1916 10 278 ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INfeTITUTION, 1D16. A. NATURAL FACTORS. 1. Presmre,—The pressure exerted on the oil in its underground reservoir may be hydrostatic, hydraulic, or gas; it may be coexten- sive with the field or pool, in which case it is called field pi’essure,” or it may be exceedingly local in extent, when it is called local” or ‘‘well pressure.” Ihcssure in oil wells vai*ies from 0 to over 2,000 pounds per square ineh, usually declining as the field or Avell grows old. Other things being equal, the ])roduction varies with the pres- sure. 2. Viscosity.—Production varies inversely with the viscosity, and since the viscosity in general increases with the si)ecific gravity (in- creases Inversely Avith the Beauinc degrees) it may be said that, other conditions being equal, the pindiu^tion varies inversely w ith tlie spe- cific gravity of the oil. Natural petroleums vary fi’om substances as fluid as w ater (low vis(‘ositv ) to those Inn ing the consistency of ’’‘cold molasses” (high \'iscosity), or even to those possessing the i)roperties of solids. 3. Thickness end evident of reservoir The production A'aries Avith the thickness and extent of the reservoir rock. The thickness of the pay streaks may vary from 2 feet, as in some fields of the eastern United States, to over 200 feet, as in some ('‘alifornia fields. The lateral extent of tlie layer or lens may be from a fcAv feet to several miles. 4. Pm^osity of reservoir rocks.—Prodtu'lion Aai'ies inversely Avith. the porosity within certain limits. In uniformly grained rocks the coai-ser the grain of the reservoir the less is the actual porosity; but the larger the size of the interstices the le^r^s is the friction surface per unit of oil. Idiei-efoie, coatse sediments are really less ]>orous ami consequently hold less oil, but they give it up more readily than fine sediments and usually give a greater ultimate yield per unit of volume. Keservoir rocks may be fine shale to the coarsest conglo- merates, or porous or caAcimous dolomites or limestones. Fracture or fault zones also may act as reservoirs. The Avorld’s maximum producers obtain their oil from cavernous limestones or dolomites; the steadiest and longest-liAed wells are in medium-giained sand. 6. Structure of reservoir rocks .—Structure usually has a profound influence on oil accumulation and production, the most advantageous positions being in the crests of domes or anticlines, or on the flanks of sealed or terraced monoclines. Lithology or other causes may locally produce exceptions to all rules of accumulation. ^ B. ARTIFICIAL FACTORS. 1. Price of oil.—The price of oil is the dominant factor governing the production of oil, especially as it relates to groups of wells, fields, PETROI-EUM RESOURCES ARNOLD. 2 79 districts, or States. The price may vary from 10 to 15 cents a barrel at the well, as at certain periods in the history of the Mexican or California fields, or it may range np to $2.50 per barrel, and in ex- ceptional cases much higher, when the demand is great and the sup- ply limited. Price of oil lai‘gely affects the other artificial factors, which may be snmmai'i/ed as follows: 2. Depth of v^etls and trine reqmrcd to dvUL—Pj*oduction may be accelerated or I’ctarded by the time required to drill wells. In some places wells can he jmt down in a week or 10 days; elsewher*e it may take from one to two yeai's to finish a well. In a shallow well dis- trict production can be increased (]uickly by a vigorous dialling pro- gram; in deep well areas mu(‘h time and money may be necessary to ino'ease or even sustain ]n’odnction. 3. />hfanre t^eparating ircth .—AVi thin a certa i n iindergi’ound reservoir, Uie (juantity of oil that ultimately can l>e recovered and the rapidily with wliich it may be produced are largely dependent on the distance sejiarating the individual wells. The thicker the wells the (juicker the reco^ ery of the oil and the greater the expense of reco\ ery. AVells may be spaced 25 feet a])nrt or as near together as the deri’icks Avill stand, as in the congested Spindle-top field of Texas, or they may be separated by a distance of one-fourth mile or more. Ownership of ])ro])erty often determines the spacing of the wells, many small tracts under separate ownership tending toward congestion of development and rapidity of re(*overy. Conservation is best attained by single ownership of large l)odies of land, so that devel()])ment will be determined by the principle of recovering the oil at the least possible expense, that is, with the least number of wells. 4. ('onditioih of irefl^ pamp, etc,—The condition of the well, pump, and other physical {U’opei'ties involved in the winning of the oil greatly influences the production, (dean wells, eflicient ]>umps, and enei'getic employees tend toward maximum production; sanded up or improperly perfoi*atcd wells, leaky ])umps, and inexperienced or careless em])loyees militate against successful opei’ation. 5. Discoverif of netn fields,—The discovery of new’ fields is a most potent factor in oil production. The search for new’ fields is stimu- lated by high prices; their discovery usually results in a flush yield and a lowering of the price. Obviously, each new’ field raises the noianal production to be expected from any district or State, and it is this factor of new territory which lends so much uncertainty to the oil business. 0. Distance from market,—The distance from market of any field or group of wudls often determines the rate of development and con- sequent production. Tliose fields nearest to market or favorable 280 ANNUAL RKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. transportation facilities are usually quickly developed to their maxi- mum capacity, while fields farther away are often left for years without even being adequately prospected. 7. in dei^elopwent and recovery methods .—^New methods of drilling and increasingly efficient methods of recovery are favorably atTecting ])roduction in many fields. The most important advance in recent years has been along the line of increased use of compressed air in the recovery of oil, especially in California and Pennsylvania. 8, Water coinplications.—""Water troubles-' may be either natural or a combination of natural conditions and human carelessness or ignorance. Water causes the final ruin of practically all oil fields; it is the omnipresent and greatest menace of the producing fields. In most cases water troubles are inexcusable. Their results almost always are negative and sometimes irremediable. Oil in most fields of the United States and, in fact, throughout the world, occurs in inclined or slojiing beds of sand or other porous rock, and these oil zones usually are overlain and underlain by water sands or zones wliich are separated from the oil zones by impervious clay, shale, or other str<ata. In these two cases the Tvater is extraneous to the oil sands. These waters are called ^"to))” and “‘bottom” waters, in accordance with their occurrence, respectively, above or below the oil zones. In a properly finished well the ‘‘Hop” water is cased off or cemented olf before the well is drilled into the oil sand. The “ bottom *’ water never is drilled into except l)y accident, in which event it is plugged off. With the top ” water shut off and the bot- tom” water untouched, the oil is produced practically free from water. Watei', being heavier than oil and often also under a gi'eater hydrostatic pressure, will replace part or all of the oil at the point of ingress into the well if it is allowed to reach the oil sand. In this way it replaces the oil, in whole or in ])art, and thus lessetis the amount of oil produced and increases its cost of recovery. Water also occurs indigenous to the oil sands in certain fields, but in this case it does not at first occupy the same ]iart of the stratum as that occupied by the oil, but lies in the lower or down-slope” portion of the sand, and the line marking the junction of the oil in the “up- slope” part of tlie l>ed and the water in the “ down slope” part de- termines the limits of the productive territory. The water under these conditions is called “edge” water. Upon exhaustion of the oil by flowing or pumping, the “edge” water, through hydrostatic dr other pressure, usually “ follows up ” and replaces the oil. The ap- pearance of the originally extraneous “top” water or “bottom” water in a well indicates a failure to exclude the water properly by the manipulation of casing, cement, or plugs. Such a condition usually can ^ remedied and the offending fluid kept out of the oil sand, PETROLFATM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. 281 although what has come in already may sometimes remain in the oil to a gi'eater or less extent. The appearance of edge ” water in a well is another matter, for here the oil has been permanently replaced by the water, and, so far as the affected sand is concerned, the well can be considered as no longer productive. “ Edge ” water sometimes appears in a well in some particular sand, while other producing sands are free from water. In this instance, the “ edge” water sand is abandoned and (aised off and tlie production (‘ontiniied from the other sands. Most of the watei‘ troiililes are due to a failure to shut off the “ top ” water in the ])ro(*ess of drilling. Wells, ])ro])erties, and entire fields have been seriously damaged or entirely imined by the watei*. some- times from only a few ofi'ending wells. This factor of water is, therefore, one of the most ])oiejit in oil ])rodnction and at tlie same time the most nnceiiain. METHODS OF ESTIMATTNiJ El TrUK SI lUU.V. Two methods of estimating the future produetion oj‘ snj)plv of oil in any area or field are in use. one known as the saturation method, the other, tlie j;)ro(luetion <*iir\'o niethod. sA'i'i UATiuN A! irrHuo.’ The saturation method of (‘omputation involves finding the cubieal contents of tlie reservoir, determining tlie degn^o oT ijorosity of the volume, and then estimating the total, available, and net supply of oil contained under the a)*ea iii question. By total supply is meant the total (juaiitity of oil in the resei’voir; by available supply is meant the tjuantity that theoretically can l)e I'ccoveied with ordi- nary methods in vogue; net supply is tlie quantity marketed after deducting for fuel used in devehqunent and o[)eration, leakage, and other losses. Total supply depends on the volume and porosity of the reservoir and on the volume of free gas and of water which are included in the oil. The first factor usually can be approximated by taking the area involved and multiplying by the average thickness of the oil sand or zone. The porosity can be approximated from out(Top samples or drilling samples of the reservoir. Gas and water contents are tin- certaiii, but in most instances can be disregarded for rough ajiproxi- mations. Gas usually is in solution and the water only in the out- lying edges of the oil pools. Available saturation may range from 0 to, possibly, 80 per cent, depending largely oif the gas pressure and other factors, such as grain of reservoir, coherency, etc. From 40 to 60 per cent of the total quantity ordinarily is recoverable. Of ^ Th-ls methofl Is described by Cheater W. Washburne, Bull. A. I. M. E., No. 08, February; 1015, pp. 469-171. 282 ANNUAL REFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. this quantity possibly 10 per cent to 15 per cent is lost in production or used for fuel, so that of the total supply but 34 per cent to 54 per cent ordinarily is marketed. Many yeai*s may be required to make even this recovery. It is the writer’s belief that estimates based on the satui-ation method are much less reliable and satisfactory than those worked out through the production-ciii’ve method, but the former must be used for new or poorly dev^eloped fiedds and will be brietlv des(a‘Ll)od. The thickness of producing oil sands or oil zones varies from 2 feet in the Illinois field to over 200 feet in the C’alifornia field. Total supply or saturation as marked by the porosity varies from a trace, in sands, u]) to 50 per cent in some exceedingly porous diatomaceous shale from California. Between 5 and 15 per cent is tlie average for sands, some, however, going as high as 30 ])er cent. An acre of ground covered witli oil a foot deep (1 aci’e foot) contains 7,758 bar- rels. This would 4)e complete saturatioii for tlie 43,5r>0 cn])ic feet. Assuming an averages of 10 per c(‘n< saturation would give 775.8 bar- rels per acre-foot for noi'mal comlhions. On (his basis a 5-foot sand would contain 3,S70 IkhtcIs j)er acre, and a 50- loot sand 38,700 bar- rels. Actual yields of over 100,000 hai‘rels per acre are known. Estimates of the a\ erag:e production per acre for the various States are given in Ta])Ie Hi. Most of th(\se lignres a]‘(‘ based primarily on the prodnction-ciir\ e method, but a few are l)ased on or checked by the saturation method. P[{01)I^fTI(>N-(TTKVK ]Mr:THon. General staiernenf . Estimating future ])rodiif*l ion or supply by a plotting of hypotliotical curves, bas(‘d on actual figjires in well- known areas or fields, is the safest method, as it involves factors which it is possible to obtain. Another thing in its favor from tlie standpoint of the producer and mai-keter of oil is that it is based on and has to do Avith actual “net” oil figures, instead of theoretical quantities. Basis of theoretical curve ,—The theoretical curve shown in the diagram accompan^dng tliis article is based primarily on the yearly total prcKluction figures of New York and Pennsylvania. These figures cover a period of productivity of 51 years, longer l)y far than that of any other field in the United States. Furthermore, over this period this field has been subject to all of the vicissitudes from hath natural and artificial causes that beset oil fields in general. The area involved in the Pennsylvania and New York field is greater than that in any other field in the United States, which is still another reason why the result should be conservative. TPhe interesting part of the production curve is that following the period of maximum yield. In some instances it is fairly safe to 284 ANKIJAL KEPOBT SMITHSONTAN IKSTITUTIOK, 1916. predict just when this period is reached, although usually a great divergence of opinion pi^evails, due to whether the prophet is a pro- ducer or a consumer. As a rule, the crest of the production curve is not a sharp peak, but is represented by a more or less wavj^ dome, showing that the ])roduction remains near the maximum for several years. In the case of the Pennsylvania-New York curve, the ])eriod of high production extended over about 10 years; that of Ohio and West Virginia over 8 years; and that of Illinois over 2 years. Fol- lowing this period the production is more or IcvSs irregular, ))ut in general decreases at a fairly regular rate, the ]*ate of decrease, based on the previous year's production, becoming gradually h;ss and less as is indicated in the theoretical cur\e in the diagram. In figures tliis decrease may l»e tabulated thus, the basis of computation being the maximum yearly production for the field Ver rent of maxinnun jooduction. At end of first 10 50 At end of second 10 years 80 At end of third 10 years 20 At end of fourth 10 years 15 At end of fifth 10 years 12.5 At end of sixth 10 years 10 Average for 10 years 75 Average for 10 years 40 Average for 10 years 25 Average for 30 years 17.5 Average for 10 years 18.75 Average for 10 years 11.25 The usual development history in the ])eriod of high production is, first, a decrease of yield followed by increase in ju'ice, tlien re- newed development activity, with a resultant increase in yield, a fall in price, and so on until the development reaches a ])oint where the production of new wells fails to make np the decrease of the old, when the final ])eriod of decrease begins. lOSTHMATED FUTURE PRODUCTION. The following table gives the estimated future production of petroleum in the United States, together with the apjiroximate figures as to the pro\en and })rospective oil-bearing areas, and a summary of the i)rincipal points regarding the occurrence and character of the oil. The figures of future supply take into account a certain per cent of the prospective oil area, as the curve on which they are based pertains to an area Avhere new fields have been added from time to time as development progressed. In the case of Texas, Wyoming, etc., where the ratio of ])rospective area to proven area is high, the future supply may be considerably greater than that predicted if the bulk of the prospective land proves j)roductive. COMPARISON Avrra DU. day’s figures for 1908. Table IV is a comparison of the estimates given by I)r.‘ Day for i90>8 with those by the writer for 1915. They are here presented by in order to correspond with Dr. Day’s divisions. Table III . — Past and esliniaUd future production rf petrohiim in the United Stales, PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. 28 Table IV. — Estimated total production of the United States, by fields , 286 ANNUAL BEI^OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. PETKOLEUM KEBOURCES—^ARNOLD. 287 Comparing tho \vriter\s estimates with those of Dr. Day, it is at once apparent that the estimates for the older eastern fields have been reduced while those for the western fields have been increased. This is especially true for tho Mid-Continent field, in which there was little develojinient at the time Dr. Day’s figures were compiled. In the case of California ^ it has l)een found that the available satura- tion is less than was ex])ec(ed during the eai’ly history of the field. At the tinu^ the first estimates were made the field gas ])ressure was high and water trou))le had not become serious. With the lapse of time it has become evidenf that a reduced gas pi'cssure and water infil- tration necessitate mati'rially cutting the original ligui’i^s. At the ])resent rate of consimijition of approximately 205,000,000 barrels per year, an estimated sup]>ly of 100,0(10 barrels would last only, a])proximately, 22 years. However, as the total produc- tion of the United Statics will gradually deci-ease from year to year, it is believed that (he total available sujjply will sprt'ad out over a period of from 50 to 75 years. The pri^*e of oil, which now rang(‘S from 40 eents to $2 per barrel (average, 05 eents), depending on the locality and grade of the product, ]')rol)td)ly will imavase to figures approximating $1 per ])arr(4 for fuel oil and prissihly $5 or more for the lighter grtides. All other fa(*tors being eijual, a ban^el of fuel oil as compared witli eoai on the Pacific coast is worth to-day 03 cents. lA’cn wore oil t(» ])e used only as a fuel, the tendem/y would be for it to rise in price until it reached a ])oint set by the value of coal in tlio same rc'gions. As oil has so many points in its favor, as regards ease of handling, e lea tdi ness, etc., it is quite evident that eventually it will he sold at a higher price than is warranted by its heat value as com[)ar*(‘d with that of coal. Before the fnM'. iiatui-al petroleum in the earth is (‘xhausted the oil shales of Colorado, Idah, (dVlifornia, aiid other States will have begun to l)e utilized as a source of petroleum. Also artificial oil made from animal and vegetable waste probably will ])e available to take its ])1a{‘e. Even at the ])resent time the necessities of war have led certain of the European governments to utilize various substi- tutes for petroleum and its derivatives, the su])stitutes in general being made from organic substances. In conclusion, tlu^ writer might repeat wliat often has l)een pointed out by conservationists, that oil as far as possible should l)e used for those purposes for which we have no other substitute, namely, for lubricants, refined derivatives, etc., and not for fuel. If used for fuel, it should not bo in connection with the wasteful steam engine, but in the Diesel engine and similar types, which are so much moi’e efficient that their use doubtless will become more and more general as time goes on, ^ Dr. Gpo. Otla Smith (llHciiflHOH the duration of CaUfovuin petroleum reyourees in Min, Res. U. S. for 1910, Ft. II, p. 4i0, ot seQ. THE OUTLOOK FOR IRON.* By Prof. James Furman Kjomu, Colvmh id I ^mvers f //. The close of the nineteenth century produciul nn attitiifle of mind in many stiideihs of national affairs akin to that of a mcndiant who balances his books at the end of a twelvemonth. When the results of a year's business have been demonstrated, the merchant decides on his plans and policies for the fiilure. lie makes a reliable esti- mate of his resources and learns his possibilities and his limitations. As a nation wliich looked over a hundi’ed years instead of one year, we were in much the same position when the twentieth century opened. From small beginnings, all manner of imiustries liad reached an impressive development. Some employed materials which were con- stantly reproduced either by plants or animals, and which, by im- proved methods, could be increascal in amount; but other industries were rapidly drawing upon fixed reserves which could not be re- newed, We naturally began to forecast the future and, with a look ahead, to infer the course of events in the century then opening. Among the industries, that of mining came in for special attention. It is a very gix'at one in this country, and it is distinctive in that it destroys its raw materials in utilizing them. Forests, crops and live stock all grow again. f)re and coal mined are gone forever. Not im- natuTully, in a fundamental industry such as iron mining—one on which so many others lest,—people vitally inteiested began to raise the question of reserve for the future and to wonder in what position the industry would find itself fifty or a hundred years later. We are not surprised, therefore, to note that open expression was given to feelings of apprehension, nor that some prophecies were made whose i*estatement now possesses much interest. Not alone, however, in our own country were tliese apprehensions felt. Abroad, they like- wise found expression, especially in England, whose people had been roused for years regarding the future of their coal fields. In October, 1902, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, one of our most distin- guished ironmasters, was installed as rector of the University of 1 Reprinted by permission from Contributions from the Geological Department, Columbia University, Vol. 27, No. 1. 280 290 ANNUAL REPORT HMITHSONTAN INSTITaXION, 1916. St. Andrews, Scotland. He delivered a very interesting address in which he stated that if the rate of consumption of iron ore in the United States did not greatly increase, we would have a supply of tirst-class iron ore for only GO or 70 years and of second-class for 30 years longer. Mr. C^arnegic estimated our demonstrated store of unmined ore at 1,000,000,000 ions. The consumption, at that time, was between tweniy-hve and thirty millions of tons annually. All persons well informed upon mining matters would infer that the mining of a billion tons, now demonstrated, would reveal appreciably more; and while a billion tons divided by ‘25 gives a life of 40 yeai^, 60 or 70 years Avas a not unreasonable ligure. Yet this period is a relatiATly short one and the forecast justifies anxiety. Since Mr. Carnegie's address Avas delivered, the annual output of ore has doubled, and, unless relieved by other considerations, Avhatevcr aj)- prehensions Avere jiistilled then are tAvicc as emphatic now. In 1805, from three ditl’erent spokesmen came ])rophe(‘ies similar to those of Mr. Carnegie. Sir llobert A. Iladfield, Avhose words re- garding the iron and steed industry should carry as great Avcight as any manV, in a presidculial address (o the British Iron and Steel Institute^ forecasts the call of the Avorhfs furnaces upon the mines at the outset of the ncAv century, and upon the basis of knoAVii re- serves also gave good ground for apprehension. In the same year, the late Prof. Tornebohm, long the chief of the Swedish Geological Survey and Avith siiecial experience in iron or('s, made a re])ort to the Parliament of SAvedon, based on a visit to this country.- At this time the Swedish Government Avas actively sharing in the develop- ment of the great bodies of iron ore in Lapland, far Avithin the Polar Circle. The importance of kjioAving the part which they might play in the worlds iron industry of the future Avas great, and the deter- mination of the limits (ff annual output Avas a. matter iu Avliich the SAvedish authorities felt a lively interest. Prof. Tornebohm credited the Mesabi P;nige with half a billion tons; the other I^ake Superior ranges, collecti\ely, Avith as much more; and the Eastcjui broAvn hematites Avith G(),00(),0()0, This total of a little over a billion tons gave cause for anxiety, since the out- put in 1905 of American mines had risen beyond forty millions, and a life of 25 years Avas thus indicated. But, of course, a moment’s reflection shoAvs that the estimates are incomj)lete, since the Clinton ores of the East, and especially of Alabama, are omitted entirely. In the same year, 1905, the late Prof. N. S. Shaler sought to rouse his countrymen to an appreciation of the situation Avith regard to the mining industry in a paper of a popular nature on ‘‘ Tlie Ex- 1 Proceedings, 1905, L. 27, and especially 86-60. * Reprinted In the Iron Age, Nov. 2, 1906. OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 291 haustion of the WorlcFs Siipi)]y of Metals.” ^ Prof. Slialcr, in gen- eral terms, considei’s the supply of ores of all sorts remaining to us as, roughly, twenty times the amount already mined, lie thinks another century will exhaust the European supplies of iron ore. The best place for the iron industry is in the Mississippi Valley, and the ores tributary to it are ])assed in review Avithout definite figures, exc(‘pt for Alabama, to Avhose Clinton red hematites a life of 50 3^ears is assigned. Other jiapers preceded, accompanied or followed tlie four specially cited and of these a list is given at the close of this contribution. They can not all lie mentioned now, and the ones brielly reviewed will sullice to show the aj)preheiisi ve state of the public mind, here and elsewhere, from 10 to 15 years ago. As a sym])tom of the Avidespread interest and as a natural step to prevent waste and to maintain as long as ])ossible the material sup- jiorts of industries, the conservation moMuneiit sprang up in this country. It has taken form in annual conventions and discussions, and has been influential in matters of legislation. Outside the American boundaries, similar steps have been taken. Reports of the Canadian Conservation Commission regularly reach us. In connection with conservation in general, iron ore has been one of the chief sulyjects to be considered, and Ave are not surprised to find our Swedish colleagues, as soon as they were assured at the International Oeological Congress held in INIexico City, in 1906, that their invitation for the meeting of 1910 Avould be accepted, began to plan a great Avork on the “Iron Ore Resources of the World.” Iron mining is one of the chief, if not the chief, single industry in Sweden. Tlie subject, therefore, ])ossessed great local as well as international importance, d'he associated authors in all lands began to busy tliemselves at once Avith data and estimates of reserves. A vear after the movement had l)een started by the Swedisli committee and by its representative in this country, a special investigation of American iron oj-e resein cs Avas also initiated under the Ihuied States Geological Sui’acy Avith Dr. C. W. Hayes in charge of the collection of data. TIic result of these endeavors led to the preparation of as com])letc estimates as were practically pos- sible.'-^ They Avill be mentioned and utilized later on. Before AA^e can actually undertake a discussion of the future, we must have clearly before us several matters of vital import. We must know the largo features of production in the United States as a whole and in the more important individual districts. We need to 1 International Quarterly, vol. 2, 230-247, 1005. * C. W. Hayes. Bull. 394, U. S. G. S., 70-114, 1909. 292 ANNUAL KE#OKT SMITB.SOKIAN INSTirUTION, 1&16. briefly trace the progress of production during recent years. We need further to know what the general run of working percentages has been and to answer the questions : Is the yield per ton declining as the years pass, and are we content now to treat ores of lower grade than were our fathers? How do our ores compare in yield with those of foreign productive areas? We can not overlook the vital bearing of our supply of coking coal—a factor in present iron metallurgy not inferior to ore supply itself. We must consider sources of ore outside the United States and yet so situated as to contribute to our furnaces. We must also consider ]:)resent, or rea- sonably certain future improvements in processes of smelting. No horoscope for the future can be cast without attaching due weight to all these factors. The gi-owth in the production of iron ore in the United States has been so great as to be the chief cause of anxiety for the future. The tabulation of a few figures, using a million long tons as the unit, will make the matter clear. Extended statistics are not necessary. I am extremely anxious that the great striking truths should not be lost in a maze of figures. The statistics are taken from tlie Mineral Kesources of the United States Geological Survey. Detailed figures are not attainable for 1888 and earlier years, except in those in which a census was taken. In the years before the Civil War the production was small, but shortly after peace was restored the Tvake Superior mines began to assume greater and greater im])ortancx‘, and later Alabama developed its mining and smelting industry. in of long /o«.v. 1860.. 1870. 1875.. 1880.. 1882., 1884.. 1886.. 1888.. 1890.. 1892.. 1894.. 1896.. 1900.. . 1902.. . 1904.. . 1906.. . 1908.. . 1910*.. 1912 .. ^ mi... Uuitea Statos total. Lake Superior. 1 AJahama. Other K astern States. We.stern States. 2.H [ :c8 0.8 i ' 4.0 0.8 ^ ! 7.1 1.9 ! 0.17 1 5. 0.00 8.7 2.9 i 0.05 7.7 2.6 0.02 10.0 3.5 12.0 5.0 i 6.03 16.0 8.98 1.90 4.96 0. 19 16. 9. m 2.31 4.24 0. 15 11.8 7.60 1.49 2.70 0.29 16.0 10. 50 2.04 3.10 0.26 19.4 13. 2. 40 2.84 0.37 27.6 20.50 2.75 3.75 0.54 35.5 27.05 3.57 4.30 0.65 27.6 20.30 3.70 3.28 0.36 47.7 37.80 3-99 4.91 0.80 35.9 28. 10 3.70 3.50 0.52 56.8 46.30 4.80 4.80 0.80 55.1 42.0 i 46. 40 32.91 4.60 3. 10 0.90 OUTLOOK FOE IKON—KEMP. 293 GENERAL PROGRESS OP PRODUCTION. By these figures a modest but steady growth in the production of iron ore is shown up to 1884. A marked increase then developed, which subsequent figures will show was chiefly due to the entrance of the Gogebic and Vermilion Ranges. A rapid growth followed to 1890; and then production held steady, or, as in 1894, temporarily dropped back during panic times. Following 1896, the growth was very marked and was chiefly due to the Mesabi Range. Hard times checked it in 1904, in 1908, and again in 1914. No industry is more sympathetic with general business conditions than is the production of iron and steel. The figures also show that the great increase in output is due to the growth of the industry in the Lake Superior region. Without the contributions from the lake, the country as a whole would be back in the position which it occupied in 1886, with about 10,000,000 tons total production. In general, if we look back to 1860 and take time by decades, we may say that to-day the production is twenty times what it was in 1860; fifteen times what it was in 1870; eight times that of 1880; three and one-half times that of 1890; and twice that of 1900. We can not continue in the same ratio, but must ere long reach our zenith. Production of the Lake Superior rangen in millions of long tms. Total United States. 1 Marquette. Menomi- nee. UiOgehic. Vermilion. Mesabi. Cuynna. 1870 3.8 0,85 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1875 4.0 0.88 0.0 0.0 0. 1880 7.1 1.38 j 0.52 0.0 0.0 0.0 1882 8.7 1.83 1.14 0.0 0.0 0. 06 0.0 0.0 ISSi 7.7 1.56 0.89 0.001 1886 1 10.0 1.63 0.88 0.75 0. 30 0.0 1888 12.0 1.92 1.19 1.43 0.51 0.0 1890 ; 16,0 2.86 2.27 2.91 0.89 0.0 1892... 16. 2. 84 2. 40 3.06 1.23 0. 03 1894 i 11.8 1.93 1.25 1.52 1.05 J.91 1896 16. 2.42 1.76 2. 10 1.20 3.08 1898 19.4 2.99 2. 27 2.55 1.12 4.83 1900 1 27.5 3.94 3.68 3.10 1.67 8. 16 1902 35. 3.73 4.42 3.68 2.06 13.08 1904 27.6 2.46 2.87 2.13 1 1.05 11.67 1906 1 47.7 4.07 4.96 3.48 1.79 23.56 1908 35. 3.31 2.90 3.24 0.92 17.72 1010 66.8 4.6» 4.JW 4.74 1.39 30. 67 1912 1914 65.1 42.0 3.54 4.46 3.92 I 1.45 ‘ 32.60 0.37 1 1 A brief survey of the figures relating to the individual Lake Superior ranges will justify the following conclusions: The Mar* quette, Menominee, Gogebic, and Vermilion Ranges show a steady, normal increase in output, which is not startling nor one to cause, under ordinary circumstances, undue apprehension. Some signs of Tasso®—SM 1916 20 294 AKKTJAL mBOWC SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, mO. declining output are manifest in the case of the Vermilion. The vast increase in the output of iron ore is due to the Mesabi Range, and from it in 1912 came nearly 60 per cent of the country's total. A marked decline in available supply from the Mesabi would bring about a greater falling off in ore supply than any possible increase in the other Lake Superior ranges, or than the present sources of supply from other mining districts, could make good. The Mesabi Range is the key to the maintenance of the domestic supply at its present grade, and when it declines we must appeal to foreign sources to keep the iron and steel industry in its present position. YIELD OF THE CUES. Conditions vary greatly in different parts of the country; at different times; with different ores; and with the entrance of new sources of supply. It is a general truth that the richest ores are obtained in the early days of mining. As time passes and the in- dustry becomes firmly established, lower and lower grades come within the range of profit. Alabama Clinton ores gave much higher percentages when mined wholly above the permanent water level than they do now, when pursued bedow it. For many decades only lump ore, and much of that over 60 per cent iron, was produced by the magnetite mines of the eastern Adirondacks. To-day the greater portion of the ore goes first through a magnetic concentrator before it is shipped. In earliest years on Lake Superior hard, specular ore at 65 and above was sought. With improved facilities the grade came down to and below 60, but the soft ores found slight sale. Now the soft, earthy ores are the principal objects of mining, and the average grade is well down in the fifties. Important ship- ments of ore with percentages below 50 liave been placed on the steamships. In the summer of 1875, Prof. Albert II. Chester,^ an experienced chemist, visited the Lake Superior region in the endeavor to secure average samples from the stock piles of the larger mines, all, of course, at that time in the Marquette range and shipping hard, specu- lar ores. Four samples ranged from 61.01 to 6G.8.H and probably give a fair idea of the ore at that time sent away. Iron Mountain, Mo., ore ran 64.87; Lake Champlain magnetites, 56.01 to 62.68; Clinton, N. Y., fossil ore, 44.57, but yielded 43 in the furnace. In September, 1890, Geo. W. Goetz ^ published a tabulated series 6f analyses from the four older Lake Superior ranges, which, when averaged, afford the following values. To give a correct average, the of each mine’s ore ought to be weighted with the output, and as the data for this calculation are not available, we must be Albert H. Chester, "On the Percentage of Iron in Certain Ores." Trans. Amer. Inst. A«tli. Eng., VOL 4, 210, 1875. ,*Geo. W. Goetai, “Analyses of Lake Superior Iron Ores," Idem, voL 19, 59, 1890. OUTLOOK TOR IRON—KEMP. 296 content with the general significance of the results. On the whole, they supply us with trustworthy values* Range. No. of analyses. Maxmiiim. Minimum. Average. Marquette 30 69. 77 53.02 62.3.3 Monornineo 23 65.20 ,52. JS 60-00 Gogebic 21 05. 45 54.95 62.09 Vermilion 8 07. 54 GO. 20 64.50 1 These figures represent the good old times when specular ore was almost the only one produced and before the soft ores began to be a serious factor. They are, however, significant, in that customary working percentages, such as these, very probably were not without their influence in the estimates of the life of the ranges, as set forth by several of the writers whose opinions were cited in the introduc- tion to this address. Kaphael Pumpelly, in connection with the summaries of the Tenth Census,^ estimated on the best and most comprehensive data which we have ever had, the general average of iron ores for the TTnited States at 51.22 per cent iron. The maximum average percentage among the States was that of Missouri, 60.01 (but Michigan had 59.57). The minimum was West Virginia, 37.92. Pennsyh ania, the largest producer of ore in that year, gave 45.28. On the basis of ore production and pig-ii-on production, allow'ance being made for mill cinder, foreign ores, etc., John Birkinbine estimated for the Eleventh Census - an average of 51.27 for the country at large. An appreci- able error crept in, liowever, in assuming pig iron to be entirely iron, whereas it is only about 95 ])er cent or less metallic iron. We can hardly compare this figure with the one given by Prof. Pumpelly which was based on actual analyses of samples. If we credit the 7,000,000 tons of j)ig iron, as used by Mr. Birkinbine, Avith 95 per cent iron, the average is 48.71, Avhich indicates an appreciable falling off in yield in 10 years. General estimates of average percentages which Avill be trust- worthy are difficult to carry out on the basis of annual statistics of tons of ore and tons of pig iron. Foreign ores contribute to an appi’eciable degree, and their yield can only be estimated. Stocks of mined ore, stored at furnaces or mines at the end of a year, are naturally credited to that year, but they are not turned inter pig iron until the following twelvemonth. Mill cinder is also a con- tributor of iron to the extent of a small percentage of the total. The data for all these corrections are not available for a long period of years, and, therefore, all could not be introduced in the following ^ Tenth Census, vol. 15, 19, for the year 1879. on Mineral Industries, p. 10, 296 ANNUAL afiPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, im, estimates. The importations could, however, be deducted, and to them an average of 58 per cent iron has been arbitrarily assigned. The results obtained are so variable that their significance is ratjier one of degree than of actual individual accuracy. The statistics are chiefly taken from the Mineral Resources for 1910, page 76. Long tons are used. United States iron ore. in l.hoii- sands of long tons. Imported ore in thou- sands of long tons. Pig iron ! in thoii- i sands 1 of long tons. 95 per cent pig iron, mo- talUc iron, in thou- sands of long tons. Iron in imported ores at 58 per cent in thou- sands of long tons. Not iron. Average percent of ore. i Eatl- mated by E.C. Eckel, “Iron Ores,'* 1914. 1870. , 3, 832 1,678 1.594 1,594 41.6 1875 .... 4,018 50.6 2,040 3,802 4,077 9,203 1,938 3,012 3,874 33 1,1K)3 3, 326 3,647 7,930 47.3 1880 . 7, 120 493 28() 1 46. 7 1885 7,000 1 10,302 391 227 1 48.0 1890 1,247 8,653 723 48.6 56.50 1895 1 17,203 524 9,440 8,974 304 8,670 50.4 64.95 1900 120,722 898 13,789 13, 100 521 12,579 47.1 51.55 1905 1 43,433 846 22,992 21,842 491 21,351 40.1 53. 19 1910 1 55,240 2, 591 27,304 25,939 1,501 24, 439 44.2 49. 42 1912 158,031 2,104 29,727 28,241 1,220 27,021 46.5 51.46 1 The.se totals are the apparent iron oro consumptions as given in the Mineral Resources, United States Geological Surv^ey, for 1912, p. I(i2. They dilTor from the totals of production in the previous tables because corrected for unsrnoltod sto(.‘ks, exports, and zinc residuum. No correction is made for mill dndcr. The variations shown above are so pronounced as to cast some doubt upon the accuracy of the individual percentages, but we may have some confidence in the general tendencies shown. We can not but be impressed with the apparent practice of the mining companies of using lower grade ore in good times, as shown by high produc- tion, and saving higher-grade ores for bad years. So far as recent years are concerned, we can only say that the general grade has de- clined, although it does not appear to be as low as it was in 1870, when the brown ores of the East were so large a factor in produc- tion. It must be to-day well below 50 per cent. In ^the last column, and for the years l>eginning with 1890, are given cahailations of average yield, prepared by E. C. Eckel in his valuable manual on ‘‘Iron Ores,” published in 1914. The same figures for apjiarent iron ore consumption have been used as in the calculations given in the first column of the present table; that is, the total annual production has been increased by imports and by ssinc residuum (i. e., used for spicgeleisen by the New Jersey Zinc Co.), and diminished by exports and by stocks on hand at the close of tne year. The zinc residuum is only 0.2 to 0.4 per cent of the tbtal and makes little difference. But a decided difference arises in (Calculating the yield of American ores if one assumes that pig iron ia pure iron, and lets the much richer importations of foreign ores enter into the calculation. These last two elements in the problem eiplain the wide divergence in percentages of from 4 to nearly 8 per cent between the average values given in this paper and those OUTLOOK POE IBOK—KEMP. 297 quoted by Mr, Eckel. Both calculations depart from the truth in so far as mill cinder, blue billy, scrap iron, etc., enter into the prob- lem, since no account has been made of them."' Of course, there is also a slight loss of iron in blast-furnace cinder. The great importance of the decline in yield is the vastly increased amount of reserves which are thereby brought within the range of mining. As the average may still further decline until it reaches, say, 35 per cent, the reserves, as figures to be given later will show, become enormous. Thirty-five per cent, however, is by no means an uni’easonable figure for the general yield of the Jurassic ores in the Lorraine and Luxembourg districts, which so largely supply Belgian, French, and Oennan furnaces. The same statement will apply to the Cleveland district in England. The great reserves of 35 per cent ore in the Tjake Superior district are, however, highly siliceous, whereas the Jurassic oi*es are basic. In Silesia, in southeastern Ger- many, even lower ])ercentages are not esteemed beyond the possibili- ties. Thirty-fi\'e per cent is therefore a not unreasonable figure to consider, when a long look ahead is taken. On the other hand, in comparing the yield of the ores in different lands, a distinction should be made between exporting and smelting countries. Exporting coun- tries necessarily must furnish high-grade ore, so as to meet freight charges incident to long transportation. ESTIMATES OF UESEUVES. Since 1005, several estimates of reserves have been made, of which condensed summaries may be cited.^ The amounts are in millions of long tons. 1SK)5. TtJrnebohni Tjako Superior 1,000 Alabama (\0 Elsewhere 40 1,000 1907. E. C. Eckel Lake Superior 1, 500-2, 000 Alabama reel ore — 1, 000 Alabama brown ore__ ___ _ __ 75 Georgia reel ore 200 Georgia brown ore 125 Teanessee red ore -- - 600 Tennessee brown ore — - 225 Virginia red ore 50 Virginia brown ore 300 4, 075-4, 575 Southern reserves for the remote future were estimated at 10,000 million tons. * The figures as given for Tdrnobohm, Eckel and Butler-Blrklnbine are cited from E. C. Eckel, ** Iron Ores,” 841-351, 1914. 298 ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN' IN&MTUTION, 1W6. 1909. Biitler-Birkinbine Lake Superior Southern States New York New Jersey - -- Pennsylvania Rocky Mountain region_^_ 1,618 1, 814.9 750 185 45 100 4, 4G2. 1911. Minnesota-Miohij^an Tax Coiuinission, J. U. Finlay, (Mipneer: Minnesota and Michijj^an . 1,584 1912. E. (1 Eclvol Lake Superior ^ _ 2, (HX)-2, 500 Nortlieastorn ... . __ 800- 600 Western 300- 700 Birmingham . ^ - . _ . . . 1,500-2,000 Texas __ - . . .. 600-1,000 Other Soutliern States . _ „ 500- 750 5, 200-7, 550 The most complete of all the estimates is that of Dr. C. W. Hayes in Bulletin of the ITnited States Geological Survey, li)09. The estimates are divided into two classes of ores; first, those available under present conditions; and second, those whicli come within rea- sonable possibilities of utilization for the future. The statistics are given in long tons in millions and decimals of a million. Districts. Magno- tito. Specular i and re<l heina- , tite. 1 Clinton ore. ! Drown ore. C'arbon- ate ore. Total. Available ores: Northeastem.. im. 0 ! 2.0 3.";. 0 11.0 1 208.0 Soutlieastem 12.5 8.0 5 I 54.4 538.4 Lake Superior 3, .500.0 10.0 3,510.0 315.0 Minas Valley 15. i 300. 1 Itcvclw Mountains r>i.5 4.3 ! 2.0 t ... 67.8 Pacino Slope GS.9 68.9 Total 292.9 3,529.3 508. 31)7.4 4,698.1 90.0 Titaniferous magnetite cjoiisidered available by Dr. Hayes 4,788.1 Not available ores: Northeastern 211.5 2.0 020.0 13.5 248 1,095.0 1,276.5 72,030.0 570. Southeastern 23.0 53.0 970. 108.0 62 Lake Superior 4,525.0 07,475.0 10.0 i 30.0 Mississippi Valiev 5t»0. Kocl^ Mnuutain's 116.9 2.1 i.O 120*6 Pacinc Slope 13.8 10.0 .1 23.9 Total 4,890.2 67,552.1 1,020.5 743.2 310 76,U6.0 In the last group of ores 1 have included Dr. Hayes’s estimates of titaniferous magnetite without sepa* rate olasslhcaUon. OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP* 299 The estimates for the Eleventh International Geological Congress were grouped in a somewhat different manner, as follows Avail- able. Probable addition. Archean magnetites: Lump ores 20.0 30.0 Concentrates 40.0 10.0 Adirondack red hcnifttitcs-. . . . 2.0 2.0 Pennsylvania soft magnetites 40.0 Cambfo-Ordovieian brown heinatiles 65.0 181.0 Mesozoic and Tertiary brown hematites 10.0 15.0 Clinton red hematites . . . 505. 1,368.0 27.5 Alabama gray and red hematites 27.5 Carbonate ores 308.0 l.(ake Superior hematites ... 3,500.0 72,000.0 5.0 Mississipj)i Valley specular and red hematites 15.0 Mississippi Valley Palaeozoic brown hematites 30. 45.0 Mississiiipi Valle}’^ Tertiary brown hematites 2(j0. 520.0 CorcUlloran magnetites and hematites (>3.8 55.0 Titanlferous ores 4,578.6 90.0 74,586.5 128.5 As shown earlier, the annual production in recent years has totaled between 50 and 60 millions of tons. Let ns assume that it will be 60 millions in the near future. Dr. Hayes’s estimates indicated practically 4,800 millions of tons of available reserves or eighty year’s’ supply. The estimates for the International Geological Congress of 1910 arc not appreciably different. By just so much as the annual production exceeds the amount of 60 millions, will the time be shortened, except in so far as further exploration opens up new reserves. In mining enterprises in gen- eral, however, if the management of a company felt that it had eighty years fairly well assured, it would congratulate its stock- holders on the outlook. This attitude of mind would be justified by the common experience in mining the ores of such a widely dis- tributed metal as iron, that new reserves open up in old or new properties as old supplies are exhausted. On the other hand, if we anticipate the general decline in the yield of ores, so that lower and lower grade reserves may be brought in; and if we assume that more tons of ore will be required to furnish the usual output of })ig iron, such that the annual output of ore may reach 100 millions; then from the probable addition of reserves, given in the second column of estimates, we forecast from practi- cally 75,000 million tons a life of 750 years. That iron could be produced in these amounts and for this period of time, thei'e can be no doubt, if we omit consideration of cost and if we only consider possible ores down to 35 per cent. Iron-bearing rocks of still lower percentages are so abundant as to be inexhaustible. No one need feel anxiety about the physical possibility of pi’oducing iron up to the conceivable life of the race on the planet. $00 AtKTJAL ttElPOiLT SMITHSOKIAN IKStlTlLTWON, 1910. In earlier pages, the point was emphasized that the crux of the present situation lies in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota. Of the 56.1 million tons produced in 1912, 32.6 millions came from it. The chief point of immediate interest, therefore, is concerned with the life of the Mesabi. Its decline means great rearrangements in the present situation in the iron industry. The most recent estimates are those of C. R. Van Hise, C. K. Leith, and W. J. Mead, in cooper- ation, as given in Monograph 52 of the United States Geological Survey, 1911. Fifty per cent of iron in the dried ore is assumed as the minimum average yield at the time the estimates were made; 1,600 millions of tons were then credited to the Mesabi (p. 489). The output for 1910, for this range, was 30.57 millions, indicating a life of a little over 50 years. At the production of 32,6 millions for 1912, a life of almost exactly 50 years is shown. If, on the other hand, a minimum percentage of 35 in iron is considered, the same authors assign to the Mesabi Range reserves of 30,000 million tons (p. 492), which would give us 300 years of life, even at 100 million tons annual output. The aiithoivs of Monograpli 52 also discuss the reserves of the en- tire Lake Superior region. The reser\"es of 50 per cent ore, in the other ranges than the Mesabi, are less than one sixth its amount, and their combined output about two-fifths its total. Their estimated life is thus much shorter. The time period lies between 20 and 25 years. When, however, we consider a minimum yield of 35 per cent, their combined reiierves are greater than those of the Mesabi, and are estimated at 37,630 millions of tons. If we credit them with two to three times their present annual output, a life of fully 1,000 years is shown. Thus one can attack the problem from various points of view, and with varying assumptions; but the conclusion is inevitable that the output of ore from the Lake Superior region can not be kept up at the present production and with a minimum yield of 50 per cent for as much as 50 years, unless unanticipated new discoveries of rich ore are made. With diminishing yield, however, and with the tenor still at percentages above 35, the shipments of iron ore, even in increasing amounts, can be maintained for centuries. X«et us turn next to Alabama and its closely related States, Georgia t and Tennessee; since, together, they constitute the second center of ore production. The great reserves lie in the Clinton ores, which arc well stratified and which have been and will be explored by bore holes. The reserves are much increased by the brown ores of the region and of northwestern Alabama, and by the probable devel- opment of much older gray and red hematites in eastern Alabama; $ui attention will be alone directed at this point to the Clinton orea latter are so well stratified and persistent and are now proved OtJtLOOi^ FOR IRON—KEMP. SOI by such extensive exploration that with much confidence we may credit them, at least in the Birmingham region, with 36 to 37 per cent iron, and may consider the estimates of reserves as unusually trustworthy. Dr. C. W. Hayes, on the basis of the careful field work of C. F, Burchard,^ estimated them at the following amounts in millions of tons. Tennessee, Georgia, and northeikst Ala]>ama Available. 86.5 .358.5 Not available. 440m Birminghan] /llstrict, Alal)arna..I Total 145.0 1 878 Mr. E. C. Eckel had previously credited the Birmingham district with 1,000 million tons, a number not unduly above the sum of the two figures for Birmingham given above. The ofiicers of the Tennessee Coal &, Iron Co. considered, in 1900, in round numbers 500 million tons as reliably assured. The combijied ou({)ut of these three States in Clinton ore was practically 4 millions of tons in 1912, indicating at this rate 111 years’ life assured, and over 200 years’ additional life as probable. In these estimates we do not assume an essential falling off in the yield of the ores below percentages actively mined to-day. Were wo to take up the figures for the other portions of the country very similar results would be reached. But, as their con- tributions are proportionately smaller, the effects of rearrangements are less serious. Obviously, in a general way, viewing the country at large, and allowing for reasonable decline in yield, the ore supply is good for several (centuries. FOREIGN SOURCES OF SURPI.Y. The yield in the funiace is certain to be maintained, in an im- portant manner, by importations of rich ores from abroad. These contributions are already a serious factor, since they amounted to 2.1 million tons in 1910, and had reached 2.5 millions in 1912, rang- ing between 3.5 and 4.G per cent of the total. Cuba,—The most accessible and the heaviest contributor of ore is Cuba. The mines in the vicinity of Santiago, on the southeastern coast, have been shipping for 20 yeai's amounts wliich annually range below and above a half million tons of magnetite, with some hematite mechanically intergrown. The ores now run from 65 to 60 per cent in iron and are of Bessemer grade. For some years addi- tional, these contributions will continue. The great and enduring ^Bulletin No. 394, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 88-89, 1909; No. 400, pp. 129-133. 1910. 302 AKNttAL REJPORT SMITHSOKIAK IK8TITUTION, im. reserves, however, are on the northeastern coast or near it. Exten- sive areas of serpentine have weathered in the tropical climate so as to afford a heavy mantle of alteration products, which when freed of absorbed water yield 48 per cent iron, with about 1 per cent nickel and 1 to 2 per cent chromium. When freed of additional com- bined water in calcining furnaces the ore reaches 56 per cent iron. The Mayari tract, already actively mined, can yield 600 million tons of excellent nickel-bearing Bessemer ore. The undeveloped Moa and San Felipe (or Cubitas) districts can swell the reserves to 2,000 million tons. Thus, as the output of the mines in the United States falls lower and lower below present percentages, more and more can the grade be kept at or near the above values by Cuban contributions to furnaces near the Atlantic seaboard. The supply of Cuban ores is sufficient to last several centuries, at any reasonable consumption of conceivable importations. They are very conveniently situated for low costs of mining and shipping. Sweden,—In recent years, the second conti-ibuter to American fur- naces has been Sweden. The supplies have come from the great mag- netite body at Kiruna, in Swedish Lajdand. The ore reaches the sea at Narvik in Norway, a port open all the year round, and distant from the mines 100 miles by rail. A generally high phosphorus ore is now mined, with a small proportion of rich Bessemer grade. The output is sorted into different grades, possessing from 59 to 69 per cent iron, with peril ai)s a general average of 65. Importations in 1912 into this gountry were practically 384,000 tons. Tlie output of the mines is carefully regulated by the Swedish Government with the purpose of conserving the supply for a long life. The United States can not an- ticipate more than a moderate contribution from this source. Norwmj,—In Norway, not far from the sea and adapted to mag- netic concentration, tlicre are additional deposits which are possibili- ties for the future. One enterprise is already active on the extreme northeastern frontier of Norway, east of the North (;a})e. The Eu- ropean furnaces have, however, absorbed the output hitherto. Newfcmndland .—The third source of importations, in recent years, has been Newfoundland. The shipments come from the red hema- tite mines on Bell Island in Conception Bay. The ores are beds of red hematite in Cambrian and Ordovician strata and are strongly reminiscent of the Clinton ores. They supply a non-Bessemer ore of 50 per cent, or slightly less, in iron, and in their best years have ex- ported over 200,000 tons to the United States. The reserves which run beneath the sea are estimated by J. P. Howley at over 3,000 mil- lions of tons. The ores are generally called the Wabana. With a sea voyage of 1,100 to 1,500 miles, they can reach our principal ports OtItLOOK ^*611 —KEMP. SOS of entry. Their chief markets, however, are the iron and steel cen- ters of Nova Scotia. Chile ,—The Panama Canal has made accessible one great deposit or iron ore on tlie west coast of Chile, called the Tofo. Tofo is 30 miles north of Coqiiimbo. Tlie ores are only three or four miles from the sea. The Bethlehem Steel Co. is making extensive preparations for shipments on a large scale in the immediate fiitui-e. Publislied de- scriptions mention reserves of 100 million tons of ore ranging above and somewhat below GO per cent and prevailingly of Bessemer grade. A possible annual output of 1.5 to 2 millions of tons is expected. (Iron Age, May 11, 1014.) Other deposits along the west coast of South America have been reported in an incomplete way, but are not yet sulliciently developed to seriously enter into our forecasts. Brazil ,—For some years past reports have been current of very large, rich, low*phosidiorus deposits of specular hematite in the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil. They constitute beds in metamorphic sedi- ments of pre-Cambrian age, and appear some three hundred and seventy-five miles from the seacoast. Deposits of hard specular hematite and loose blocks on the surface are available in enormous (juantity. Tlie fn*st estimates, for the Kleventh International Geo- logical Congress, by Orville A. Derby, the able State geologist of Brazil, gave 2,000 million tons. Since then the observations of Leith and Harder indicate more than three times this amount. Vast quan- tities lain between 05 and 70 per cent in iron and are well within Bessemer limits. The cliief handicap lies in the long railway haul to the sea. AVhile railways tap the district, both from Bio Janeiro and Victoria (the latter the probable port of future shipments), the present roadbeds are not adapted to the hard wear and tear of a heavy iron ore traffic and must be rebuilt.' Once on shipboard, the distance to Atlantic ports is about 4,000 miles. Europe and Africa ,—The ITnited States also import appreciable amounts of ore from Spanish, Algerian, and Grecian ports. Spain is the chief contributor, approximately 440,000 tons reaching Atlantic ports in 1910. To some extent, therefore, declining American per- centages may be raised by future shipments from these sources, yet as time passes Biutish and continental needs will be even more press- ing than American and will call more insistently for supplies from European and northern African mines. The possibilities of importation and sale turn, however, upon mar- ket conditions. Through the kindness of Mr. Charles F. Eand, presi- dent of the Spanish -American Iron Co., the following figures have ^The latest account Is by E. C. Harder, “The Iron Industry of Brazil,” Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. 304 ANITTJAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITU been supplied the writer. They summarize market conditions and ocean freights as they have prevailed in recent years Ocean freight from Cuba is 95 cents a ton; from Wabana, New- foundland, 70 cents; from Brazil, $2.12| (i. e., 8s. 6d.) ; from Sweden, $1.50; from Spain, $1.37|; from North Africa, $1.25; from Chile, $3. When the ore reaches American ports, it brings as a general rule 7 cents a unit, although specially rich and pure varieties may com- mand 8 cents. From these data, in a general way, one can see the market conditions which must he met by an exporter of ore from any one of the countries which are the chief contributors to American furnaces. Ocean freights, for some time to come, certainly will not be less than in recent years, even when seagoing bottoms can be secured. THPt .SUPPLY OP COKE. So long as iron ore is turned into pig iron as the first step toward steel, as in our present-day practice, coke will be no less vital to the industry than ore itself. The relatively great height of a modern stack and the heavy burden of charge which rests upon the still bui'ning fuel demand strong and resistant coke. Not every coke will answer. From an address by Mr. J. E. Johnson before the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, January 12, 1915, the fol- lowing figures are taken : From 52 per cent iron ore a ton of pig iron may be made with 1 ton of coke. These conditions are approxi- mately those of Lake Superior ores to-day. From a 38 pci“ cent ore, a ton of pig requires IJ tons of coke, conditions approximately those of Alabama. Should we ever use 25 per cent ore, 2| tons of coke will be necessary to the ton of pig. Wliatever may be said, therefore, regarding the coke supply to-day will apply with increasing force as the years pass and the yield of ores declines. Anthracite coal has been, to a certain extent, used in the iron furnaces, but its desirability and increasing price for household fuel and for steam purposes in our Eastern cities make it a factor in future iron metallurgy of diminish- ing importance. Open-burning bituminous coal has been used raw to some extent, but is not now a serious factor. The following table summarizes the bituminous coal reserves as oalculated by M. K. Campbell, of the United States Geological Sur- yey, and as given in the Mineral Resources of the United States for 1910, page 28. Only eastern coke-producing States are selected be- cause the present effect of Rocky Mountain States upon the total i^lt is not great. The influence which they can exercise upon the •l^itihre is small or remote. The same is true of the Pacific coast and its possible future industry in iron and steel. In the table the OUTLOOK POE IKON—KEMP. 305 total bituminous coal reserves have been reduced by an arbitrary fraction, which is assumed to represent the portion of coking grade suitable to blast-furnace use. Much difference of opinion might arise over this reduction. Its importance turns, however, upon the ultimate result; that is, if the supply of coke proves to be a le.ss serious matter than the supply of ore, these fractions might vary widely and yet not dwti-oy the reliability of the final result. In the further calculations I assume that two-thirds of the coal can be ultimately mined, one-third being left in pillars. In passing from coal to coke, I use the same percentages of yield for each of the States as are given in the Mineral Resources of the United States Geological Survey for 1012 , Part II, page 251 . The estimates are, moreover, within the probable reserves in this additional respect that no account is taken of Illinois, although its weak coking coals, when mixed with others in by-product ovens, give suitable fuel for blast-furnace use. Feservrs of bitKminoiis vonl of rokimj grade in millions of long ions. Total bitumi- nous. Fraction for coking. Two- thirds mineti. Per cent. Coke- Ponnsylvaniii ^ i t 109,174 27. 300 •^8^ 8.515 18,200 1 00. 12,100 3.927 '855 sr>, 150 5,070 09. Marvluiid I T,802 J.OoO 1,300 05.8 Virginia i 22,391 7,404 4,970 24,y(X) 4,.'512 2, 400 02. 3,095 15,114 2,815 1,601 2,295 West Virginia ' 149, 120 1--== 37. 350 00.7 Eastern Kciitiit'k v ()7,087 4- 6.708 3.010 4— 0,377 4()0 02.4 Wc-stem Kontiickv 30. 104 02.4 ^fcnncsstHi - 25, .509 4,2.51 54 CJeorgia 920 300 50 153 Alabama 08,594 i- 20, 805 13,910 04.9 9,027 572,457, 120,059 1 80, 437 50,882 The production of pig iron by States in 1012—-the maximum year as yet—is given in the statistics in the next table in millions of long tons. The figures are taken from the Mineral Resources for 1012 of the United States Geological Survey. If we assume that the coke consumption per ton of pig iron is one ton in those States where Lake Superior ores or others ecpially rich are used, one and three- quarter tons in Alabama, and one and one-half tons in West Vir- ginia and Virginia we can make a rough estimate of the coke con- sumption for pig iron manufacture in a maximum year. ANNUAL BEUOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 11)16. Pig iron production in millions of long tons^ hy States,, 1912, 3Ub Pig iron. Coke con- sumed. Pennsylvania 12. 55 f).80 2.89 1.94 1.8B 1.77 .40 .34 .30 .27 .2(i .22 .12 12.55 6.80 2.89 1.94 3.25 1.77 (9 .60 .30 .40 .39 .22 .15 Ohio lUfnois New York Alabama Indiana. Michigan Missouri, Colorado, and California Tennessee Wisconsin and Minnesota West Virginia Virginia Maryland Others 29. 72 31.26 1 Omitted. We have thus an apparent available coke supply of 50,882 million tons, and a consumption for blast-furnace purposes, in our heaviest year of production, of 81.26 millions. There are thus over sixteen hundred years’ supply at this rate. In Pennsylvania, on the assumed ratio of coking coal, there is about one thousand years’ supply. These time periods are so great that despite possible errors in assumptions; despite increasing coke consumption with lowering of grade of ore; and despite increasing output of pig iron, we seem justified in con- cluding that the fuel supply is rather more al)undant than the ore supply. The reserves of bituminous coal in 1912 were placed by the volume on Mineral Eesources for that year at 1,651,057 millions of short tons of which two thirds or 1,100,705 millions of short tons could be mined. With an annual production, as in 1912, of 450 mil- lion tons, a life of nearly twenty-five hundred years would be indi- cated. Apparently coal for general fuel will last longer than coal for coke. THE INCUEASING STOCK OF SCRAP IRON. Much of the iron or steel, once it is used, is lost by oxidation, wear and tear, or by being thrown away. A goodly proportion is, how- ever, returned to furnaces and worked over. For this purpose, in America, the electric furnace has proved of special advantage, as the writer learns from Prof. J. W. Richards. With growth of produc- tion and with increasing attention to the prevention of waste, now ISO generally manifested throughout the country, the return of old iron and steel for re-treatment is likely to ease somewhat the strain on the mines. . IMPROVEMENT IN PROCESSES. Electrical processes of snielting, in regions of great water powers and low cost for current, have excited hopes of saving fuel. Th^ OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 307 fuel in the blast furnace accomplishes two purposes—the production of a high temperature and the reduction of the iron oxide to the metallic state. The electric furnace could serve to replace the former portion, but carbon for the reduction of the iron oxide would always be necessary. Some heat, of course, would be developed in the re- action itself, which practically implies the combustion of the carbon. If we assume a practicable electric furnace, comparable so far as the installation is concerned with a blast furnace, we have to balance against each other the cost of heat from combustion of coke and from electric current. Thus far coke has proved more economical, al- though it is conceivable that countries like Sweden and Norway, with abundant water power and ores, but without coal, might develop an electric smelting industry. Charcoal would probably then furnish the reducing agent. For some time to come, we can see little chance for electric smelting in eastern North America. Improvements are then reduced to those possible for the blast fur- nace itself. We are reminded of the great economies introduced by the chilling and separation of the moisture in the air to be used in the blast. A great debt is due Mr. James Gayley for this invention, which steadies the running of the furnace and keeps conditions uni- form. We recall the use of the spent blast in internal-combustion engines, and the economical generation of power in this way instead of through the ordinary medium of steam. The power is then avail- able for all manner of applications around a works, and lowers costa We note the recent and very encouraging experimental run of some months at the Port Henry, N. Y., furnace, with large proportion of titaniferous magnetite in the charge. The reports of Mr. J. E. Bachman,' in charge of the furnace, do much to remove the stigma from this variety of ore and to make available large re.serves now looked upon with suspicion. By just so much ns these neglected ores come into use the life of the nontitaniferous varieties will be prolonged. Dr. C. W. Hayes ^ estimated the titaniferous ores in 1909 at 90 million tons available and 128.5 million tons as not at present available. Dr. J. T. Singewald^ has concluded that in some of the areas used in the calculations of Dr. Hayes, tlie ores are too low for probiible use. These ores have not been very generally ex- plored as yet because of their bad reputation, but the amount is quite certainly large. A remote possibility for improvements in the blast furnace but one worthy of careful consideration w^as suggested by Mr. J. E. Johnson in the address at the annual meeting of the Mining and Iron Oct. 22, 1914, p. 93G; Dec. 24, 1914, p. 1470, A complete report Is In press In the puhllcations of the Iron and Steel Institute. *C. W. Hayes, Bulletin 394, TJ. S. Geological Survey, p. 102, 1909. « J. T. Slngewald, Bulletin 04, Bureau of Mines, p. 38, 1913, 308 ANNUAL KEFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. Metallurgical Society of America, January 12, 1915, which has been already cited. The air passing through the furnace is, by volume, nearly four-fifths inert nitrogen, which contributes nothing to the reactions and is a serious absorber of heat. Were it possible to relatively increase the proportion of oxygen, loss of heat might be avoided and fuel consumption reduced. Mr. Johnson called atten- tion to the production of greatly enriched proportions of oxygen by the expansion of liquid air under suitable control, as now used in practicable processes for obtaining oxygen on the one hand and nitrogen on the other. Were it possible with the low-cost power, to be developed by the products of the blast furnace, to manufacture liquid air or to produce in the same general way a strongly enriched oxygenated air for the intake, the volume of atmospheric gases would be greatly reduced and the heat economies would ensue. The contrast presented by employing the coldest substance known as a means of facilitating one of the hottest I'eactions of teclmical prac- tice is so novel as to arrest attention. Costs, however, should it ever become practicable, place it in the remote future. A more immediately practicable economy, involving the saving of waste, is the use of blast-furnace cinder for the manufacture of cement. By just so much as this ordinarily rejected product can be made a source of financial return, costs will be reduced. While we may not realize the w^himsical ideal presented by Mr. Johnson in the above address, when he pictured the furnace of the future as yielding pig iron at the tap and cement at the cinder notch, yet we may think of slag utilization as helping to usher in the next age of the world, the one which is rapidly displacing the present steel age— the one which we all recognize as the inevitable age of cement. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1902. Andrew Carne??ie, Rectorial Address, University of St. Andrews, Oct. 22, 1902, p. 36. J. Stephen Jeans. Staffordshire Iron and Steel Institute, De(!. 13, 1002. Iron and Coal Trad(‘.s Review, voL 6.5, pp. 1580, 1681. 1905. R. A. Hadtield. Presidential Addres.s in the Journal of the Itritish Iron and Steel Institute, 1905, I, pp. 56-57, 59. N. S. Shaler. “The Exhaustion of the World’s Metals,’’ International Quarterly, II, p. 230, 1905. Llewellyn Smith, A Blue Book of Iron Ore Deposits in Foreign Coun- tries, compiled for the London Board of Trade, 1905. A. B. TOrnehohm, “The Iron Ore Supply of the World,” Teknisk Tldskrift, Sept., 1905. The Iron Age, Nov. 2, 1905, pp. 1158-1160. 1906. B. C. Eckel. “ A Review of Conditions in the American Iron Industry,” Engineering Magazine, June, 1906, p. 521 ; U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 285, pp. 172-179, 183-189, 1906. d. IC Leith. “ Iron Ore Reserves,” Economic Geology, I, p. 360, 1906. OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 309 1909. J. G. Butler and John Birkinbine. Brief hied with the Finance Committee of the Unit(Ml States Senate in 1909 (cited in K. C. Eckel’s “Iron Ores,” p. 347, in 1914). C. W. Hayes. “ Iron Ores of the United States,” in Papers on the Con- servation of Mineral Resources, Bulletin 394, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 70-114, 1910. Janies F. Kemp. “Iron Ore Rej^erves in the United States,” In “Iron Ore Reserves of the World,” vol. 2, pp. 753-778, Eleventh International Geological Congress, Stockholm, 1910. James F. Kemp. Discussion of the question : What shall the iron In- dustry of the future do for ore? Symposium of representatives of six cliief producing nations, Sweden, Spain, France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, Eleventh International Geological Con- gress, Stockholm, 1910, fkunpte Rendu, I, 321-328. Mining Magazine, London, Nov., 1910, 363-3G7. 1911. C. R. Van Ilise, C. K. Leith, and W. J. Mead. “Reserves in the Lake Sui>erior District,” Monograph 52, U. S. Geologual Survey, pp. 488- 495, 1911. 1914. E. C. Eclv(‘l. “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Ahduation, and Control,” 1 ). 430, tig. GO. New York, 1914, especially pt. 4, pp. 339-427. 73839 —SM 191G 21 ON THE OEKUN OF METEOIOTt By J'^lilKDEK II r>KU\Vl<:iiTH. Til tho IiDperiMl (V)iirt Musoniu of National illsLory tlierc is pre- served wliat. is literally a heavenly treasure. Its pei'iiliar nature is well known to the prolessionals of cultured nations, and to all in- quiring friends of nature, while it is regarded by the great majority of people more with the vague unceitainty with which one is usually accustomed to prevsent to strange, unusual things. I can assert with some satisfaction that, thanks to the occasional court boards of ad- ministration, to the iiitenclaiits and to the former keepers of the collec- tion, we have in this scientific treasure the largest and scientifically the most valuable eollectiou of meteorites, and the richest in number of falls in the world. Px'causi* of this circumstance you will certainly sympathize with me if J, as the present superintendent of this precious collection, consider it my ])atriotic duty at your worthy and honorable iin itatioii to explain briefly one of tlic most interesting chapters in the lore of meteorites. The knowledge of st(»nes which have fallen from heaven extends into the oldest liistory of humanity, back into prehistoric times. Among the Chinese tlie mention of lieaven stones goes back to 6,000 years, and the fact of falling stones has always been recognized by the people of Asia Minor, by the Greeks and Eoinans, and 'sve must not be surprised if tliese messengers of heaven ” were generally re- garded as divine gifts. But wuth the advance of Christianity an- other opinion has heexjme prevalent. The man}^ meteoric divinities do not conform to its teaching and the system of the Kornan estab- lished church. Gradually there was lost the oriental conception of them as blessings, and people l>egan to regard them rather as ‘‘ prodi- gies,” or miraculous events, until through the wdiole Middle Ages and modern times the falling of meteorites was considered the foreboding of approaching misfortune, and the occurrence occasioned in human beings only a feeling of fear, horroi’, and terror. ^ Translation from tho Grenuan of a lecture Riven in the Scientific Club of Vienna on the 26th of January, 1914. 311 312 ANNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, By the latter part of tlie eighteenth century the fact of the falling of stones had hnally so far been forgotten that a fall which occurred near Luce in France in 17G8 caused great embarrassment to the pro- fessors and academicians at Paris, because they did not know what to make of the event as related and the until then unknown material. Lavoisier, at that time a young chemist, but ^^ ho afterwards became famous, stated that the meteorite might be a kind of iron pyrites. In Vienna, also, there existed at that time a complete disbelief in meteorites. The then director of the coui t mineral cabinet, Andr. Xaver Stiitz, expressed himself concerning the mass of pure iron of Agram, Avhicli fell in 1751, and with the ac([uisition of which our me- teorite collection was founded, as follows; Certainly (‘ven tlio clenr beads of <;erniany in 1751, owinj; to Iho gross ignor- ance prevailing at tliat time rc^gjirding natural history and practical pbysi(*s, may have l)elieved the dense iron mass(,'s of Agram am] hhchstatlt to have fallen from heaven, but in our times it would be unpardonable to consider such fairy tales even probable. A similar conception prevailed tilso in America, for when someone told President JedTerson in 1807 that two professors had described the fall of a stone he declared one can rather believe that two Yan- kee professors lie tljan believe that stones fall from heaven.” The (iermaii physicist (’bladiii in the year 1701 first eliallenged this disbelief in mdeorites in his paper on tlie l\a]lns ii'on, and lie commended meteorites to the scientilic investigation wliieh through the whole jhist century has been z.ealously kc[)t up and furthered by certain scholars, es]K*eially here in Vienna. Now, what do we denote as meteorites? You lia\c doubtless all observed on clear, cloudless nights the sudden appearances and again disappearances of light and lire in tlie lieavtnis. Such are known to us as comets and meteors, and meteors are again distin- guished as vSternschnuppen (shooting stars, ctoiles filantes), and as Feuerkugeln (lireballs or bolides). The astronomers regard these three heavenly bodies, which are not members of our solai* system, as identical, one with another. They are connected by intergrada- tional forms, and their varying appearances are but varying phases of one and the same natural phenomenon. This identity of shooting stars and of fireballs avg must, however, to-day regard as quite uncertain, since there are circumstances in- dicative of their independence of each other as well as of comets. When fireballs coming from various directions in the heavens reach the neighborhood of the earth, where on dark nights they afford to human beings a sight arousing amazement through the lighting up of the landscape over which they pass as bright as day, they are seen to burst, usually with an explosion, throwing out streams of fire, accompanied by a noise comparable to the firing of musketry. Dark- OMOm OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 313 ness follows and the solid masses foianing tlio kernel of the fireballs fall to earth in st'parate fragments, or as a shower of stones. These solid masses, consisting of stone or iron, which reach our planet from space, and are ti*ansformed into balls of fire only in our atmosphere, we call meteorites. Such Weltspahne (world frag- ments), as Chladni once called tl¥nn, have been given different names at diffeixmt times according to the conception which people had of theii' origin or their character, as baetylus or beseelte stones, sky stones, thunderstones (ceraunites, brontoliths), thunderbolts, air stones, moonstones (iiranolitlis), and at present they are often called aeroliths, a name linst used by Blumenbach in 1804. Concerning the origin of thesi'. stone and iron masses opinions have greatly vai'ied from time to time. When Chhidni’s epcK'h-making work (The Pallas Iron, 1794) over- came the doul)t as to the falling of stone and iron masses from tlie air, peo])le began to seek explanations for the mysterious and still incomprehensilde phenomena of the Feuerkiigeln and to advance opinions as to their origin. Passing over the beautiful, mythical conceptions of the oriental peo])les, which have been already referred to, and the assumption in the middle ages that they might l>e due to lightning, one can generally divide into two groups those holding opinions as to the origin of mete(>i*ites~tlnit is, into supporters of the hypothesis that they came fi'om space and did not belong originally to the earth and its atmos- phere, and the supporters of the hypothesis that they did originally belong to our planet. Each of these two main groups falls again into subgroups, first the supporters of the hy])othesis that the meteo- rites come from unlimited space and the supportei^ of the hypothesis tluit they ai’e ejected from lunar volcanoes. The second large group upholding the terrestrial oi'igiri of meteorites is divided into two sections, those wdio think that they originated from the constituents of the atmos})here and those wdio consider them ejected from terres- trial volcanoes. A suggestion of Proust that meteorites may come from the poles of our eaiih because thei e the iron can not have oxidized, on account of the eternal cold, may here be mentioned only as a curiosity. Chladni named the suppoilers of the four special hypotheses cos- mists, lunarists, atmospherists, and tellurists. To the cosmists Chladni himself belonged first of all. He considered it possible that the meteorites might be original or chaotic material (“ Urmaterie”) that is, aggregates of matter wliich existed in space and which had never belonged to a larger world body, but which might furnish the material from which sucli world bodies might be formed. Many of the nebula may be nothing else than such shining material spread through enormous spaces. Originating from these world clouds S14 annual KLPOET SMTTHSONUN institution, 1916. (Weltworlken), comets aiKt meteorites are distingiiislied from one another only through their relative size. The formations occurring at the boundary of our atinospliere as loose, dustdike, or gaseous aggregates lose their cosmic velocity through its resistance, and finally, by the ex])]osioiis taking ]dace, are cojnpacted into a solid body. Chladni, however, did not consider it impossible tluit the meteor- ites miglit be remnants of a destroyed world body, as an illustration of which he mentioned the disappearance of a planet between Jupiter and Mars. Olbers giue occasion for this discovei’v. In portraying the solar system tlie space between Mars and Jupiter caused him great vexation, and he anticipated that a planet might be found there. This ingenious idea was soon afterwards verified by the dis- covery of the asteroids Ceres, 1‘allas, Juno, and Vesta, which he now conceived to be broken pieces of the great planet missed by him. The little planets (asteroids), denoted hem as fragmc'uts, belong to the ring now known as ])lanetoids, wliicli a hundred years ago were reported to be angular, not always of iinifonii size, and therefore of irregrdar form and variable light intensity. We shall see further on that very re(*ently E. Suess has claimed the vanished planet and the planetoids which wei’e derived from it as the sources of our meteorites. There were many res|)ecied adherents of the hypothesis of the origin of meteoi‘ites from the volcanoes of the moon. Telescopic observation had at this time already given information as to the sur- face of the moon, ^‘upon which there were overlap] )ing mountains, large chains of mountainsextending for great distances, de])ressions, craters, and planes,” so v. Ende wi-ites in his book “Ueber Massen und Steine die aus dem Monde auf die Erde herabgefallen sind,” 1904. V. Ende endeavors to sti-engthcn (1d ad id's hypothesis and to establish, or at least make probable, the connection between the earth and its satellites. Olbers first ex])ress('d tlie moonstone hypothesis on the occasion of the fall of a meteorite at Siena in 1795. The great geometrician La|)lace expi'cssed the same supposition, w^hich Blumenbach also took up with much approval and called it “the most plausible opinion concerning these things.” Arago and Smith were also of the same opinion, and Berzelius, too, wuis an active follower of the lunar hypothesis in 183G. According to his opinion the meteoric stones came from two different volcanoes on the moon. ***** But when it w’as established that a volcano on the moon would not possess sufficient energy to impart to an ejected block of stone the necessary initial velocity to reach our earth the hypothesis of the lunar origin fell into disfavor. Strange to relate, it has, however, even at the present day, some individual upholders for example, the Dutclimaii Verbeeck, who considers that the glasses OKIGIN OF METEORITES—RERWERTH. 315 (tektites) which nre conceived by Franz SuesB to be meteorites are glass meteorites from the moon. For the sake of justice 1 must also mention that the lunar hypothe- sis had a predecessor in tlie writer Paolo Maria Terzago, who, in the description (IGGO) of the fall of a stone at Milan in 1G50, at which a Fran(‘iscan monk was killed, expresscal the opinion that the ^‘moon was tlio cause of (lie falling of the stones.” Tlie idea, according to whicli meteorites were formed out of con- stituents of the atmosphere, was held only so long as their com- position was yet little known. It was soon seen that iron, nickel, chromium, silica, etc., could not be contained in the air, and Klap- roth noted also that iron would necessarily be oxidized under these conditions. Many other reasons, such as the occurrence of the fire- balls at a great height, their velocity, and occurrence at all times of the day and year, among other things, early withdrew every sup- port from the hypothesis of the origin of meteoric masses in the atmosphere. Of longer duration was the theory of their terrestrial origin—that is, that tli(\v had a connection with the formation of the earth even though not the ejecta of volcanoes (with which, indeed, they do not entirely coincide). A terrestrial derivation in this sense was ascribed to meteorites by Lagrange and later l)y Tisseraud. According to this they are said to have been thrown out of the in- terior of our planet in the dim early ages with so great force that tliey were carrit'd beyond the limit of its attraction to form a ring about it, like that of Saturn, out of winch fragments fall to the earth again. Such a (’once])tion with somewhat difl'erent foundation we shall tind later heGl by Vh (Joldschmidt. Little reference is made to meteorites by astronomers at the be- ginning of the last c(‘ntury. The books on astronomy of those times contain nothing t\t all about fireballs. Even Bode in his ‘‘Introduc- tion to the Knowledge of the Starry ITeavens” (18i23) devotes only the following lines to our subject: The so-called nyin.i[!: dragon, the leaping ^2:oat (capra saltans), torches, burn- ing beams, and other shining meteors probably have the same nattire and consisteiKw in l)art as the falling stones, and are only distinguished from them in size and shape. Partly they may also consist of thick and viscous vapors of the lower air, widch give oiT a phosphorescent light through a decomposition of their original materials and are blown away by the wind in all sorts of cliance forms and shapes. Astronomic hypotheses as to the origin of meteorites did not de- velop until a mnch later time, and took their rise from the idea that meteorites, shooting stars, and comets were all of the same character. Schiaparelli in 1871 suggested important reasons for the connection between the three kinds of ])henomena, reasons which were also 316 ANKUAL BKPOBT SMITHSONTAK INSTITUTION, 1916. presented with a few changes by the Viennese astronomer Weiss. It was thought that they could assume with some certainty that the shooting stars are bodies as solid as are the meteorites which pene- trate with cosmic velocity the atmosjihere of the earth, where they become glowing in the heated air and begin to shine, and after be- ing resolved to dust or consumed become extiiujt or pass out of the atmosphere. After it had been shown that swarms of sliooting stars have been returning i^egularly for two and one-half thousand years and pro- ceed from a definite point of radiation in the sky, then it was con- sidered the only possibility that the swarms of meteors circling around the sun intercept the orbit of the earth at some point, on the approach to which, in conse(|nence of the density of the earth, a portion of them fall down upon our iilanet as little meteiiric bodies. From the period of rotation, direction, and other factors W’e have learned how to calculate the course of the iiadeors and have found that their orbits very nearly coincided with those of the periodic comets. Thus the Leonids move in the orbits of the comet Tempel, 1806, the Perseids in that of the comet 1802 HI, and the Bielids of the 27th to 21)th of November in tlie course of the comet Biela. The agreement is so consistently exact that a whole series of meteor streams can with great j)robability be traend back to orbits of known cornets. Tluit comets are divided by the influence of the sun or of the xilaiicts, as has happened to the comet Biela, or altogether break to pieces and scatter themselves along the course of the comets and form a meteoric ring out of wliich come the swarms or shooting stars; all these coordinate occurrences tend very c'onvincingly to identify the falling meteorites with the shooting {Stars, and to the belief, therefore, that they are broken pieces of comets. A difference between shooting stars and meteorites con- sists, then, only in that the first named pass noiselessly across the heavens and disappear, while the fireballs huil their missiles, tlie meteorites, with thundering noise upon the earth. This theory is still ;held in esteem among astronomers, and is also taken up by Trabert in his Textbook of Cosmic Physics, 1912. The hypothesis can be quite briefly expressed in the follow ing Avords: Comets wdiich have become periodic split up into jieriodic swarms of shooting stars which revolve in the courses of the mother comet. The fireballs are, then, nothing more nor less than sliooting stars which have been driven into lower layers of air and appear to us in larger sizes. According to all these conceptions one would expect that at times of the abundance of shooting stars, especially of the Leonid and Penseid swarms, there would occur an increase of meteorite falls. Among the about 350 known falls some, to be sure, have fallen at ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 317 these times. Thus the iron of Mazapil is said to harfe come from the meteoric shower of the 27tli of NoA’^ember, 1885, and, according to this, is a fragment of the comet Biela. But tliis must remain a mei*e assumption. The time-table of meteorite falls gives proof that the great majority of meteorites luiA^e not come to the surface of the earth at the time of swarms of shooting stars. In opposition to this briefly outlined theory, according to which the meteorites represent a part of the shootli^g-star pluuiomena, an hypothesis was proposed in the seventies in the past century which did not take its origin f i‘om astronomical assnm})tions. It was based on a mineralo-geologicail l)asis, upon the study of the component material of the m(‘teorites, and u])on the times of arrival of me- teorites of like com]X)sition. This new (volcanic) hypothesis, founded upon adual observations, was presented in 1875 by G. Tschermak, of the Viennese Academy of Sciences, and was later through supplemental work augmented and established. If Brew- ster, L. Smith, Ilaidinger, and Daubree have claimed the origin of meteorites thi’ough the dissolution of a lieavenly body, so the disin- tegration of small celestial l)odies is for the first time ascribed by Tschermak to a volcanic proc(‘SB. From the sliajie of meteorites it is to be concluded that they are actual ruins or bi'oken bits which may come from larger j)lanetary massifs. Kot only their shapes, but also the slicken-sided surfaces occurring in meteorites point to frac- turing in the mass, and many are like volcanic tuffs or clastic masses, as Haidinger and Reichenbach have already suggested. Where Daubree leaA'os it undecided whether tlie fragmentation of a world lx)dy is brought about b}^ collision or by explosion, Tschermak based his decision tliat they resulted from ex})losive destnictlon on the physical condition of the meteorites, which are formed by vol- canic explosions unacconij>ani(Hl by tlic pouring out of lava just as terrestrial stones which come from explosiA^e craters (similar to the Maaren of Eifel). An explosive actiAity to aaIiIcIi meteorites point can only be brought about by sudden exjuansions of gases and steam, among which hydrogen may have been in the first rank. Vulcanism as a cosmic phenomena is the destroyer of planetary masses, as we learn from the constituents of meteorites, in harmony with the solar development of stars, which all go through a volcanic phase. The broken bits after their separation are arranged in swarms which cross the orbit of the eartli in accordance Avith law. The most convincing examples for the existence of meteorite streams are formed by the group of eukrites. If one ascertains their orbits and tlie intersection which they make Avith that of the earth, one finds that this intersection is progressiA^ely retarded, which means that tire line of nodes relative to the earth 318 AKNITAL BKPOBT BMITHSONIAK IKStlTUTIOK, 1916. retrogrades. From the calculation of the time of the nodes of intersection and comparison with observations Tschermak was able yeai‘s ago to predict the next falling of a eukrite for about the end of October, which calculation was actually borne out by the falling of the eukrite of Peramiho on the 20th of October, 1899. For the four undoubtedly similar eukrites of Stannern, Jonzac, Juvinas, and Peramiho, the retardation of the intersection was found pro])ortional to the time by the formula (E“longitude of node) E— 2^10.G4-f l.()175t, in wdiich t denotes the number of the year minus 1800. The gi^eatest difference betw’een the observations and the calcu- lation is not more tlian one and one-half days. From the deter- mined return and the regular sliifting of the lines of nodes, which yearly corresponds to a change of 1'^ 3G', tliere is therefore very great piobability for the astronomic connection of the eukrites. Although V. Niessl did not find the astronomic courses of these eukrites to be identical, wliich means that they did not indicate the same point of origin, still one can ahvays consider as open the possi- bility that the Stannern, donzac, and Juvinas stones came from the Siirne region in space, wdien one considers that the testimony of eye- witnesses as to the course of fii-eballs is subject to great error because of the suddenness of the oc‘currence. According to v. Niessl^ the meteorite falls move in hyperbolic courses, wdiich, howxnT-r, does not shut out the possibility that meteorites occur w liich move in elliptical courses lilce planets. Firm support also for this meteoric hypothesis, deduccal from indisputable facts, comes from astronomic consideration. More recent observa- tions have showm that tliere is a ditference in kind betAveen the mate- rial of meteorites and shooting-stars. If on(‘, ai ranges the meteorites according to their specific weight, a series results, wliich begins with the carbonaceous forms, of the density 1.7 to 2.9. Then follow those bearing feldspar with the density 3 to 3.4, those containing bronzito and olivine (mostly chondidtes) wdtli the density 4 to 7, and finally the irons of the density 7.5 to 7.8. Carbonaceous meteorites * 1.7-2.9 Feldspar-bearing meteorites 3.0-3.4 Bronzite-oUvine-bearing stones (mostly chondrites) 4.0-7.0 Iron - 7.5-7.8 In the face of the lesser densities, which are found in the moon (8.4) in comparison wdth the earth (5.0), and which decrease in the 1 Determination of Meteor Orbits: Smithsonian MlBcellaneous Collections, Vol. 66, No. 16, 1917 .—Teanslator. ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 319 outer planets of the solar system to 1.4 in the planet Jupiter and 1.1 even in Neptune Density. Earth 5.(5 Moon a.4 Jupiter 1.4 Neptune 1.1 the supposition be(‘omes the greatest probability that in space parti- cles are spread abroad in clouds of loose consistency, which consist of matter like rock dust, salt-like compounds, carbon, and hydro- carbons, which come into the solar system in streams and upon their entrance are consumed, leaving behind carbonic acid, vai)or, and fine dust. The Tschermak liypothesis mentioned here gains in im])ortance wlien we consider the opinions of many astronomers of to-day, ac- cording to which the completion of the heavenly bodies is incon- ceivable without vulcanism. One need but observe the conditions upon our earth, the moon, and the sun. Also, we find on the comets with elliptic courses phenomena which may be connected or com- pared with volcanic occurrences. Hertz considers the comet tails to be electric waves, (loldstein considers them kathode tufts, others consider them alpha rays of helium, and Svante iVrrhenins declares them of mechanical origin, formed through pressure of light radia- tion. He considers the particdes of the comets so tiny that they no longer obey the law of gravitation, but are forced out into space by the light rays of the sun, and by electric* discharges in the heads of the comets, which also work repulsively u])on the material forming the tail. All these })heriomena arc straightway compared with the great stresses in the interior of the planets, as with volcanic forces, which also Tschermak has applied to the explosive fragmentation of small world bodies and by this means has ex})lained the origin of meteorites. Paying due res])ect to the opinion of Daubree on the relationship of meteorites to planets and to Tschermak s derivation of meteorites from small planetary bodies, E. Suess reminds us of the variability in the liglit of the planetoids as observed by Seeliger and Wolf. Since the course of the latter lies partly outside and partly inside that of Mars, his view is corroborated that between Mars and Jupiter there has existed a unified planetary mass which, according to our knowledge of the constituents of meteorites, must have come from the basic rocks occurring in the kernel of the earth. We therefore find here Tscherrnak’s conception applied to the dissolution of a definite planet which Olbers missed 100 years ago and in the place of which the planetoids were discovered. Suess says: ^‘Meteorites and planetoids are nothing else than the passing witnesses of an epi- sode which has taken place in the history of our planetary system,” 320 ANNUAL K.EPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The lively interest in the visitors to our solar realm which have come to us has aroused numerous other investigators to take a stand as to the origin of meteorites. Goldschmidt applies his “ Komplikation law,’^ which he has been able to prove in crystalline forms and musical harmony—also to harmony in space—and relegates the formation of meteorites to the time of the separation of the moon from the earth’s sphere, at which time neither moon nor earth absoj'bed all the dis- rupted material, the residuals being condensed into dro])s which now probably run their course as meteorites around the earth and are called cosmolites. Svante Arrhenius, in a very recent work, puts the origin of meteor- ites into the realm of nebula or nebulous stars beyond our solar sys- tem. He considers that the little j^articles separated out by tiie suns through ray pressure meet in space and collect into aggregates of cosmic dust or meteor stones. The stony aggregates not falling upon the other worlds form a kind of haze, which is the reason that the largest part of the sky between the stars is daitc. If we recall the differences mentioned by Tsdiermak between slioot- ing stars and meteorites, then the results of the investigation of the American astronomer, W. J. Pickering, give strength to the hyj)o- thesis of Tschermak, since he has found that the (‘ourses of the shoot- ing stars and meteorites have different fall curves and the meteorites form a girdle like the asteroids. He recognizes in the stony meteoi'- ites similar orbits to those of the planets. On the other liand, they are conceived by Goldschmidt as products of separation at the time of the formation of the moon, while the meteoric ii ons, moving with a greater velocity, are l elegated to the comets. If we pass in review the changing opinif)ns of the century regard- ing the origin of meteorites, we shall without hesitation grant to them the right of membership in our solar system. We shall con- sider their stellar origin and their coming in frcuii strange worlds as improbable, and shall marvel at them according to tlieir constitution and their forms as broken bits of a world body destroyed by volcanic events. THE PKESENT STATE OF THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION.* By Prof. M. ('aullkby. The exclianjxe of proiVssoi-s behveen the Sorbonne and Harvard ITiiivcrfe'ity for the first time biin<i:s to Cambridge a professor of science. In a certain way I come in return for the visits which Prof. M. Bocher and Prof. W. M. Davis have already made to the faculty of sciences at ihiris. All my ])redecessoi’s belonged to our faculty of letters. All lune brought back a recollection of the hearty wel- come which they receiMid, and what they told me contributed largely in inducing me to acce[)t the mission which was offered to me. I had the assurance of good will and generous sympathy from my eol- leagues as well as from my pupils. In the beginning I must excuse myself for not being able to express myself, at least for the presxmt, in English. The most important point in teaching is chaumess in expressing tlioughts. By speaking to you in my own language 1 hope to succeed much better in a diffi- cult subject, and for that reason to obtain forgivness for the effort which, to my regret, I occasion you. The purpose of the exchange between the two universities is to convey to the oTie the methods of teaching employed in the other. I have the honor to occupy at the University of Paris a chair of biology especially devoted to the study of the evolution of organic beings. It is then lo the present state of this great problem that the lectures which I am going to give will be dedicated. I do not enter upon this subject here Avithout some apprehension. Certain of my predecessors by the very nature of their subjects were able to have, at least, the illusion that Europe is still the veritable center of learn- ing. But I have not this advantage. The necessary conditions for the development of the sciences are now at least as well fulfilled— will even say better fulfilled—in the United States than in Europe, and for many of the sciences Europeans coming to this country have as much to learn as to teach. This seems to me particularly the case 1 An Introductory lecture In a course offered by I’rof. M. Caullery ns exchange professor at Harvard University, Feb. 24, 191d. Translated from the French by Mrs. C. H. Grand- gent. Reprinted from Science, April 21, 1916. 321 822 ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. in biology and especially in the questions connected with the problem of evolution. Besides, the advance of American science in these directions does not date from yesterday. In the study of paleontology, which has a large jilace in the questions with which we are to concern ourselves, your scholars have, for a long time, been working with activity and considei’able success the marvellous layers of American deposits, and have drawn from them, to cite only one instance, imignificent collec- tions of reptiles and mammals, which wc come to admire in the mu- seums on this side of the Atlantic. Here more than anywhei'e else ha\ e been enlarged the paths opened a century ago by (leoi*ge t^uvier. In zoology, properly speaking, the museum of comparative zoology, in which I have the lioiior to speak at this time, justly famous in Europe, bears witness to the importance and long standing of the re- sults accomplished. Louis Agassiz, more than half a century ago, was one of the most eminent names of his generation. Later, when the investigation of the great depths of the ocean marked an impor- tant and cons€(|iient stage in the knowledge of earth and life, Alex- ander Agassiz, his son and illustrious successor, was one of the most eager and skillful workers. The expeditions of the LUnkv and of the ATbatroHH are among those wdiicli have drawn from the deep the most important and most precious materials, and their results liave been the most thoroughly studied. The personality of Alexander Agassiz, whom I had the honor of meeting in Paris about LI years ago, made upon me a striking impression. His real laboratoiy was the ocean, and he succeeded to the end of his life in maintaining an activity that corres]xmded to its amplitude. He was tiady the naturalist of one of the gi’oat sides of nature. Around Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the museum and the laboratory of comparative zoology of Harvard College have hem for a long time a center of studies of the first rank. In the domain of embryology Charles S. Minot also has carried on important work. But it is especially at the present mo- ment that American biological science has made an amazing advance which expresses itself in the excellence of publications and in the results which they reveal by the number of collaborators, the activity of societies, the number of laboratories, and the abundance of mate- rial resources at their disposal. Here occurs a special factor, which has considerable importance, the enlightened and large generosity of numerous patrons. It is incontestable that men of talent find more easily in America than in Europe, and especially at the age of their full activity, the cooperation without which their greatest efforts are to a certain extent barren. Now, at the point to which we have ar- rived, the greater part of scientific problems demands the exercise of considerable pecuniary resources and of collaborators of various ca- PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 323 pabilities. This is particularly true of biology, where, moreover, many questions, notwithstanding their scientific importance, do not lead to practical application, at any rate immediately. We succeed too rarely in Europe in combining these resources, above all in com- bining them i*apidly enough. The European public does not suffi- ciently realize their necessity and interest. And the action of the state necessarily lacks the flexibility needful for rapid realization. Thus Pasteur w^as able to organize the institution wdiich beai*s his name only at the end of his life, and at the inauguration he wuis heard to say mournfully, enter here defeated by Tiitie.” In America the ])owxu* and the eagerness Avhich private initiative gives provide for this need. Truly the greatest wonder is that this liber- ality is generally well conceived and well employed. It is also true that the problems of tlve day in con tern] )oraneous biology are now’here else attackcnl at the y)r(‘seni time with such activity, perseverance, and su(‘ccss as in the Enited States. As we look at different points on the biological horizon we s(‘e the studios on the Mendelian theory of heredity in full dex eloj)ment in nnmljers of laboratoi’ies. It will be enough for me to eite in this connection the names of Messrs. Castle and East in this very spot, and that of Mr. T. 11. Morgan, in New York. In the realm of the physiology and the structure of the cell and of the egg, the I’csearches of E. B. Wilson, and of his pujuls on the chromosomes; of J. Loeb on experi- mental parthenogenesis; of F. E. Ifillie on the fertilization of the egg; of C'alkins, and recently of Woodruff, on the senescence of the infusoria, suffice to vsliow the share which this country has had in the advance of knowdedge. And I ought also to mention numer- ous Avorks on embryology and on the study of the filiation of the cells of the embryo (cell lineage), on regeneration, on the behavior of the lower organisms, on geographic distiubution, and the varia- tions of the species studied from the most diverse sides; all branches of biology are liourisliing vigorously. In addition, the Lnited States, more than any other country, has (level oj)ed scientific institutions designed for the study of the application of biology to agriculture, to fisheries, etc. In the fac^e of this situation, I wish to make it clear at the outset that I have not the least expectation of bringing here a solution of the problem of evolution. I have too full a realization of the extent of the scientific movement aroused by this question in the United States, and I hope to derive great benefit myself from my stay here, from the contact which is permitted me with my col- leagues and with their laboratories. This latter advantage is not the least which arises from the exchange between the two uni- versities, Nor have I the expectation of bringing to you a new 324 ANNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. solution of the problem, nor of examining it from a special and original point of view, such as might be the case in a single lecture or a small number of lectures. I will adhere strictly to the point of \iew of the instiTictor, taking the question as a whole, expounding it in its older aspect-s as well as in its more recent ones. The interest in these lectures is, above all, in my opinion, in the coordination of facts and in their critical examination. As tliis coordination is influenced in a large measure by the surrounding conditions, the view that a naturalist has of them in l^aris ought to be interesting here. In questions as complicated and as undeveloped as these still ar©, where we have not reached a precise conclusion, the relations of facts can not be established in a harsh and une(iui vocal fashion. This is particu- larly true of the problem of evolution at the point we have reached. During the last few years very rapid and great progress has been made in our knowledge relative to certain kinds of data, notably heredity and variation. But they have not failed to shake mark- edly the notions which pj-eviously seemed to be at the very founda- tion of evolution. One of my coinjmtriots, an ardent disciple of Lamarck, F. I^e Dantcc, wrote even as far back as eight years ago a book bearing the signiiicant title “La Criso dii Transform- isrne,”^ in wliich he brought otit the contradictions in question, contradictions which, amnding to him, were io result in the ruin of the very idea of transformism. Since that time opposition has become ev^en mori‘ marked, and at tlic present day, either tacitly or explicitly, certain of the most authoritative meji, by their works, have arrived very near to a conception which would be the negation of transformism rather than its aflii'maiion. The term “evolution,” in French, at least, has had liistorically two contrary meanings. In tlie eighteenth century it was the ex- pression of the theory of the preformation or “ emboitement ” of the germs, according to which the lot of every organism was deter- mined from the beginning. The succession of generations was only the unfolding (evolutio) of parts that existed from the beginning. In the nineteenth century, and it is in this sense that it is always used now, it had an opposite sense; it is the synonym of transform- ism and it signifies the successive ti*ansforniation of animal or vege- table organic types, not realized beforehand, in the course of the history of the earth, under the influence of external causes. Now, if one admits the general value of certain of the ideas recently e;s- pressed, evolution would be only the unfolding of a series of phases completely determined in the germs of primitive organisms. It is a reversion, under a modern form, to the idea which the word evolution 1 Nouvelle collection geientiflque/’ Parlts, Alcan. PEOBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 325 represented in the eighteenth century. It is unnecessary to say that I use the 'vvord evolution in its nineteenth-century sense, which is synonymous with transformism. It is evident then that all is far from being clear in the present conception of transformism and that, in consequence, an exposition of its various aspects and an effort to coordinate them is not a useless thing in a course of lectures. Fur- thermore a comprehensive glance at the prinei|)al questions which we shall have to examine will make my meaning clear and will give me the chance to indicate the general plan of the course. In spite of the contradictions to which I have just alluded, the reality of transformism as an accomplivshed fact is no longer seri- ously questioned. We can make the statement that, in the unani- mous opinion of biologists, evolution—that is to say, the gradual differentijition of organisms from common ancestral forms— is the only rational and scientific explanation of the diversity of fossil and living beings. All the known facts come easily under this hypothesis. All morpholog}^ in its different aspects, comparative anatomy, embryolog}% paleontology, verifies it. By virtue of this same hypothesis these different branches of mor])ho]ogy have made an enormous progress since Darwin's day. The significance of cer- tain categories of facts, especially in the domain of embryology, may liave been exaggerated. Scientific men have certainly overworked the idea that the development of the individual, or ontogeny, was an abridged repetition of phylogeny—that is to say, of the several states through which the species had passed—an idea whicli Haeckel raised to the fundamental law of biogenesis and which a whole gen- eration of naturalists accepted almost as a dogma. Without doubt ontogeny, in certain cases shows incontestable traces of previous states, and for that reason embryology fmnishes us with palpable proofs of evolution and with valuable information concerning the affinities of groups. But there can no longer lie any question of systematically regarding individual development as a repetition of the history of the stock. This conclusion results from the very prog- ress made under the inspiration received from this imaginary law, the law of biogenesis. The first part of the course will be devoted then to the consid- eration of the general data which morphology furnishes toward the support of the idea of evolution. Thus we shall see what con- ception comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology afford us of the way in which evolution is brought about, and within what limits we may hope to reconstruct it. Evolution is essen- tially a process which belongs to the past and even to a past extraor- dinarily distant. It is a reasonable supposition that evolution is going on to-day, but let us remember that nothing authorizes us to believe that Mdiat we may observe in the present epoch about 73839°--SM 1910 22 326 AN^NXJAL EEFOBT SMITHSOJflAN INSTITUTION, 1916. organisms will necessarily explain the succession of their former states. Evolution is an irreversible process and one which has not progressed at a uniform rate. We must not, then, expect to verify necessarily by the present organisms all the facts disclosed by morphology. It follows in my opinion that morphological data may force upon us indirectly certain conclusions even though we should have no experimental proof of them in contemporary nature. Because of this very limitation which I have just pointed out, much of the difficulty of the study of the mechanism of evolution arises and to this may be attributed many of the profound dif- ferences among naturalists on the subject of evolutionary mech- anism. The second part of the course will be devoted to the ex- amination and the criticism of the solutions that have been proposed. In a general way, the study of the mecluinism of evolution is that of the reciprocal influence of agents external to the organisms, on the one hand, and of the living substance, properly speaking, on the other hand. There are, then, if you wish, the external fac- tors which together constitute the environment, and the internal factors which are the specific })roperties of the organism. These two elements are very unequally accessible to us. The environ- ment is susceptible of being analyzed witli precision, at least as far as the present is concerned, and we can surmise it with enough probability as to preceding periods. We know very much less about living matter, and especially about the way in wdiich its properties may have varied in the course of time. Hence one meets with two tendencies which have been encountered ever since the evolutionaiy question arose and which are still very definite and very contra- dictory in their effects on the general theories of evolution. One of those attributes a large share to the external factors and attempts to explain facts by physicochemical actions which are directly ac- cessible. The other sees in internal factors, in the intrinsic prop- erties of the organism itself, preponderant if not exclusive agents. The first tendency attracts us more because it gives a larger share to analysis ; that is to say, to the truly scientific method. The second flatters our ignorance with fallacious verbal explanations. It is open to the objections brought against vitalist conceptions; and when, as is the case of certain old and new theories, we come to restrict the effective role to internal factors alone, we may ask ourselves whether there is a really essential difference between con- ceptions of this nature and creationist ideas ; between declaring that species have been created successively and arbitrarily by an arbi- <iraty sovereign will, without the external world having influenced their structure, or maintaining that organic forms succeed one an- other, derived, to be sure, one from another but following a suc- cession that is really determined in advance and independent of PBOBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 327 external contingencies. Between such views there is in reality no considerable difference. Such an idea substitutes for successive creations one initial creation with successive and continuing mani- festations. The present crisis of transformism, as Le Dantec and others set it forth, is the conflict concerning the reciprocal value of external and internal factors in evolution. The two principal and classic solutions proposed to explain evo- lution were based on the efficacy of external factors, both the theory advanced by Lamarck in 1800 in his Philosophle Zoologi(j[ue, as well as that of Darwin, formulated in 1859, in The Origin of Spe- cies. Lamarck starts in fact with the statement that the structure of organisms is in harmony with the conditions under which they live and that it is adapted to these conditions. This adaptation is, in his opinion, not an a priori fact, but a result. The organism is shaped by the environment; usage develops the organs in the indi- vidual; without usiige they become atrophied. The modiiications thus acquired are transmitted to posterity. Adaj)tation of indi- viduals, inheritance of acquired characteristics—these are the funda- mental principles of Lamarckism. Except for its verilication, it is the most complete scientific theory of transformism which has been formulated, because it looks to the very cause of the change of or- ganisms by its method of explaining adaptation. Darwin adopted the idea of Lamarck and admitted theoretically adaptation and the inheritance of acquired characteristics, but he accorded to them only a secondary importance in the accomplishment of evolution. The basis for him is the variability of oi*ganisms, a general characteristic whose mechanism he did not try to determine and which he accepts as a fact. This being so, the essential factor of the gradual trans- formation of species is the struggle for life between the individuals within each species and between the different species. The individ- uals which present advantageous variations under the conditions in which they live have more chance to survive and to reproduce them- selves; those which, on the contrary, offer disadvantageous variations run more chance of being suppressed without reproducing them- selves. There is established, then, automatically a choice between in- dividuals, or, according to the accepted terminology, a natural selec- tion^ a choice which perpetuates the advantageous variations and eliminates the others. And with this going on in each generation the type is transformed little by little. Natural selection accumulates the results of variation. This is not the time to discuss Darwin’s theory. I wish only to observe at this time that it is less complete than that of Lamarck in that it does not try to discover the cause of variations ; also that, like that of Lamarck, it attributes a considerable participation to the con- S28 AI^NUAL RJEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. (iitions outside the organism, since it is these finally which decide the fate of the variations. And one of the forms in which the oppo- sition to the transformist ideas, at the time of Darwin, manifested itself was the very argument that if organisms had varied it was only because of an internal principle, as Kolliker and Niigeli have more particularly explained. The biologists at the end of the nineteenth century were divided with regard to the mechanism of evolution into two principal groups, following either Lamarck or Darwin. Among the neo- Lainarckians some have accorded to natural selection the value of a secondary factor, holding that the primary factors are the direct modifying influences of tlie surroundings which according to them cause the \’ariations. Selection came in only secondarily, by sort- :ing out these variations and especially by eliminating some of them. Such was the particular doctrine developed by my master, A. (xiard, at the Sorboime. Others have more or less absolutely refused to grant any value to selection. Such was the case of the philosopher Herbert Spencer. We must also recognize that, since the time of Darwin, natural selection has remained a purely speculative idea and that no one has been able to show its ellicacy in concrete indisputable (ixamples. The neo-Darwinists, on their side, have in a general Avay gone further than Darwin because they^ see in selection the exclusive factor of evolution and deny all value to Lamarckian factors. Iliis was the doctrine of Wallace, and has been especially that of Weismaim. I will digress a moment to speak of the ideas of tliese last-mentioned authors, because of the influence which they have cxeited and still exert, correctly in some respects, incorrectly in others, at least as I think. Weismann attacked the doctrine of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and has incontestably shown the weakneSvS of the facts which had been cited before his time in support of this kind of Jieredity. But ho went too far when he tried to show the impossi- bility of this form of heredity. In so doing, he starts from a concep- tion which meets with great favor—the radical distinction between the cells of the body |)roper, or soma^ and of the reproductive ele- ments, or germ cells. He saw in these two categories distinct and in- dependent entities, the one opposed to the other. Sorm^ which con- stitutes the individual, properly speaking, is only the temporary and perishable envelope of the geriii^ which is itself a cellular auton- omous immortal line, which is continuous through successive genera- tions and forms the substratum of hereditary properties. The germ alone has some kind of absolute value. The soTna is only an epiphe- nomenon, to use the language of philosophers. The soma is, of PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 329 course, modified by external conditions, but for one to speak of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, the local modifications of the B(yrm would have to be registered in the genn and reproduced in the same form in the Boma of following generations in the absence of the external cause which produced them in the fii’st place. Now, says Weismaim, the possibility of such an inscription, as it were, upon the germ of a modification undergone by the soma is not evident a priori, and when we go over the facts we find none supporting this con- clusion. There are, indeed, modifications which appear in one gen- eration and which are reproduced in the following generations; but Weismann goes on to attempt to prove that at their first appearance they were not the efiect of external factors on tlic sonia^ but that they proceeded from the veiy constitution of the germ; that they were not really acquired and somatic, but were truly innate or geiminal. Such, reduc(‘d to its essential points, is the negative contention of the d(Kfrine of Weismann. It rests upon the ahsolute and abstract distinction between the sorrui and the (jerm. In spite of the support which this conception has had and still has, T consider it, for my part, as unjustifiable in the degree of strictness which Weismann has attrib- uted to it. It is true that the advance in embryology and cytology often allows ns to identify the reproductive tissue and to follow it almost continuously through successive generations, but the concep- tion of its autonomy is at least a physiological paradox. Though the continuity of the germ cells is sufficiently evident in many organ- isms, it is more than doubtful in others, particularly in all those which reproduce asexuaUy; that is to say, many large groups of animals like the Cadenterata, the Bryozoa, the Tunicata, and many plants. This has more than the force of an exception ; it is a general principle of the life of species. One can not, then, say that the con- ception of Weismann carries full conviction. But this conception exercised a tyrannical influence upon the minds of contemporaneous biologists, and it is exclusively througli it that mOvSt of them look at the facts. Weismaim, besides, exercised a considerable influence bycham|)ion- ing a theory of heredity based at the start on the preceding ideas. This theory, built with undoubted ingenuity and adapted to the knowledge gained from the study of cell division, turns out on the other hand to agree with the recent works on heredity. Lamarckism and Darwinism shared the support of biologists up to the end of the nineteenth century, discussion being in general re- stricted to speculation. The controversy begun in 1891 between Weis- mann and Spencer, who represented the two extremes, gives an idea of the extent to which one could go in this direction. 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The last 20 years constitute indisputably a new period in the his- tory of transformism where the field of discussion has been renewed, and scientists liave sought to give it a much more positive and ex- perimental character. Two kinds of investigation have been devel- oped in this direction: On one hand the methodical study of varia- tions, and on the other that of heredity and especial!}^ of hybridiza- tion. These two categories overlap. Note that this new point of view is not, properly speaking, a study of evolution. According to it, variation and heredity in themselves, under present conditions, are analyzed independently of all hypo- thetical! previous states of the organism. Afterwards the results obtained with the Lamarckian, Darwinian, and other succeeding theories wdll be confronted. The sum of these researches, which are now in high favor, is a new and important branch of biology, which has received the name of genetics. It defines for us in particular the hitherto very vague notion of heredity and seems certain to lead us to an analysis of the properties of living substance somewhat comparable to that which the atomic theory has afforded concerning organic (Lemistry. . We can not maintain too strongly its great importance. As far as the theory of evolution is concerned, the results olitained up to this time have been rather disappointing. Taken together the newly dis- covered facts have had a more or less destructive trend. In truth the results obtained do not agree with any of the general con- ceptions previously advanced and do not show us how evolution may have come about. They have a much greater tendency, if we look only to them, to suggest the idea of the absolute steadfastness of the species. We must evidently accept these facts such as they are. But what is their significance? On tlie one hand they are still limited, on the other hand, as I have already stated above, and as I shall try to show in the following lectures, the advances made by the study of heredity in organisms at the present time and under the conditions in which we are placed, does not permit us to accept ipso facto the doctrines of heredity for all past time and under all circumstances. To* use a comparison which has only the force of a metaphor but which will make my thought clear, the biologist who studies heredity is very much like a mathematician who is studying a very complex function with the aid of partial differential equations and who tries to analyze the properties and the function about a point without being able as in the case of an elementary function to study it in itself, directly, in all its aspects. The properties ascertained about one point are not necessarily applicable to all space. As far as the organisms are concerned, the conditions of their variability have not certainly been the same in all periods. The PROBLEM OP EVOLUTIOlSr—CAULLERY. 331 idea of a progressive diminution of their variability has been often expressed, notably by D. Rosa, Le Dantec, according to his favorite theoretical method in which he considers only the fundamental prin- ciples of the problem, has tried to reconcile these facts with the La- marckian doctrine in his book on La Stabilite de la Vie.^ In the transformation of organisms as well as in that of inert matter, he regards every change as the passage from a less stable to a more stable state. The many organisms, after having varied much and rapidly, might then, perhaps, be for the present in a state of very constant stability, at least the greater part of them. But for the time being I must omit further consideration of this suggestion. We shall have then in the third part of the course to examine, while bearing in mind the preceding opinions, the general results of recent researches in variation and heredity. I shall now sum up the principal lines of investigation preparatory to tracing the plan of these lectures. The methodical stud}’ of variations in animals and in plants has led us to recognize that the greater part of these variations are not inherited. If we apply to them the methods of the Belgian statis- tician Quetelet, we shall perceive that for each property numerically stated the different individuals of a species range themselves accord- ing to the curve of the probability of error, the greatest number of individuals corresponding to a certain measure wdiich represents what is called the mean. The term flw(*tuati(>n^ is given to those variations that are on either side of the mean and the study of these fluctuations, begun in England by Galton, has been developed and systematized bj’^ H. De Vries and Johannsen. In short, it is the whole of the curve of fluctuations which is characteristic of heredity in a given organism, and not such and such a particular measure corresponding to a [)oint in the curve. In cross-bred organisms there is, in each generation, an intermixture of two very comjffex inheritances, since- these organisms result from an infinite number of these intermixtures in former generations. On the contrary, the problem is very simplified, if one considers the organisms regularly reproducing themselves by self-fcililization as is the case in certain plants. Here there is no longer in each genera- tion a combination of new lines, but a continuation of one and the same line. It is the same hereditary substance which perpetuates itself. The Danish physiologist and botanist Johannsen attacked^ as you know, the problem in this way, by studying variation along a series of generations in lines of beans, and the conclusion of his researches, which have had in recent years a very great influence, is that each pure line gives a curve of specie^ fluctuations under special ^ ** Biblloth^ue sclentlfique internationale/’ Paris, Alcan. 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. oorulitiom. The variations that we observe in the action of external agents explain the different reactions of the hereditary substance to the conditions of the environment, but this substance itself remains unaltered. The consequence is that, in what since the time of Linn6 we have considered a species, and have admitted to be a more or less real entity, there is an infinity of lines, more or less different among themselves in their hereditary properties, which are fixed and in- dependent of environment. This it is that Johannsen calls the bio- tyfe^ or geryotype; a species is nothing but the sum of an infinity of genotypes differing very little from one another. H. De Vries on his side reached analogous views wdiich prove to harmonize with the results and ideas formulated some 40 years ago by a French botanist, Jordan, an unyielding adversary of transformism. Jordan, too, by means of well-ordered cultures, had analyzed a species of crucifer {Draba verm) in 200 elementary species independent of one another. He desei'ves to be considered in any case as the pre- cursor of the ideas of which T have just given a synopsis. It is not, then, in ordinary varibility, as it was known up to this time, that one can, following the ideas of De Vines and Johaim- sen, hope to find the key to evolution, since variations can not be the starting point for permanent changes. Examining a plant {(Enothera lamarcMiina) ^ De Vries thought he had found this key in abrupt transformations succeeding one another in organisms, under conditions which he has not been able to determine and wdiich remain mysterious. The abrupt and immediately hereditary varia- tions he named imitaiiom and set them in opposition to fluctuations (i. e., common variations). According to him, evolution is not con- tinuous but operates through mutations. The theory of mutations has been, since 1901, the occasion of an enormous number of experi- mental studies and of controversies, into which I shall not enter at this time, but I shall finally endeavor to extract the results won by this method of work. Let us note that, if De Vries and the muta- tionists do not formally deny the intervention of external factors in the production of mutations, the role of these factors is no longer very clearly or directly apparent, and some deny it more or less fully. In short, systematic study has led to an antithesis between flmtua- tions produced under the influence of the environment but not heredi- tary, and 7nut(dions not directly dependent upon the environment but upon heredity. We shall have to discuss the value of this distinction, the extent and the importance of mutations. Another and very effective branch of research which has developed since 1900 and which dominates the study of biology just now, is the study of hybridization, which has led to the doctrine known as Mendelism. Sometimes the name genetics is specifically applied to it. PROBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAULLEBY. 333 Toward 1860 the study of hybridization had led two botanists, the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel and the French botanist Naudin/ simultaneously but quite independently, to conceptions which did not particularly attract the attention of their contemporaries, but which were brought to light again in 1900, and which then foimed the starting point of very many and important investigations. The ex- perimental study of Mendelian heredity has been carried on, espe- cially here in Harvard, with great success by Mr. Castle on various mammals and by Mr. East on plants. This topic, therefore, is famil- iar to the students of biology in this university. I shall sjxiak of it for the j)resent, only to state the general results. Let me recall to your minds as briefly as possible the essentials of Mendelism. According to this doctrine most of the properties Avhich we can distinguish in organisms are transmitted from one generation to another as distinct units. We are led to believe that they exist autonomously in the sexual elements or gametes, and we can, therefore, by proper crossing, group such and such properties in a single individual, or, on the con- trary, we can separate them. The biologist deals with these unit characteristics as the chemist does with atoms or with lateral chains, in a complex organic compound. The pro])erties which we distin- guish thus are nothing but the very indirect external expression of constituent characteristics of the fundamental living substance of the species. But we imagine, and it is in this that the enormous im- portance of Mendelism consists, that it has been the means of giving us a more precise idea than we have had heretofore of a substantial basis for heredity. In itself Mendelism is only symbolism, like the atomic theory in chemistry, but the case of chemistry shows what can be driiwn from a well-conceived symbolism, and the Mendelian symbolism becomes more perfect each day in its form, in its concep- tion, and in its application. The recent works of T. H. Morgan ^ ar 3 particulai*ly interesting in this respect. Further, the facts furnished by Mendelism agree well with those of cytology. The results are explained easily enough, if we accord to the chromatine in the nucleus, and particularly to chromosomes, ii special value in heredity. The agreement of cytology and of Men- delism in incontestably a very convincing fact and a guide in present research. Blit if we return now to the study of evolution, the data of Mendel- ism embarrass ns also very considerably. All that it shows us, in fact, is the conservation of existing properties. Many variations which might have seemed to be new properties are simply traced to previously unobserved combinations of factors already existing. ^ “ Nouvelles Recherchos sur rnybrl(Ut<5 dans les Vfigl^taiix.” Nouvolles Arch, du Mug. Hist. Nat., Paria, Tome 1, 1805, cf. p. 1.5G. s* Cf. Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller aud Bridges, “The Meeiiauism of Mendelian Heredity/* New York, 1916. 884 AKKITAL EUPOET SMITOSOKIAN INSTITUTIOIir, 1916. This has indeed seriously impaired the mutation theory of De Vries, the fundamental example of the (Emothera lamarckiana seeming to be not a special type of variation, but an example of complex hybridiza- tion. The authors who have especially studied Mendelian heredity find themselves obliged to attribute all the observed facts to combina- tions of already existing factors, or to the loss of factors, a conception which seems to me a natural consequence of the symbolism adopted, but which hardly satisfies the intelligence. In any case, we do not see in the facts emerging from the study of Mendelism, how evolu- tion, in the sense that morphology suggests, can have come about. And it comes to pass that some of the biologists of greatest authority in the study of Mendelian heredity are led, with regard to evolution, either to more or less complete agnosticism, or to the expression of ideas quite opposed to those of the preceding generation ; ideas which would almost take us back to creationism. Lamarckism and Darwinism are e(pially affected by these views. The inheritance of acquired characters is condemned and natural selection declared unable to produce a lasting and progressive change in organisms. The facts of adaptation are explained by a previous realization of structures which are found secondarily in harmony with varied surroundings. That is the idea which different biologists have reached and which M. Cuenot in particular has developed sys- tematically.^ Two recent and particularly significant examples of these two tendencies are furnished us by W. Bateson and by J. P. Lotzy. In his Problems of Genetics, Bateson declares that we must recognize our almost entire ignorance of the processes of evolution, and in his presidential address at the meeting of the British Association in Australia, in 1914, he goes so far as to express the idea tliat evolu- tion might be considered as the progressive unrolling of an initial complexity, containing, from the first, wdthin itself, all the scope, the diversity, and all the diffei*entiation now presented by living beings. As Mr. Castle cleverly expressed it, carrying tlie idea to its logical issue, man might be regarded as a simplified ameba, a conclusion which may well give us pause. Here we clearly recognize, on the other hand, modernized in form, but identical in principle, the con- ception of the emboitement ” of the germs, and of preformation, ideas to which, as I have reminded you, the eighteenth century applied the name evolution. It is a conception diametrically op- posed to that of the transformism of the nineteenth century. Jdr. Lotzy, struck by the results of the crossing of distinct species of has reached in the last three years the conclusion thEt a species is fixed and that crossing is the only source of produc- 4 “na Gen^se des eap&ccs anImaleR.” Paris, Blbllothfeque Sdentlflquo Interna- tAlCliJi), 1911.—“TMorie de la pr^adaptation/’ Sdentla, Tome 16, p. 60, 1914. PEOBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAtTLLERY. 336 tion of new forms. Hybridization among species, when it yields fertile offspring, may, according to him, give rise, all at once, to a whole series of new forms, whose mutual relations and differential characteristics correspond exactly to what the natural species show. However subversive and delusive ideas of this kind, positive or negative, appear to generations saturated with Lamarckism and Darwinism, we must not lose sight of the fact that they were formu- lated by eminent biologists, and that they are the result of long and minute experimental researches and that many of the facts on which they rest may be considered as firmly established. But without thinking of rebelling against the facts resulting from genetic studies, we may question whether they have so general a sig- nificance. 1 have already more than once pointed out that the present aspect of organic heredity does not oblige us to conclude that it has always been the same. We may ask ourselves whether condi- tions, which have not yet been realized in experiment, do not either modify directly the germinal substance itself, or the correlation existing between the parts of the soma, and indirectly through them the germinal substance. The facts which the study of internal secre- tions are just beginning to reveal, perhaps indicate a possibility of this kind. Even if we admit that evolution proceeds only discon- tinuously by mutations, we still have to discover the mechanism of the production of these mutations. In short, we may believe that, with heredity and variations acting as recent researches have shown them to act, there are nevertheless conditions that are still unknown and that they have been realized for each series of organisms only at certain periods, as seems to be suggested by paleontology, and in which the constitution and properties of hereditary substances are changeable. Of course these are purely hypothetical conjectures, but such conjectures must be made if we wish to reconcile two categories of already acquired data which we are obliged to recognize as facts. On the one hand we have the results of modern genetics which of themselves lead to conceptions of fixity, and on the other hand, the mass of morphological data which, considered from a rational point of view, seem to me to possess the value of stubborn facts in support of the transformist conception; I will even go so far as to say in support of a transformism more or less Lamarckian. It seemed to me necessaiy to devote the first meeting of the course to this general analysis of the conditions under which the problem of transformism now presents itself. I believe that this analysis is the justification of the course itself. It shows the advantage of con- fronting in a series of lectures the old classic data with the* modem tendencies, all of which have to be brought into agreement. The crisis of transformism which Le Dantec announced some eight years ago is very much more acute and more in evidence now than it was then. somp: consti)]':uati()ns on stoitt in bikds. By Dr. .1. 0. Lewis, R. A. O. Tl., Mclhourne. [With T) plntos.] That continual adjustment, so necessary for life, between internal relations of an organisTU and the external world would be im]>ossible were it not for the communion of the sense oi'gans. They stand, as it were, midway between the orj>:anism and its surroundings, keeping the internal relations aware of and alive to the external happenings and conditions. These functions probably arose with the necessity for adaptation to environment and its ever-changing demands, and in the struggle for existence they arc necessary fa etui’s for the survival of the rac'e. Of the different special senses, hearing and sight stand apart in the degree of s])ecialization, and this specialization, again, varies greatly in the divisions of the animal kingdom. In the animal world, for examj^le, we find all stages from blindness to acute vision. Where the sight is poor, smell and hearing are, in compensation, extremely acute. The vision of the rhinoceros is limited to some 50 yards or so and is poor even for that short range, but the acute- ness of the sense of smell makes good the sight deficiency. In birds specialization of sight reaches its highest degree of development; and though hearing is fairly acute, the sense of smell is certainly vestigial. One feature of the functions of hearing and sight is the projection of their sensory impulses. Taking siglit, we find that light reflected from a distant object is picked up by the cornea and lens and brought into focus at a point on the retina. The stimulation of the numerous endings of the optic nerve sets up an activity which, after passing through many systems of relays, reaches the sight centers in the brain, giving rise to a complex chemical action in the cells, where the myriad impulses are figured out into a light pattern ih the image of the original object. Though the action setting up these impulses originates in the brain, where the image is really 1 Keprlutcd from the JSmu, YoU 15, Pt, 4, April, 1910. 837 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. synthetized, the sensation is projected to the object from which the light is reflected. A similar projection occurs with the function of hearing, though perhaps not so definite in its localization. If we consider the eye as an optical apparatus, looking at it from a mechanical point of view, ive find that it can be likened with advan- tage to a camera, the convergence of rays being brouglit about by the lens and the cornea, the retina taking the place of the sensitized plate. This convergence of the diverging rays of light into focus on the retina from objects at varying distances is termed accommo- dation and corresponds roughly to the focusing of a camera. The process of accommodation differs greatly in the different classes of the animal kingdom. In terrestrial forms, where there is media of very much less density outside the eye—namely, the air—the princi- pal convergence is done by the cornea, the outer transjiarent covering of the eye, the amount of convergence depending upon the laws of refraction governing light passing from a l(*ss dense to denser media. Though the lens also acts to a lesser extent in the same way, the corneal convergence is the more important in these forms, the special important function of the lens being the alteration of focus. On the other hand, in aquatic forms, such as fish, no corneal convergence, or almost none, is present, the media—namely, sea water, or even fresh water—being of practically the same density as the media of the eye itself. In these forms convergence must, therefore, be brought about by the lens only, and for that purpose a spherical lens is present. The physiology of accommodation in birds is remarkably com- plicated, differing in many respects from that found in the mam- mals. In the latter, or to be more correct, in the terrestrial forms alteration of focus is brought about by alteration in the shape of the lens. This structure when focused for near objects becomes more convex, particularly on the anterior surface. There is no change in shape of the transparent front part of the eye. In birds, on the other hand, with the exception of some of the night fliers, though like in man and other animals, the eye is normally focused for distance, accommodation is a more complex process, there being change in shape both of the lens itself and of the eyeball as a whole. It fur- ther differs in that it is a positive process, relaxation of the muscle focusing the eye for nearer points. In birds there are found two main types of eyes, though inter*^ mediate forms exist—namely, the tubular eye, with rounded lens, which allows for a normal near vision such as in the night-flyihg birds; and the other, the almost spherical eye, with flattened lens, characteristic of high-soaring birds of prey, and consequently adapted for distant vision (ph 1). Smithsonian Roport, 191C.—Lowls. 1. l\\oof Kniu (lisscftt d to>>lio\v uitUTior and ]H)^U'ru)l clianihor ot sliowiii^^ \\cll- i)(‘('tou, aluK'st ^.plu'rifal llul- lens. 'J\\ [)(' ()l oyo jiurniallv Iocu.s.m'iJ R)r (lislaijcc. Plate 1. 2. (ilobcs <)l 1Iu‘('y<“of n UoriKal Owl. Skull disst'ctcal auay l(t .show ooiii paral i\ o m/.o ol cvt*-; (.o Hk* brain, t'oriica n'iMo\ (.'(1 Irooi iii'iii v\v. S[)(‘rniiiai .show.s 1 ho liibiilar v\c (if (itvir-aiahU'd liiyhl biid.s, llu' va|iabK- of lorward visjdu, boili aeeiii.i; praof it ally lh(> .saliK' ru'ld ol \ I ^loll. 3. rialu AVandcrcr. Type of total monocular vi.siuu. both visual lields distinct. Australian Barn Owl. Showing' eyes c:ipublti ol I'orwanl double vision. Plate 3. Nankeen Kestrel. fciliuvviiiK cyo.s ca[)ul)lf a biuglo ohjoct with both i-yos, tliuugh lolal vi.aul lli'hi.s vary greatly. Plate Crested Pigeon. 0^ SIGHT |N BIRDS—LEWIS. 339 There is little to be said of the iris in birds apart from the fact that the movement of this curtain or diaphragm is voluntary, the pupil widening or closing at will. Apart from the voluntary action, closing of the pupil or a stopping-down process occurs in the presence of strong light, and is, therefore, reflex in nature, widening of the pupil being noticed in weak light and also for distant vision. The retina—the sensitive plate, as it were, of the eye—consists of a layer of fine nerve endings which in most animals conform to two well-marked types—rods and cones. In birds it has been for a long time thought that this layer consisted of rods only, but closer examination shows that cones are present, though very much reduced in number. There is also a belief existent, with perhaps some reason, that the function of the cones is associated with differ^ entiation of colors or the formation of visual purple, while rods determine movement, form, and shape. This is the layer which is stimulated by the photo-chemical action of light, the sensitizing substance being found in the external layer of the retina and called, for convenience, visual purple. It is believed that this substance changes under the effect of light, and the chemical changes effected act on and stimulate the nerve endings, giving rise to the particular sensation. In vertebrates this retina is not without its drawbacks. There is a well-marked blind spot where the optic nerve branches out into its numerous endings, this area being particularly large where the pecten is well developed. Further, many blood vessels ramify over the surface of the retina, and here, also, light is pre- vented from falling on and being registered by the sensitive layer. It is well knowm that in man there is a central small area where sight is keenest. This is called the fovea centroHh^ and here only rods are present. In birds it is believed that there are two such areas in each eye, one on either side of the pecten. It may be stated here that the pecten is a pigmented, vascular structure lying in the posterior chamber of the eye, protruding forward from the papilla of the optic nerve (pi. 1, fig. 1). The size varies consider- ably in different species, extending in some almost to the posterior surface of the lens, while in others it is small and inconspicuous. It is absent in one bird—namely, the Apteryx—and is practically absent in the Nankeen night heron {Nycticorax codedonicuB) The function of the pecten has always been a matter of controversy. There seeto to be no special habits or conditions in birds possessing this structhfe of equal size and shape, while birds with simil&r hahiti Ifeqw great variations. One theory was that it was protective^ til?, retina from the action of excessive light, in othjlr Wpi#, f Ita i|<p»cture being vascular Suggests some functions asi^iat^d the or nutrition of the eyeball In accommodifeion for mar* 340 ANNUAL BEPOKT BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. objects it has been found that there is, with the passage backward of the posterior surface of the cornea, the transference of fluid from the anterior chamber. This is shown by injecting methylene blue into the anterior chamber and stimulating the nerves of accommodation, then noting the course of the fluid. Admitting then that there is a transference of fluid from one chamber to another to maintain an unvarying intraocular pressure, some governor must be present to eflfect this quick interchange, and it is believed that the pecten acts in this way. In support of this theory it can be shown that in high-flying l)irds, birds of rapid flight, birds of prey where the eves have to be accommodated to extremely rapid alteration of focus, the pecten is well developed. It is, on the other hand, comparatively small in nocturnal birds. Against this theory it may be stated that reptiles, or some reptiles, ])Ossess a pecten, and in these animals the above conditions hardly exist. Tlie important point is that the presence of this large pecten creates a large blind area in the eye, and as it is heavily pigmented all light falling on it is naturally absorbed. It explains to some extent the constant shifting of the head when a bird is on the watch, as the visual field is consideral)ly limited, the portion obstructed being toward the npper outer field of vision. Before leaving the retina it should be mentioned that the presence of oil globules in this layer has been known for a long time. These globules are colored red and yellow and are found only in birds. They appear to exert no effect on color vision, as they are in no way identical in composition with the visual purple or sensitizing substance. ‘ The numerous fibers from the endings of the rods and cx)nes col- lect to form the optic nerves. The nerve from each eye converges and meets at what is known as the optic chiasma, where they unite and again separate. In all animals where binocular vision takes place, or to be more conect, where there is total binocular vision, there is partial decussation of the fiber. Those fibers leading from the right half of the right eye pass to the right side of the brain, while the fibers from the left side of the right eye cross over at the chiasma to the left side of the brain. The amount of decussation varies accordingly with the power of binocular vision. In some animals where partial binocular vision is possible, though not usual, as in the horse and some rodents, only a few fibers do not decussate. In animals incapable of any binocular vision complete decussation takes place. This latter condition is found in birds, or nearly all birds, the fibers entirely crossing over at the chiasma. One must first get a grasp of the true meaning of bihocukr vision to appreciate the difference between pure binocular yiaion and seeing the same object with both eyes. If we hold a piece of paper between the eyes so as to view, say, a red area with the 341 COlJrSIPERATIOISrS OK SIGHT IK BIRDS—LEWIS. right eye and a yellow area with the left, we do not see the two sepa- rate colored spots, but a spot of the color equalling the blending of the pigments; this is due to a superimposing of the images registered. In animals and birds where the axes of the eyes are not parallel it means that the image of an object falling on the riglU half of the right eye falls on the left half of the left eye. Only in animals where the axes of the eyes are parallel do the images fall on the same half of each eye, notably in human beings and monke^^s, thus making possible true binocular vision. In other words, in birds, with the possible exception of some of the birds of prey and some nocturnal birds, the siglit or visual field consists of two separate views not capable of being su])erimposcd and not stereoscopic in effect. The advantage of observing the same object with ])()th eyes is that it permits of greater concentration once an object or victim has been perceived, and it is tints found in eagles, liaAvks, etc., Avlicre acuity and concentration are so necesvsary for their existence. In man the stereo- scopic vision gives him the judgment of distance, and it is chiefly by this and, to a smaller extent, by accommodation, tliat distance is ac- curately estimated. On tlie other hand, birds, or most birds, have to depend n]xm accommodation for their judgment of distance possi- bly by the focusing movement of the lens brought about b,y the action of Crampton's muscle, the pull being so strong in some species that a ring of bony lamimv is provided in the sclerotic coat near the corneal margin to prevent alteration in shape of that part of the eye. Monocular vision has a great advantage of giving a far more ex- tensive scope of vision. It is a valuable asset for tlie birds which must maintain a convStant lookout for the approach of danger, and for that reason it is found mainly in those birds of poor defense, whose safety lies in speedy detection and evasion of their enemies. In these birds there is the range of two extensive visual fields, each being equally recorded and scrutinized. The moment an object of interest is detected the bird does not direct both eyes toward it, but there is a concentration of one eye, the vision of the other being sup- pressed at will. In some diseases of maix where t he axis of one eye has departed from the parallel of the other, each eye sees a field, which does not correspond with the other, yet diplopia, or double vision, is noi present, ns the one or the other field of vision is sup- pressed according to the automatic concentration in one or the other eye. Note a group of pheasants or pigeons watching the same ob- 3^6t! one eye oply will be directed toward the position. Watch a fowTor a pigeon gazing upward at a hawk; one eye will be skyward, ^he other tqward*the ground. In such cases the vision of the down- ward eye is being suppressed. If suppression were not possible ill biMs a position similar to diplopia would be present. An idea of this condition can be gained by pressing one’s eye, thus shifting the . 73889^^8111916 23 S42 ANNUAL REPOKT SMiraSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1016. visual axis of one eye, when a double image is obtained. In the human it is possible to suppress the vision by exercise and education, otherwise the eye must be closed—thus, in shooting or looking down a microscope—but by a continual effort at concentration it is possible to keep both eyes open and to suppress the vision of one. When we come to acuity of x ision in birds one must immediately recognize a superiority over the rest of the jinimal kingdom. There is no doubt that they possess an acuity almost immeasurable compared with our own standard. Normal sight in man gives an acuity of about 1 minute in degiues of the circle, which means that at 6 meters we can distinguish clearly enough to identify letters in lines 1 centi- meter in width. Man and monkeys are perhaps in advance of the rest of the mammals, but fall exti-emelv short of the standard found in birds. Speaking roughly, it is justifiable to say that birds possess about a hundred times the degree of acuity found in man. Visual acuity for moving objects is much more keen. This probably accounts for (he habit of small animals or birds wishing tf> escape detection becoming immobile, their protective coloring blending with the sur- )’Oundings. Peep through the smallest hole in a fowl-yard fence, and one will find that some old hen has perceived the action. An instance of the remarkable visual acuity can be seen in the vulture and its habits. On the death of an animal there may not be a vulture in sight, and in a few hours’ time many will have arrived at the feast. These birds I become aware of a dead beast not by smell (as that sense is vestigial), but by sight. Vultures are extremely high fliers, only one bird out- soaring them—namely, the adjutant. It is pro))ably that the nearest vulture sights the animal and descends to the carcass. The bird’s action is observed by the vulture farther away, which is likewise led lo the scene, and so it goes on. In this way it is believed that birds come from a distance of from 50 to 100 miles by their observation of each other’s action. A fact pointing to their ability to locate a carcass was observed in one of the outbreaks of rinderpest in Natal. It was found that if a carcass were covered by branches immediately after death, so as to obscure it from the sight of the birds, it was never disturbed by vultures. Though there is no means of measuring accurately the visual acuity of birds, a fair idea may be obtained by observation of their habits. A great brown kingfi.sher {Dewelo gigas)^ from a position on a post where it can inspect newly plowed land, seems to have no difficulty in locating the exposed part of a worm from any distance up to 100 yards. Watch an old hen in charge of a few chicks, and nothing overhead, be it ever so small, will escape her notice. Acuity for stationary objects, though not so finely sensitive as for those moving, is still remarkable. Experiments have been made with CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS. 343 pigeons, feeding them on a board on wheat, among which a per- centage of the grains have been stuck by adhesive substance. One mistake is sufficient to prevent them again making the error, small, slight alteration from the natural position of the grain giving them the clue. Many similar cases could be quoted. The vision of noc- turnal birds is enhanced l)y the size of the eyeball itself and the con- vexity of the cornea, which collects more light from an object than tliat witli l('ss convexity. They present, too, the maj'kedly tubular eye. The ])upil in these birds is capable of great dilatation. The poorness of vision of these birds in the daytime is accounted for by the fact that the eye is normally focused for objects comparatively near .and, again, because of the amount of stoojung dowm necessary to exclude the strong liglit. The eyes of these birds are probably what are known as dark-adapted eyes, and the attempt to see in bright sunlight has an (dTect similar to that which we experience on emerg- ing from a dark room into the sunlight. This is not due so much to the contraction of the ]>u])il as to arrangement of the protective pig- ment around the endings of the optic nerve. The power of individual movement of the eyes is greater in birds than in man, extensive divergent jnovement being possible, while con- vergent movement is seen as in the human being. But, in spite of this, tlie amount present is not sufficient for the needs of the bird, which nearly always moves the head to shift the direction of gaze. Of the accessory structures of the eye not much need be said. The eyelitls present little differing from mammals, with the excep- tion of the absence of eyelashes and the greater mobility of the lower lid. The third eyelid, known as the nictitating membrane, is Avell developed in birds, constantly sweeping the surface of the cornea and keeping it free of small particles, etc. In mammals it is not mo\ed voluntarily, but by pi^essure exerted by the backward movement of the eye its^‘lf. This membrane in birds is moved by two voluntary muscles, which bring it across the eye with lightning- like rapidity. In aquatic birds it invests the eye while submerged, and is then trans[)arent, to allow vision without endangering the sensitive surface of the globe. We come now to a more interesting though more difficult prob- lem—that of color vision. If one accepts the Young-Helmholtz theory, it must be taken that white light consists of the combina- tion of three primary colors, namely, red, green, and violet. Later works seem to incline toward the older division according to New- ton—that the primary colors included red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. In other words, tke blue and yellow have as much right to be considered as primary colors as the other three. The existence of color vision in animals is, of course, very difficult to 344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 191G. determine. It appears, however, that with trained dogs and horses there is no difliciilty at all in teaching them to distinguish between the saturated colors. The preference of some birds, notably the Bower Birds, for objects of a certain color and the gcmeral evoliL tion of color in the different s])ccies must point to an appreciation of ditTerent shades. Color sensation must be appreciated by the stimu- lation of waves of varying lengths. In man it varies from about 770 [JL to 396 [i., the latter being the extreme of light registered at the violet end of the spectrum. It would appear, if we adopt the Young-Helmholtz theory, that man has a trichromatic vision, and that all the sliades appreciated are due to the degree in which the three classes of nerve fibei*s are stimulated. Yellow, for example, is caused by an equal stimulation of the sets of fibers for the red and green percipients. When red is seen the fibers percipient of red are strongly stimulated, the others only weakly. Color blindness is an interesting side study in tliis respect, particularly when we come to the color vision of lurds. In man dichromatic vision appears most commonly with a l)lindness for red or green, the violet blind being rare. In red or green blind- ness the subject confuses reds and greens, and in a mixture of colors including tliese colors other than red or green are the only ones appreciated. Now, it has been shown by feeding experiments that birds are blind in the violet end of the sjiectrum. In other words, if we accept the Young-IIelmholtz theory they have a dichromatic vision. Their color vision would be restricted to red and green and the mixtures of tliese colors. They would bo blind to violet and to the s])ectral violet in blue, indigo, and yellow. Such a conclusion would be dis- astrous to our ilieory of selection in the coloration of birds, where many blues and shades of blue are seen. It would mean that the development of color in the evolution of the [)resent-day bird was merely incidental and apparently without reason. The flaw in the reasoning probably lies in onr uc(;eptance of tlie Young-Helmholtz theory instead of recognizing the other colors as primary. Again, the conclusion obtained from the feeding experiments may be faulty. The birds are fed in spectral red light and in spectral green, where they pick up the grains readily; but when taken to spectral violet remain still, fail to see the grains, and arc to all intents and purposes in darkness. A man color blind in red or in green, though not seeing these colors as a normal person would see them, still sees the objects, but is blind to the color only. His vision extends right to the red end of the spectrum, though not recognizing the red there, so that the waves stimulate the eye, though not giving the color sense. It'is probable that ifl birds the sight is keyed to a higher pitch than in man, and CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS. 345 that the retina is not stimulated by wave lengths as short as that of the violet, while yet possessing the wliolc of the range of colors as far as the \’i()let. In man we know that the eye is blind beyond the two limits of red and viohit, but we arc able to ascertain the j)resence of ulti'a red and ulti'a violet rays that the retina does not register. There is still a great field for investigation into the function of sight. So far the work done is mainly comi)arative, and must be based on the lines fotind existent in the human subject, whei'e the subjective assistance is of great value. l>ut of the conditions in birds Me can only theorize, M'hile there may be present conditions outside our comprehension of the powers of the eye. 'Jliei-e is still unuli to be learned concei'ning accommodation, monocular vision, color vision, and the function of the pecten. PIKATES OF THE DEEP—STORIES OF THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS. By Paul Bartsch, Curator of Marine Invertolmiics, (I. S. National Muficurn. [With 19plat(‘S.l INTUODUCTTON. The largest, the most highly organized, as well as intelligent, and therefore, most interesting invertebrate creatures of the sea belong to the class of organisms known as Cephalopods, a group of marine molliusks embracing the Nautilus, Squid, Cuttleiish, Octopus, Argo- naut, as Avell as the Nautiloids, Ammonites, and Belemnites of the ancient seas. The old forms, geologically speaking, as far as known, were all sliell-bearing oi'ganisms. Their changing from the crani])ed condi- tion of an inclosing and confining exoskeleton or shell to an endo- skeleton or pen, or even no skeleton, came only in very recent times and carried in its train of development not only possibilities of bodily expansion, as shown by the giant squid of our seas, but pro- duced even gi*eater and far more important consequences, namely, the development of a highly specialized brain, which to-day easily places this group in the first rank of all the invertebrate dwellers of the sea when viewed from the standpoint of mentation. Compared with our squids, the chambered Nautilus, the relic of the most ancient stock, is an extremely stupid animal. ^^\ST HISTORY. In order to follow the customary line of the biographer, we must first give a bit of attention to the ancestors of our subjects and to this alone one might well devote the entire space allotted to our sketch. Paleontology has taught us that these wonderful creatures 347 348 AliTKtJAL HJRPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IMO. can boast of a long line of progenitors; indeed, there afe few groups that can compare with them in this respect. For millions upon mil- lions of years ago, or to be more precise, in Tipper Cambrian times, there existed a small nautiloid animal in the seas, wliose deposits are known as the Chau-mi-tien limestone near Tsi-nan, Shantung, China. The shell of this little animal, which was christened Cyrtoceras cam- Ina by T)r. Walcott in 1905," is only 7 millimeters in length and 3 millimeters in diameter (fig. 1). Ever since that time, and probably long before this tiny, flexed, but noncoiled cliambered nautiloid ancestor of the (l^plialopoda existed, chambered nautili were lining somewhere in our seas. Tlie 0/airkian period ushered in a num])er of families, each with lU genera and species. The Canadian added materially to these, but the greatest differentiation of all took place in the Ordoxician and Silurian, after which the decline of the order began, i-esulting finallx^ in the rem- nant of four closely allied sjiecies belonging to the single now existing genus Nautilus. Tn all, about 3,000 sjiecies lune been named and to their number new foians are constantly being adiled by the patient paleontologist. In all these forms we have the shell divided into chamliers l>y trans- verse concave wse])ta whose margins may be straight or undulate; a si])huncle or tube extends from chamber to cham])er cciinecting them with each other. The range of variation in sliape and pocia, Suio vK'w, X 5. size IS quite great. There are straight cones, as End view, X 7. Ortlioceras ; flexed forms, as in Cyrtocera^ loosely coiled foims, as in Sphyradoceras; (dosely coded forms, as in Nautilus; or even closely coiled and finally solute shells, as in Ophidioceras and Lituites. The sculpture, too, presents no end of variations, for some shells are smooth, others axially or spirally striate, or channeled; or lirate, or threaded, ribbed, or keeled, or marked by combinations of these elements, some even have tubercles and bosses, but whatever tlie sculpture or size, which varies from the 7-millimeter ancestor to the 14-foot or more long cones of Endoceras, one word characterizes the entire group, and that is elegance (pi. 1). During the XTppier Silurian period a new offshoot of the Cepha- lopod stock developed, a stalk which has far excelled the Nautiloids in numbers as well as in diversity of sirnctui'c. We refer to the order Ammonoidea, ‘‘ the Ammon’s horns,” of which probably more than Fi(/ 1. Cmiocaa^ cam- hria Walcott. The an- costor of Ihe Cepbilo iProc. V. S. Nat. Mas., Vol. 29, p. 22, 1905. AMMONOIDrS, 1 . Plii/IIno iir^ hf/i I III I 2 . T 1. 1 i/i/t ^ mh nut its i\'( )i ]). !jitm , ii<hi(ji (<)['|it 7. I I'l m U ! s fitl n niltil )! s i >{)\\\, ), s I'lnilhin !• iifijrlmtcii m Icdl ]. ',i. Muciosrii /ihi/i s it a nil Jo. ^cpl.i ()1 I ! ms lul.Kji { ^ )\)\ 1,1. II Miiihifiutitns iii/liihint Sou'. I'J. Hopll/is tubi ini/<tlii'< ruw, Jo l)<itii i/h tci ms jiKi iiiii'ji t i ; chlol li, }. ME SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BABTSCH. 349 6,000 species^are known. Here form, complexity of septation, and external sculpture ran riot, or, may we say, attained an overspeciali- zation which soon spelled exit, for the group reached its highest development in the upper Trias and disappeared suddenly and com- pletely at the close of the Cretaceous. In size their shells vary from the dimension of a pea to more than 6 feet in diameter. Plate 2 will give the reader a little more intimate view of the group. The third order, Belemnoidea, of the Cephalopoda, is of consider- ably less antiquity, dating back only to the Ti'iassic period Avith not a single living represcmtatii'e, for the little cluimbc]*ed Spirula has been definitely disposed among the modem 10-footed members, though the i)aleontologists still classify it with the Belemnoidea. It is among tluvse Belemnoids that we have to seek the ancestors of our squids and cuttleiishes for, like them, they have an inUuaial shell, but of much greater complexity. They also i)ossessed the ink bag, a character ])resent in all our modern (^e]3halopods excepting the Nau- tilus. It is quite possible that tluvse members were as abundant in these later seas as theii* ancestoi's Avcre in their time and as their descendants are to-day, but they had little of fossilizable material to leave beliind them at death, and thus have left a rather poor, scat- tered and fragmentary recoi’d of their existence. Judging fi’om some of the pens, however, it is well to assume that the soft body inelosiiig them may have compared favorably in size with the mem- bers of the now existing fauna. Some of tliese ])ens are called fossil ‘Hhnnder bolts” b}^ the uninitiated. Plate shows a selection of these remains. We next eome to the modern dwellers of the seas, our pirates of the d(‘ep.” In these Ave have either an internal skeleton or none at all. In the squids the shell is embedded in the dorsal part of the mantle and frequently reduced to a mere chitinoid remnant, called the pen (pi. 4, fig. 1) from its resemblance to the quill pens of old. At times this is decidedly reinforced by calcareous material, as shown by the cuttlebone (pi. 4, fig. 2) Avhicli wg are accustomed to furnish our canaries, for this is the skeleton of our cuttlefish. The only coiled or chambered test is found in Spinila, but here it serves not as a container, but is contained Avithin the mantle. The shell of the beauti- ful Paper Nautilus or Argonaut is not a skeletal shell at all, but a mere case used by the female for the protection of her eggs. In all these animals the body is enveloiiied in a soft mantle. The head is strongly differentiated from the rest of the body and is sur- rounded by a circle of 8 or 10 sucker-bearing arms or feet which, in reality, are modified elements of Avhat corresponds to the anterior part of the foot in other mollusks. It is the position of these feet about the head of tliese animals that has gained for them the name 350 AHNXJAL B^POBT SMITHSOITUK INSTITUTIOl^, 1916. Cephalopoda, head- footed. The mouth is situated in the middle of the tentacular disk and is armed with a pair of formidable parrot- beak^Uke jaws. Not least conspicuous are the two large, highly specialised eyes situated on the side of the head. Behind the head is a constricted neck. Here we find a cleft, the communicating orifice between the exterior and the mantle cavity ; here also is inserted the tubular siphon which, in reality, is tlie modified posterior pai't of the foot and serves as the chief organ of locomotion, for much of the Cephalopod swimming is accomplished by the rapid expulsion of water through this organ by means of the sudden contraction of the muscular mantle. The posterior portion of the body may be globular, conic, spindle, or lance shaped, or cylindric; it may or may not have lateral flukes, which may serve as organs of locomotion; or may be modified to form a sucker, as in Spirilla. The internal organization is also interesting, but we shall content ourselves with the simple statement that the sexes are distinct and that the rather complex brain is shielded in most of them by a cranial cartilage that protects the principal nerve centers, incloses the auditory organs, and supports the very highly developed eyes. An interesting structui’e found in all the living forms, except the Nautilus, is the ink bag, a glandular sac and a reservoir connected by a duct with the rectum near the anus. Tliis oi‘gan produces a dark fluid which the animal is capable of discharging at will. It is usually ejected when the animal is pursued and effectively enwraps it in an impenetrable smudge, thus aiding it to make good its escape. The secretion of the Ck^])halop()d ink bag forms an imt)ortant element of commerce and our arts, where it is better known under the name of sepia and india ink. The living Cephalopods, excepting the Nautilus, are easily divided into two groups or orders. One of these, Decapoda, embj*aces all the members having 10 feet, while the members of the other order, Octopoda, have but eight (pi. 5). Beautifully preserved specimens of scjuids have been found in those remarkable reliquaries, the Solenhofen lithographic limestone deposits of Bavaria, the hardened ooze of an ancient sea, which has contributed so many chapters to our knowledge of the past. These remains proclaim the presence of the order in the Lower Jurassic. Plate 6 is a photograjfli of a specimen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 28382, which comes from this formation at Eichstatt and shows the perfect manner in which the soft, enfolding ooze has preserved its record for us. FACTS AND FANCIES. Bize^ power, speed, beauty, and intelligence have ever been the elements that have elicited the admiration of man. Add to this the THE SQtriI> AND OCTOPU^BAETSCH. 351 mystery of the sea and the toothsomeness of our beasts, and you have a setting with possibilities tliat seek a rival. No Avonder, then, that we find the ancient writers and bards and all those of years be- tween them and our modern penman singing songs and spinning yarns about our Cephaloi)ods, for they possess all the qualifications denoted above. Passing through the literature of the ages, one finds myths and fancies so wonderfully intertwined with a basis of facts, that even the knowing, prosaic but incisive naturalist finds it difficult to pass judgment on what is fact or fiction. One thing, however, is certain, and that is that all the legends and mytlis appear as clumsy sailor yarns Avhen compared with the facts which are Ijeiiig slowly revealed by the painstaking students of the group. The early writings fre(iuently combine in their discussion of some one of these animals, characteristics that belong to widely different orders. Not only tliat, ))ut the earlier authors even assigned to the Physalia or Portuguese Man-o’-War, and the beautiful little Velella, attributes belonging to the Argonaiita and the Chamliered Nautilus, for the fairy sails that were assigned to these animals ai’e un? doubtedly the Avonderfully colored floats of the lowly orgaui/'^^ Hydrozoans (})h 7). We quote from Pliny: Thk Nautilus, or Sailing Polypus. Anioii^ tbo most remarkable curiosities is the animal which has name of Nautilus, or, as s\une people call it, the Pompilos. L>ins with the 1 upward, it rises to tlio surface of the water, raisinj? itself little by liUi^^» while, by means of a certain conduit in its body, it dischargees all the this being got rid of like so mucli Idlge-water as it were, it finds n*^^ difiiculty in sailing along. Then, extending backwards its two front arms, ic stretches out between tliem a membrane of marvehais tliinness, whicli acts ni-f spread out to the wind, widle with the rest of its arms it paddles along steering itself with its tail in the middle, which acts as a rudder. Thi4^ does it make its way along the deep, mimicking the appearance of a Hglit bark; while if anything chances to cause It alarm in an instant u tfA'aws in the water and sinks to the bottom. The Chambered Nautilus lives in the tropical v^estern fWific, usually at a depth of a hundred or more feet, and, all myths to t|ie contrary, has ne\er been known to sail the surface of the sea (pi. 8). We quote more from the same authority, this time a story relating to a gigantic octopus: At Cartel a, in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of coming from the sea to llie pickling tubs, that were left open, and devouring the fish laid in salt there—for it is quite astonishing how eagerly all sea animals follow even the very smell of salted condiments ; so much so, that it is for this reason that the fishermen take care to rub the insiile of the wicker fish kipes with them* At last by its repeated thefts and immoderate depredations It drew down ppon# 852 ANNUAL BEPOBT SMIMSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. itself the wrath of the keepers of the works. Palisades were placed before them, but these the polypus managal to get over by the aid of a tre<% and it was only caught at last by calling in the assistance of trained dogs, which sur- rounded It at night as it was returning to its prey ; upon which the keepers, awakened by the noise, wore struck with alarm at the novelty of the sight pre- sented. First of all, the size of the polypus was enormous beyond all conoei> tion ; and then it was covered all over with dried brine and (\xhalod a most dreadful stench. Who could have expected to find a polypus there or could have recogniz(‘d it as such under these circumstances? They really thought that they were joining battle with some monster, for at one instant it would drive off tlie dogs by its horrible fumes and lash at them with tla^ extremities of its feelers, wliile at auotluT it would strike them with its stronger arms, giving blows with so many chibs, as it were; and it was only with the greatest difiioulty tliat it could be dispatched with the aid of a considerable number of three-pronged fish siiears. The head of this animal was shewn to Lueullus; it was in size as large as a cask of lP,r> gallons and had a heard (tentacles), to use the expressions of Trehius himself, which could Inirdly be encircled with l)oth arms, full of knots, like those upon a club, and 80 f(*et in length; tlu* snck(a*s, or calicules, ns large tis an urn, resembled a basin in shape, wliile tin? teeth again were of a corresponding hirg(*ness; its remains, vliii'li win’e (*arefuily preserved us a curiosity, weighed 7(X) pounds. Denys Montfort, who spent many year.s in ardent study of Cepfinlo- po(j,.and devoted a whole volume^ to tlic publication of his results, cites i-imerons incidents of marvelous encounters lietwi^en man and some oithe larger members of this group. We shall (piote a few selection • An old dptain naiiKHl Jolui Magnus Dens, who resided in Dunkirk, related that, sailiiii ^^^ve between tin* isle of St. Helena and Africa, near the coast the ship wa- becalmed. He took advantage of this calm to send nu*n over tlie side to deaf grass wiiieh accumulates iK'ar tlie water line on long voyage.s.- TIP v/c're standing on stag(‘S suspondiHl near the water’s edge, scraping with scrapers, wluui suddenly a Iiuge cuttlefish appeared at the water’s edge tlirowiiig one of Ids arms about two of tlie men, tore the unfortunates, their stage, from the side of the vessel and dragged them into the water. same time it threw another arm about a man wlio was Just mounting main rigging; but liere its arm became entangled with the shrouds an^^ ratlines, Jind it was Tinahle to disentangle itself. Tlie man, who was bein& severely scpiei^zcvl, cried out for help, and the crew immediately ran to his itxssistanco. Several threw harpoons into the body of the beast, winch was now rising along the ship’s side; others with ax<^s cut in pieces tlie arm which heM the man to the rigging and took the unfortunate dowm on deck. This done, tlie cuttle sank down, but the captain payed out on the lines which were fast to the liarpooiis, in the hope that presently he would be al)le to drag the beast up again and recover the two men wlio bad been dragged down. In fact, at first he was able to drag the animal toward the surface; but presently the huge beast again sank down, and they were obliged to pay out; line after line, till at last, having but a little left, they were forced to hold on; and now four of the harpoons drew out, while the fifth line broke, and thus all hope of saving tho unfortunates or killing the monster was lost. ^ Hlstoire Naturelle I)es Mollusques, Tome 2, Paris, Aa. X, SmithsoiiMn R pnit, — R;irtsch. Plate 6. A Fossil Squid from the Solenhofen Limestones of Bavaria. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 353 This should ho followed by the illustration of the sailing vessel attacked by a huge octopus, also taken from Montfort, wliich is said to he a facsimile of a painting that he saw in the Chapel of St. Thomas, in St. Malos, a French seaport, and of which he relates the following stoiy, told by some of the crow of the vessel to which the adventure it depicts happened (pi. 0) : The sliif) \v;is <»n the west African ennst. Slu* liad just 1ak('n in lier car^^o of slaves, ivory, ami ^^ohl dust, and the men were heaving up the anchor, when suddenly a iiuaistrous outtlofish apix^ared on top of the water and slun^ its arms about two of the masts. The tips of tlie arms rea<‘hed to the mastheadvS, and the weii^ht of the cuttle dratraotl the ship over, so that she lay on her beam- ends and was near Imng eapsi/.ed. The crew seized axes and kni^'es, and cut away at the arms of the nenistcr ; but, despairing of escape, called ui)on tlieir patron saint, St. Tlioimas, to help them. Their praycTs seemed to give them renewed courage, for tlu'y persinered, and finally siiece(‘ded in cutting off the anus, when tlu' animal sank and the ’vessel righted. Now, when the vessol reinrned to 8t. Malos the crew, grateful for tlieir de- liverance fnun so hideous a <Ianger, m;irche<I in procession to the chapel of their patron saint, wlmiv they offered a solemn thanksgiving, and afterwanis had a painting imnle representing the coiillict with the cuttle, and which was hung in the chapel. But let Montfort, who was once painfully bitten in the side by an octopus, vhosc bite, he says, is not iioisonous, relate one of his own expeiiences On one occasion a huge mastiff which accompanied m(' on my explorations drew my attention by his excited barking. Wlani I came to the roclcs I found a cuttlefish, whose arms were 3 feet long. He was defendiiig himself against the violent attacks of the dog, an animal of immense size and strength and un- daunted courage, which had rd ready once saved my life when attacked by a wolf. The dog ran around the cuttle, vainly atltmijiting to seize the arms, which followed him with singular dexpTity and lashed him over the back like whips. 1 looked on a minute in great astonisliment at the di^xtcrity ()f the cuttle, which S(,‘emed fiiU of rage, and showed no desire io refri'at, though the water was just behind it. AVhen it saw me it sei'iued for tlu^ first time some- what intimidated. There was a change in its tactics. TIk' arms struck out less often, and it endeavored to drag itself to th(‘ shore. ScH'ing this, niy brave dog seemed encouraged. Watching a chance, he leaped wilhin the arms and fastened his teeth In one, quite near the body. Instantly four arms were drawn up and twined rigidly about tlie dog, who struggled vainly to free himself, ami, for once losing his courage, uttered pite- ous howls and cries for help. IMeantinie the cuttle, wliose huge protruding eyes seemed actually to flash fire, and whose body had turned many colors, from dark violet to bright scarlet, was drawing itself with considerable speed toward the water, dragging with little effort the heavy body of my struggling dog. TJie rough rocky ground helped him to drag the weight along, by giving his arms secure holds. Already the monster had reached the water side, when I could no longer bear the sight, and rushed to the help <>f niy faithful dog. I seized two of the arms of the cuttle, and, bracing my feet fihnly against a solid roefc pulled With all my strength. I succeeded in tearing loose these arms. The aniinal 354 aWNtjal eeport smitiisokiak iNstiTtrnoN', 1916. stnipTcclofl, uttered cries of rage which resembled the growl of a fierce watch* dog, and finally attacked me, too, throwing two of its arms about my person. But my l)rave dog had not been idle. Gathering courage from my •advance, he had succeeded in quite tearing off with his strong teeth two of the arms of the cuttle ; and with another struggle he was free. Then, with a fury which I never saw eqtialed, lie attacked thO disabled monster, which we together soon over- powered. I determined nevc i* again to attack an auinuil of this kind unarmed, or to venture to close (luarters with it. Beale, an English physician, who made a w^haling voyage in 1831-32, described an octopus adventure worth relating. ^^dnle upon the Bonin Islands, searching for shells upon the rooks which had been h^ft by the reciuling sea tide, I was much astonished at st*eing at my feet a most extraordinary looking animal crawling toward the surf which had only just left it. I had never seen one like it iinder such circumstances before; it therefore appeared tlie more remarkable. It was creeping on its eight legs, which, from their soft and llexlble nature, Inuit considerably under tlu‘ weight of its body, so tliat it was lifted by the eflVu't of its t(Mitaculae only a small distance from the rocks. It appeanvl much alarmed at seedng me, and made every effort to escape, while I was not imu'h in the humor to (sideavor to capture so ugly a custona^r, whose api>earance excited a feeling of disgust not immixed with fear. I, however, endeavored to prevent its escape by pressing on one of its legs with my foot; but although I made use of considerable force for that purpose, its strength was so great that it several times quiekly liber- ated its members, in spite of all the efl'orts I could employ in this way on wet, slippery rocks. I now laid hold of one of the tentacles with my hand and held it firmly, so that the limb appeared as if it would be torn asunder by pur united strength. I soon gave it a powerful jerk, wishing to disengage it from the rocks to which it clung so forcibly by its suckers. This it effectually resisted; but the moment after the apparently enraged animal lifted its head, with its large eyes projecting from the middle of its body, and letting go its hold on the rocks sudflenly sprang upon iny arm, which I had previously bared to iny shouhler for tlie purpose of thrusting into holes in the rocks to discover shells. It clung with its suckers with great i)ower, endeavoring to get its beak, which I could now see betwe^cn the roots of its arms, In ,a position to bite. A sensation of horror pervaded my whole frame when I found this monstrous animal had affixed itself so firmly to my arm. Its cold, slimy grasp was extremely sickening; and I immediately called aloud to the captain, who was also searching for shells at some distance, to come to my release from my dis- gusting assailant. He quickly arrived, and taking me down to the boat, during which time I was employed in keeping the beak away from ray hand, quickly released me by destroying my tormentor with the boat knife, when I disengaged it by portions at a time. This animal must have measured across its expanded arms about 4 feet, while its bo<ly was not larger than a large clenched hand. It was that species of sepia which Is called by whalers “ rock squid.” And yet another narrative is taken from Cassell’s Natural History The following account of a marine diver, attacked by an octopus, exhibits th© behavto of these animals toward any being that intrudes upon them in itheir ngtive element 4th November, 1879, Mr. J. Smale, Government was at work at the bottom of the tideway of the River Moune* Mel- Having placed a charge of dynamite between two large stones, and exploded it, and on descending again found one of the ston^ Nautilus pompilus L. Showing Trap Used by the Fil’pinos for their Capture F nim *• on Liviiiu' Xau-ihi'-,” by P, i.^nford Aiiioiw- m Xonir ilin . vd. n. l'«)] THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 855 thrown out, which he sent up, and then hooked on to another, but could not start it, and having descended again, the current being pretty strong at the time, he stretched himself out on the stone, and reaching his right arm down to f(vl if he could get another small charge under it, not being able to do this ill any other position. “My arm,” he says, “was scarcely down, however, bcfon^ T found that it was held by something, and the action of the water was stirring up the loose clay, and therefore I could not see distinctly for a few minutes, hut when it did (;lear away I saw, to my horror, tlu? arm of a large (x topus eiitwiiKMl round miiio like a boa constrictor, and just then he fixed soiiH' of his suckers on the hack of my hand, and the pain was intense. I felt as if my hand was being pulled to pieces, and the more 1 tried to take it away tli(^ greater the pain becamts and, from past experience, I knew this method would he useless. But what was I to do, lying in this position? I had the gn atest dilTiciilty In keeping my feet down, as the air rushed along the interior of my dress and inflated it, and if my feet had got uppermost I should soon have become insi^nsibh', held in such a position, and if I had given the signal to be pulled up the brute would have held on and the chancesi would have been that I should have had a broken arm. I had a iiammer down by me but could not reach it to us(‘ it on the brute. There w^as a small iron bar not far from mo, and with my feet I dragged this along until I could reach it with my left hand. And now the fight commenced ; the more I struck him the tighter he s(jiieezod, until my arm got quite benumbed, but after awhile I found the grip began to relax a little, ])ut he held on until I had almost cut him to pieces, and tlien he relaxed his hold from the r(X?k and I pulled him up, I can assure you I was completely exhausted, having been in that position for over 20 minutes. I brought the animal up, or rather a part of it. We laid him out and he mf‘asured over 8 feet across, and I feel perfectly convinced that this fellow could have l\eld down five or six men. It is only when a person g(‘ts a grip from these brutes tliat one realizes their strength, and it was lucky for me that I was not an amateur, for I can assure you that I had the greatest struggle to get clear of it that I have ever had with any animal under water. Here is still another yarn by Aldrovandi, who speaks of the possum-playing of the octopus: An octopus, considered dead, was placed in a kettle and hung over the fiie, became revived, and gained sufiicient strength to leave the kettle, climb through the chimney, and seat himself upon the roof, where, after considerable hunting, he was discovered. While Pennant states, on authority of a friend long resident in the East Indies, that in those seas, the eight-armed cuttlefish has been found of such size as to measure 12 feet in breadth across the central part, while each arm was 54 feet in length; thus making it extend, from point to point, about 120 feet (pi* 10 ). He further states that the natives of the Indinn Isles, when sailing in their canoes, always take care to be provided with Imtchets, in order immediately to cut off the arms of such of these animals as happen to fling them over the sides of the canoe, lest they should pull It under water and sink It. Quite an excellent picture made by Gustave Dor4 showing Gilliatt’s fight with the devilfish in Yictor Hugo’s Toilei^ /Qf tim AKKtlAy# EBFOEX SMITHSOHIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Soa is here reproduced (pi. 11), but we regret greatly that the au- thor’s powers of observation were not on a par with his wonderfi ‘ gift of dramatic diction, for a trifle more knowledge would Ic raised this cliapter from the limbo of silly yarns to a produc worthy of Victor Hugo. Tla* lowing statement, vhich we (] from tlio» above vvoik, coi not a single atom of trull though the author attoiup strengthen his case by ieh‘ to men of science, from v\ works he undoubtedly gleaned some of his rare information: The muscles swell, the fibers of the body are (oiUorted, the sKln crtukH under the loathsome oppression, the blood spill ts out and min^los horribly With the Ijmph of the monster, which clings to its victim innumerable hideous mouths The hydra Incoriio- latcs its(‘lf v\ith the man, the man he- comes one with the h.\dia. The siiectre lies upon jou, the tiger can only de- vour jou; the devilfish hoinblo, sncKs >our lifeblood aw.iy lie diavvs .voii to him, and ‘into himself, while hound down, glued to the gionnd, powerless, joii f(‘el j ourself gradually emptied into this horrible pouch, which is the monster. It would be unfair to leave the Octopoda without calling atten- tion to the efforts of some of the modern story tellers. We select for this purpose a clipping from the San Francisco Chronicle, re- produced in figure 2. This is a marvelous combination of crab and octopus; the artist has termi- nated not only every one of the eight arms in a pair of pincers, but he has even modified the body into a claw. An endless number of instances might be quoted from the daily relating struggles between man and the octopus, not all ifi wliicii have terminated as favorably as those which we have Smithsoninn Rf>por+, ~-Raito<'li Plate 9. THE SQUID AKD OCTOJ^US-~-BARTSCH. 357 The octopus is carnivorous, and hence must seek his animal prey. He lives chiefly on mollusks and fish, and even Pliny, in the long ago, shows a remarkable knowledge of their habits, for he states They feed upon the flesh of shellfish, the shells of which they can easily break in the embrace of their arms; hence it is that their retreat may be easily detected by the pieces of shell which lie before it. * * * In Its own domestic matters it manifests considerable intelligem’e. It carries its prey to its home, and after eating? all the flesh, throws out the debris, and then pursues such smnll fish as may chance to swim toward them. It also <*hanges its color according to the aspect of the place where it is, and more especially when it is alarmed. The octopus, however, is not always the hunter, but frequently the hunted. Not least among his enemies is nuin, for since very ancient times he has been considered a choice morsel in many coun- tries. The (Ireeks and Romans considered them the finest fish in the sea. Pliny tells us that the gourmands of Rome ate every variety of octopus known in the Mediterranean. They were cooked in a pie, the arms being cut off, and the body filled with spices; and the Romans were so careful in their preparation that their cooks used pieces of bamboo for drawing the body, instead of knives of iron, which were supposed to communicate an ill flavor to the de- licious morsel. How highly the cuttle was esteemed by the Greeks is evident from a story told of Philoxenus of Syracuse, who, de- siring a delicious dinner, caused a polypus of three feet spread to be prepared for the principal dish. He ate it alone, all but the head, and was taken so sick in consequence of his surfeit that a jdiysician was called. On being bluntly told that his case was desperate, and that ho had but a few hours to live, Philoxenus called for the head which had been left over from dinner, ate that, and resigned himself to his fate, saying that he left nothing on the earth wdiich seemed to him worthy of regret. The methods employed in their capture vary with the people pur- suing them. Aristotle tells us that the cuttlefish and the octopus may be caught by bait. The octopus, in fact, clings so tightly to the rocks that it can not be pulled off, but remains attached even when the knife has been employed to sever it; and yet, if you apply fleabane to the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it. This procedure is still common on the Mediterranean shores, where either fleabane {Inula coryza) or the even handier drug tobacco is used for this purpose. Simmonds, in his Commercial Products of the Sea, gives the fol- lowing quotation from Vice Consul Green’s report on octopus fish- ing on the Tunisian coast in modern times On the first arrival of the Octopodia in the shallows they keep in masses or shoals, but speedily separate in search of shelter among the rooks hear the beach, covered by only l or 2 feet of water, and In the stony localities prepared 73839®—BM 1916 24 358 ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 191®. for them by the fishermen in order to frustrate the depositing of their spawn. Polypi are taken in deep water by means of earthen jars strung together and lowered to the bottom of the sea, where they are allowed to remain for a cer- tain number or hours, and in which the animals introduce themselves. Fre- quently from 8 to 10 polypi are taken from every jar at each visit of the fishermen. In less deep water earthenware drainpii)es are placed side by side for distances frequently exceeding half a mile in length, and in these also they enter and are token by the fishermen. As they are attracted by white and all smooth and bright substances, the natives deck places in the creeks and hollows in the rocks with white rocks and shells, over which the polypi spread themselves and are caught from four up to eight at a time. But the most suc- cessful manner of securing them is pursued by the inhabitants of ivarkeuah, who form long lanes and labyrinths In the shallows by planting the butt ends of palm branches at short distances from each other, and these constructions extend over spaces of two or more miles. On the ebb of the tide (the fall here is about 10 feet) the OctopodiJi are found in the pools inside the inclosures and are easily collected by the fishermen, who string them in bunches of 50 each, and from 8 to 10 of these buriclies, called “ risina,” are secured daily during the season by every boat’s crew of four men. The simplest method, probably, is that used by tlie Filipinos. Well do I recall my first octopus hunt with them in the southern islands. It was a dark night. The good ship Albaiross lay peacefully at anchor some half mile olf a Moro village, wdiosc dim outline w^as faintly silhouetted against the sky. We had just finished oiir dinner, returned to the declc to take up submarine light fisliing, when we noticed a torchlight iirocession proceeding from the village down the sand spit that fringed a reef. The orderliness of the i^rocedure soon changed to what one at our distance might have considered some wild ceremonial dance. Our curiosity being tlioronghly aroused, we lowered a boat and soon joined the party of men and boys, who were edad in the con- ventional G-string costume, each provided witli a torch varying from about 4 to 6 inches in diameter and prol)ably 10 to 12 feet in length, made of slender segments of dried, split bamlioo, carried on the left shoulder, held by the left hand, and lighted in front. The right hand was reserved for the ever-present bolo or a spear. The light of these torches would show through the shallow water and thus reveal the luckless devil fish, which seemed to have forsaken the secure caverns of the reef and to have gone a-hunting on the shallow flats within. They are curious creatures, and their humped- up attitude and large eyes render them rather mirth provoking at such times. But there is little time given to contemplating, for a native bolo or spear brings him in and he is promptly strung on a string, where he may continue to sejuirm with his fellow caffcil^es until dead. Wa i^ecured enough specimens that night to enable us to spare some to the cook) for Ming assured us that they were ‘‘ vely good.” So they were—rather) I should say it was, for I chewed a i^ngle An Octopus Feeding on Fish. r i('niiiur II. i;(‘\ oil ponuEsiun, Irum ‘ l>t‘iu/.oiis ol Hu* I )frp,” 1)V h i.iiiU T. lliillt'ii. t'u., piiljlisluTs. [*>1111 ] 3 use. Here avo W iitelied llie na- tives fishing for tlie octopus on tlie inside of the ward tlie steamer P^' ^ ” entrance to the ^ beanti ful 1^ i t i ^ ' ^;| ' t . : Hay and Ila rbor. ^ The natives liere take a specimen of a large, "r . repulsive-looking Holothurian and tic it to a line with a sinker. This is lowered among rV'trt' the crevices of the reef. If it finds a cavity with an octopus the animal at once leaves ^•2,. Hie premises and is then easily speared b}’' the man in the bow of the canoe. There is evidently something about the Ilolotliurian I that is so intensely distasteful to the octupus that he at once forsakes his lair. quite a picture to see these fishermen as the3^ work in the very teeth of the pound- .^SKlv jug surf with a craft so frail that one eon- PiG. 3.^Torc:hiight octopus stantly woiidors how they manage to keep it hunt in the Philippines. from being dashed to pieces. The following is a (quotation taken from an article by Dr. II. M. Smith on “Japan, the Paramount Fishing Nation,”^ which shows how the Japanese fishermen catch these animals: The ectopas or devilfish is abundant and is an important food product in ^Tapan, although ray personal opinion is that It does not appeal strongly to the Pig. 3.—Torchlight octopus hunt in the Philippines. ^Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, July, 1904, p, 119. 360 annual REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. American palate. The octopus is caught in various ways, one of the most Inter- esting of which Is by the use of earthenware pots, which are lowered to the bottom by means of cords; they are entered by the octopuses, wldch, having insinuated themselves, are reluctfint to withdraw, so that the pots may be pulled to the surface before the animals try to escape. I bring up this fishery in order to refer to a very ingenious corollary, which was first mentioned to me by a professor in the imperial university and later verified by myself. More than a century ago a vessel laden with a very valuable cargo of porcelains from Korea destined for the imperial household was wrecked in th<i luhind Sen; the captain and other officers did what seems to have been a favorite amusement of the olden days; namely, they committed suicide just before the vessel sank in deep water, llecentiy tlie lisliermen have been recovering pieces of this })ottery, which now has an ap- preciated value, by tying strings to octopuses and lowering them in the vicinity of the wreck, Tlie animals enter the vessels and retain their hold of them wliile being drawn to the surface. Several pieces of this porcelain which I saw were gems, seeming but little the worse for their prolonged submergence. To show how extensive the octopus fishei*ies are we again quote from Vice Consul (ireen’s re- port in Sirnmonds’s Commercial Products of the Sea, who furnishes some interesting iiarticulars as to the fishing and trade in cephalopods in the Tunis waters: Fro. 4. — Fishing for CK’topus on tho reef at (3uam. Octopodla and polypi are the trade names under which tliese cephalopods are known in the I^evant and Greek markets, where they are solely imported for consumption during Lent, the Orthodox Cliurch not including them in the pro- hibition against the use of flesh In seasons of religious abstinence. In a good eeason the several villages on the island of Karkenali supply about 3,000 hun- dredweight, and the Juhah waters a tldrd part of tliis quantity. In an average year th® yield will he uncU;r 2,000 hundredweight, and in one of scarcity 1,000 hundredweight. On the shores from the village of Luesa to that of Ohenies, In the Oulf of Khabs, the natives collect from 4 to 5 hundredweight of cuttlefish a day duflng the season, but this supply generally serves for the consumption of An Encounter with a Giant Squid. THE SQHm AHD OCTOPITS—^BAETSOH, 861 the regency. The remaining coast and islands may be calculated to furnish a minimum of 650 to 700 hundredweight of dried molluscs. The Tunisian Government claims a third of all the polypi fished upon its coast. The sell- ing price varies considerably according to tbe size, supply, and demand, but at Sfax a pair of them may cost, as circumstances rule, from Od. to Is. 3d.; however, the i)i’eiiarat(>ry mace- rat iou, by beating on a stone slab or rock, roqniroti bchn'e drying entails a small addl- liomd expense and brings the extremes of low and high prices to 25 or 50 sliillings per hundredweight. To the cost price must be added an export duty of 5s. Id. and the purchaser ought to be careful to receive Ids merchandise from tbe seller during dry weather, as a damp day will add from 4 to 5 per cent to the weigld of every hundredweight. From two to three public sales of dried polypi take place in a season on the Island of Karkonnh; these are regulated according to the abundance of the fish. The average i>rice of tbe last six years has been: During the first sah', from 45 to 50 shillings per liiindred weight ; second sale, 35 to 45 shil- lings; third sale, 25 to 30 shillings. A few first iiarcels, iu order to secure an early market, have, how(‘ver, occasionally been sold for £5 the luiiidredweiglit. Malta receives the largest share of the Tunisian polypi, hut they are only sent to that island for ultimate transmis- sion to Greece and other parts of the Levant. I/ortngal is one of the few countries that competes with Tunis iu supplying the Greek markets with x'lolypi. In Greece they are either sold, after being pickled, at from £12 ICs. to £15 Os. the cantar of 170 iiounds, or, iu their original dried state, from £12 to £11; but tlu'se prices fluctuate according to the favorable or uiifa\orable results of the seasou’s fishing. We must not forget that while we see little of dried or pickled octopi in our own count ry except in tlie Ej Chinese, Greek, and Italian markets of New York, Boston, San Francisco, and Cliicago, it would he difficult to find a food dealer in the oriental markets lacking in these choice dainties. So much, then, for the octopus, the animal that in modern times has become the emblem of selfishness and iniquity. Let us next turn to the decapods, our squids and cuttlefishes, for it is here that we find the most wonderful mem- bers of the group. Inch for inch, the squids will compete in swimming power with any other creature that lives in the sea. Well do I recall the rude awakening to which I was subjected when I tried to capture some slender Loligopsoid squids in the southern Fig. 5.—Fishing for octopus Japan. 362 annual BKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916 . Philippines, I had always been told that squids were old-fashioned, antiquated relics of the past, whose very method of backward pro- gression marked them as unfit competitors with other marine animals. It was on board the Al- hatross in the harbor of Jolo on a dark night, with tlie sea as smooth as glass. We were fisliing with the submarine light, a mere IG- candlepower electric bulb inclosed in a glass globe connected to a water-tight cable. It should bo stated that the sea about Jolo Harbor was found to be one of the richest plankton-bearing pieces of water that it has been my good fortune to visit; and where you have an abundance of microscopic life, there, too, will you find the larger forms that subsist upon it. A swish or two of the light and a raising and loAvering of it at once attracted a cloud of minute forms, then larger elements came, in part attracted by the light and in part by the food. The protozoans accumulating about the globe were soon followed by worms and crustaceans, wliose tangential course would soon have carried them beyond our light were it not that the fascination curves it more and more and apparently renders the animal unable to escape from the charm that draws, and bends its path to spin about the globe. Thus we soon found millions of creatures drawn into a spinning vortex about our light—the “ wheel of life,” as some one has aptly termed it. But new members were soon added; small fish of various kinds, a school of sardines dashing madly after the small crustaceans and worms, and still | larger and larger fish at ' 1 greater distances from the light, always preying upon the lesser circle within; now and then even the ”1-^ ’t*- shadowy outline of a large ' shark injected itself into Fig. C.- Fishing with octopus in Japan. the distant reaches of our lamp. It was a mad dance, this whirling, circling host of creatures. Soon a new element entered; living THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BAETSCH. 363 arrows, a school of Loligopsis shooting across oiir lighted field, apparently not so much attracted by the light as by the feast before them. They were wonderful creatures, unlike anything else; they shot forward or back like a shuttle, with lightning rapidity. Not only that, but they were able to divert their course into any direction with equal speed. Shooting forward, their tentacles would seize a small fish, and instantly they would come to a full stop, only to dart baclrvvard like a flash at the least sign of danger. Kill, kill, kill; they were bloodthirsty pirates. A bite in the neck, and the fish was done for; but the sport continued, and, likely as not, the fish would be dropped and ajiother seized and dispatched. Never before nor since have I seen anything tliat appeared to me more beautifully equipped for an acpiatic existence than these scpiids. Fre(juently- yes, very frecpiently—their impetuous darts would carry them away above the surface of the sea; flying squids, when the pumping of their siphons produced a popping .sound. I tried to jig .some of them, having heard that the Newfoundland fishermen cnqiloy a sinker with a series of hooks attached to it, which they bob uj) and down in the water, thereby attracting the squids and hooking them. Biitj our Sulu squids refused to bo hooked. They would dash up to the contrivance, follow it at a stife distance, but disdained to be caught. They would even snatch from the hooks the small fish used as a bait, and make good their escape. Even the expert jiggei's aboard failed to cat(‘h them. The bright idea to flojit a pocket net from the beam and have them enmesh themselves in it occinT-ed to someone. This was tried, and we found that our squids possessed an intelligence equal to their lightning movements. Did they enmesh themselvevS? Oh, no; not one of the thousand or inoi'o that composed the school, but they seemed to enjoy shooting through a hole in our seine and it was a comical as well as wonderful sight to see them dart through this opening not more than 18 inches in diameter, like arrows fired from a rapid-fire machine gun. Now and then the whole school would come near the .surface and pause, then again it would sink to a, depth beyond our range of vision. Then they would line up on the far side of our net, sink below it, and shoot up on our side, to make an assault upon the small fish fry which attempted to escape by breaking from the water. We finally did capture some by carefully watching the speedy flight of an individual near the surface and (|uickly casting our dip net ahead of him. But three nights’ eft'orts of a half a dozen fisher- men yielded only a couple of dozen specimens. These were wonderful nights in the Sulu Sea ! Turn off the elec- tric current, and where a moment before you saw a mass of circling life, you now have a glowing wliirlpool, each spark an atom of life. 364 ANNUAL BNPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. while bright phosphorescent streaks mark the movement of the larger forms, themselves luminous or rendered so by exciting their smaller neighbors to Hash as they come in contact. An endless array of species has been made known by our scien- tists—species large and small, slender and stout, long and short; species with wondrous eyes and blind species, many of the deep-sea forms beaiing complex luminous organs, and all of tlieni possessing wondei’fully developed chromato|)hores which can be contract(‘d or enlarged at the animars will. The contraction may reduce them to a mere dot, or they may be expanded to 20 times that diameter. The changes in the contraction of thousands of these minute pigment cells, some of which are rosin colored, others yellow, blue-green, or brown, ])roduce the flashes and changes of color that have gained the name of “ chameleons of the sea ” for our vsquids. The literature of the past abounds in sea-serpent myths, which in a large measure are traceable to giant squids. For these are the only known animal whose arms can, without distortion, be made to assume a scr{)entine form. This is clearly shown by our sketch which is propojf ioned, excepting partly the thickness of the tentacular arms, which has been slightly increased, after measurements of an actual specimen. The ex])anded end of these long arms, studded with suckers, might easily be mistaken for the bearded or maned head, usually assigned to the serpent. There Avould be enough basis in a short view of such a vision at long range to enal)]e the untrained mind to su])p]y more than enough detail from the imagination to create a kraken, kraxen, krabben, korven, ankertrold, soe-horven, a haf-gua, soe ormeii, hor\'en, aale-tust, or sea scu*i)ent. Anolhiu' thing very suggestive in sui)port of this explanation is the fact that tlie known distribution of the giant squids is coextensive with the re- gions from which the abo\u-named beasts have been imported. It is also interesting to note that the size of these mystic animals has decreased with increased ocean travel and general education. While sea serpents are annually reported in sea-serpent season, no one ex- cept the fearless sailors of old who braved the dangers of the deep in their small vessels, ha^’e been favored with such visions as one finds related by the Rt. Rev. Erich Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen in Norway, and member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Copen- hagen, in his Natural History of Norway. We (juote from a trans- lation published in London in 1755 (pp. 199-200) : Another drawing also, wliich appears raore distinct with regard to the form of this creature, was talcen from the reverend Mr. Egede’s joiii-nal of the Green- land mission, where the account stands thus in page G: “On the Gth of July, 1.734, there appeared a very large and frightful sea monster, whkdi raised Itself up so high out of the water that its head reached above our maintop. It has a THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 365 sharp snout, and spouted water like a whale, and very broad paws. The body seemed to be covau’ed with sc'ales, and the skin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a snake. After some time tlie creature plunj^ed backward into th(‘ water and tlien turned its tail up above tlu; surface a whole ship length from tho head. The followin^^ evenirif,^ we had very bad weather. So far Mr. Uaede. The drawinj? annexed ^ives me th(‘ greatest reason to conclude (what by other accounts I have thoii^,dit ])robable) Unit there are sea snakes, like other lish, of dilTerent soi'ts. That which IMr. K^^ede saw, and probably all those who saih‘d witli him, had under its body two flaps, or perhaps two broad tins ; lh(‘ head was Ionian* and the body thicker and much sliortcw than those sea snalo‘s of which 1 liave had the most consisliait accounts. Thouj;h one v'an not have an oiiixndunity of taking' the t‘xact dimensions of this creature, yet all that liav(‘ seen it are ouariimous in atlirminj.r, as far as they can jud^^re at a distance, it apinnirs to !k‘ of the lenj^th of a cable, i. e., KK) fathoms, or (iOO Kn;j:lish feet; thjit it lies on file surface of the water (when it is very calm) in many folds, and Unit there are, in a line witli the head, some small ])ar(s of tlu^ liack to he si*eu above Fio. 7.—(liaiit squid hi role of sea serpent. the surfac(‘ of the water when it moves or bends. Tliese at a distance ap^iear like so many casks or hoa’slieads tloatinj; in a line, with a considerable distance lietween each of tliem. IMr. Tuchsen, of Ilernx', whom I mentioned above, is the only piu'.son, of the many correspoudeiits 1 liave, that informs me lie has observed the difference between the body and Uie tail of this creature as to thickness. It appears that this creature does not. like the eel or land snake, ta])er ^rmlualiy to a point, hut the body, which looks to he as hi;? as two ho}j;>sheads, ;;rows remarkably small at once Jnst where the tail begins. The head in all the kinds has a high and broad forehead, but in some a pointed sntint, though in others that is Hat, like that of a cow or a hors(‘, with large nostrils, and several stiff hairs standing out on each side like whiskers. It is snjiposed that the sea snakes have a very cpiick smell, which we may conclude from this, that they are observed to lly fimin the smell of castor. Upon this account, those that go out on Stor-Kggen to lish in tlie summer, always provide themselves with tliese animals. They add, that the eyes of this creature are very large, and of a blue color, and look like a couple of bright pewter plates. Tiie whole animal is of a dark-brown color, but it is speckled and variegatiHl with light streakes or spots, that shine like tortoise shell. It is of a darker hue about the eyes and month than elsewhere, and appears in that part a good deal like those horses, which w^e call moors heads. 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. I do not find by any of my correspondents, that they spout the water out of tlieir nostrils like the whale, only In tliat one instance related by Mr. Egede, as mentioned above ; but when it approaches, it puts the water in great agitation, and makes It run like the current at a mill. Those on our coast differ like- wise from tiic Clreenland sea snakes, with regard to the skin, which is as smooth as glass, and has not the least wrinkle, but about the neck, where there is a kind of a mane, which looks like a parcel of seaweeds hanging down to the water. The observer undoubtedly mistook the tail of a giant squid for the head of the serpent and the flukes for the limbs. We quote again (pp. 2O2~20B) One of the aforesaid Nortli traders, wlio says that he has been near enough to some of those sea snakes (alive) to feel tlieir sniootli skin, informs me, that sometimes they will raise up their frightful heads, and snap a man out of a boat, without hurting the rest; but I will not atlirm this for a truth, because it is not certain that they are a fish of prey. Yet this, and their enmity to man- kind, can be no more determined, than that of the land snake, by the werds of the proph(‘t Amos (chap, ix, v.8) : “And though tliey be liiil from my siglit in the bottom of tlie sea, thence will I commaml tlie serj)ent, and be shall bite them.” And again (p. 207f Magnus, in his llistor. Septentrion. Lib. 21. c. 24, speaks of a Norwegian sea snake 80 feet long, but not thicker than a child’s arm. He says: This creature, was put to such pain by the cralis fastening on, it, that it writhed itself into a hundred shaiies. I liave never lu'ard of this sort from any other person, and should hardly believe the good Oiaus, if he did not say that he affirmed this from his own exiierlence. * * * The disproportion betwixt the thickness of a child's arm, and a length of SO feel, makes me think there must be an error of the press in tlie place, for xl. perhaps should he xi. ells, or 22 feed ; a more proportionable length, for the thickness. AnH yet good Olaus’s obser^'ation may not have been so very wrong, in fact much nearer the truth than the above listed yarns, in all prob- ability it represented the tentacular arms of a giant squid. To show the keenness of observation of early seamen, we quote the following from the same source (pp. 211-213) Our fishermen unanimously affirm, and without the least variation in their accounts, that when tliey row out several miles to sea, particularly in the hot summer days, and by their .situation (which tliey know by taking a view of certain points of land) expect to find 80 or 1(K) fathoms water, it often happens that they do not find above 20 or 30, and sometimes less. At these places they generally find the greatest plenty of fish, especially cod and ling. Their lines, they say, are no sooner out than they may draw them up with the hooks all full of fish ; by this they judge that the kraken is at the bottom. They say this creature causes those unnatural shallows mentioned above, and prevents their sounding. These the fisiiermen are always glad to find, looking upon them as a means of their taking abundance of fisli. There are sometimes 20 boats or more got together and throwing out their lines at a moderate dis- tance from each other; and the only thing they then have to observe Is whether the depth continues the same, wldch tliey know by tlieir lines, or THE SQtJTD AND OCTOPUS—BAETSCH. 367 whether it grows shallower by their seeming to have less water. If this last be the ease, they End that the kraken is raising himself nearer the surface, and then it is not time for them to stay any longer. They immediately leave off lishing, take to tludr oars, and get away as fast as tliey can. When they have reached the usual dei)th of tlu^ jdace and find themselves out of danger, they lie upon their oars, and in a few minutes after they see this enormous monster <rome up to the surface of the water. lie there shows himself sutli- ciently, though his whole body does not appear, which, in all likelihood, no human eye evtu* beheld, excei)ting the young of tliis si)eci(‘S, which shall afttu*- wards he spoken of. Its ba(± or upper part, which seems to be in appearance about an English mile and a half in clreumfereuoe—some say more, but I choose the least for greater certaiuty—looks at lirst like a number of small islands surrounded with something that lloats and llucUiates like seaweeds. Here and there a larger rising is observed like sand hunks, on which various kinds of small tislies are seen continually I(‘aping about till they roll off into the water from the sides of it. At last several bright points of iiorns appeal-, which grow thicker and thicker the higher they rise above the surface of the water, and sometimes they stand up as high and as larger as the masts of middle-sized vessels. It seems these are the creature’s arms, and, it is said, if tliey were to lay hold of the largest man-of-war they would pull it down to the bottom. After this monster has been on the surface of the water a sliort time it begins slowly to sink again, and tlien the danger is as great as hefon*, because the motion of his sinking causes such a swell lii the sea aial sucJi an eddy or whirlpool that it draws everything down with it, like the current of the river Male, which has been described in Its projier place. As this (mormons sim animal, in all probability, may he reckoimd of the Polyp(\ or of the starlish kind, as shall liereafter he more fully proved, it seems that the ]>arts wiiich are s(‘en rising at its phmsuri', and are called arms, are properly tlu‘ teutacula, or feeling instruments, calksl horns as well as arms. With these tliey move themselves and likewise gather in their food. liesides these, for this last purpose the great Orejitor has also given this creature a strong and iieculiar seent, whicli it can emit at certain tinms, and by means of which it beguiles and draws other ffsh to (*ome in lu'a])S about it. This animal has another strange pro[)erty, knowu by the ('xperkua^e of a great many old fishermen. They observe that for some months the kraken, or krahheii, is continually eating and in other montlis lu? always voids his excrements. During this evacuation the surface of tlie water is color(xl with the excrement and appears (piite thick and turbid. This imiddlness is said to be so very agreeable to the smell or taste of other fishes, or to both, that tht*y gather tog(ffher from all parts to it and keep for that purpose directly over tlie kraken. He then opens his arms, or horns, seizes and sWtill(->ws his welcome guests, and converts them, after the due time, by diges- tion, into a bait for other fish of the same kind. I relate what is afiirmed by many, hut 1 can not give too certain assurances of this particular as I can of the existence of this suri>rising creature, though I do not find anything in it absolutely contriiry to nature. As we can hardly expect au opportunity to examine this enormous sea animal alive, I am the more couc(^rned that nobody embraced that opportunity which, according to the following account, once did and perhaps never more may offer of seeing entire wlien dead. The Rev, Mr. Frils, consistorial assessor, uiiiiister of Bodoen, in Nordlaiid, and vicar of the college for promoting Christian knowledge, gave me at the latter end of last year, when he was at Bergen, this relation, which I deliver again on his credit. 368 ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. In the year 1680 a krake (perhaps a young and careless one) came into the water that runs between the rocks and clitTs in the parish of Alstahoug, though the general custom of that creature is to keep always several leagues from land, and therefore of course they must tile there. It happened that its extended long arms, or antennae, which this creature seems to use like the snail—in turning about—caught hold of some trees standing near the water, which might easily have been torn up by the roots; but besides this, as It was found afterwards, he entangled himself In some openings or clefts in the rock, and therein stuck so fast, and hung so unfortunately, that he could not work himself out, hut perished and putritied on the spot. The carcass, which was a long while decaying and tilled a great part of that narrow channel, made it almost impassable by its intolerable stoiich. Let US now turn from these distorted and fanciful images to the animals that are responsible for them. Prof. A. E. Verrill, in his Fic. 8.—Jaws of the giant squid. Half natural size. report on the cephalopods of the northeastern coast of America, published in the annual report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1879, tells us many interesting things about the Ameri- can members of the group. Among other thizigs he presents a table on page 22 which gives measurements of the various giant squids that he had examined to date. The largest of these had a total length of 55 feet. The length of the teiilacular arms of this speci- men are cited as 35 feet, while the length of the body from tip of tail to the base of the arms is given as 20 feet. The greatest length of tentacular arms mentioned in the table is 37 and the greatest Circumference of the body as 12 feet. The diameter of the largest gitcker is given as about 2.25 inches, and the bx’eadth of the eye Opening is 7 by 9 inches. Smithsonian Repnrt, 10 16 Raiti.Lli Plate 1 5. Plate 16. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—^BARTSCH, 360 In another place he states: A specimen was found alive in slmllow water at Coombs Cove and cap- tured: Concerning this one I Iiave seen only newspaper accounts. It Is stated that its body measured iO feet in length and was “nearly as large around as a hogshead ” (10 to 12 feet) ; its two long arms (of which only one remained) were 42 feet in length and “as large as a man’s wrist”; its sliort arms were 6 fet't in lengtli hut al)out 0 inches in diameter, “ very stout and strong ” ; the suckers had a serrated edge. The tentacular ai'ms of this specimen would have had a spread of <S1 feet. Hut 1 have somewhere seen measurements cited of a specimen that carried the extension beyond the lOO-foot mark. A splendid basis for sea-serpent yarns. We again quote from Dr. Verrill I have been informed by many otlier lishermon (lint these “big squids,” as they call th(;m, are occasionally taken on the Orand Banks and used for bait. Others stale that they have seen them in (hat region without iieing able to caiitnre. tlH'iii. Nearly all the siieci- meiis hitlualo taken aiiiiear to have iieen mor(‘ or h'ss disabled when first observed; otiierwise tliey jiroliahly would not apjx'ar at. tlie surface in tlH3 daytime. From the fact that they have mostly come ashore in (he night 1 infer that they iniialiit, ehielly the very deep and cold fiords of Newfoundland and come up to the surface only in the night. That they may at times be a danger to man is shown by the following statement which we quote from Dr. VerrilFs paper: Fk;. 0.—Suckers of the giant squid. Half iiatunil size. 1. i4oiu long arm. 2. From short arm. Tlu' following extract is from a letter written by (he Rev. lU. Harvey to Dr. J. W. Dawson, and published in the IMoiitreal Gazette, February 26, 1874: “ Two fishermen were out in a small punt on OctolK'r 26, 1873, off Portugal Cove, Conception Hay, about U miles from Saint Jolui’s. Oliserving some object floating on th<' water at a short distance, they rowed toward it, supposing it to he a large sail or the debris of a wreck. On reaching it one of the men struck it witli his gaff, when immediately it .showed signs of life, reared a parrotlike beak, which they declare was ‘as big as a 6-gallou keg,’ with which it struck the bottom of the boat violently. It tlnm shot out from about its head two huge livid arms and began to twine them around tiie boat. One of the men seized a small ax and severed both arms as they lay over the gunwale of the boat; wliereupou the fish moved off and ejected an immense quantity of Inky fluid, which darliened the water for two or three hundred yards. The men saw it for a short time afterwards, and observed its tail in the air, which they declare was 10 feet a(‘ross. They estimate the body to have been 60 feet in length, 5 feet in diameter, of the same shape and color as the common sciuld, and they observed that it moved in the same way as the squid, both backward and forward. “ One of the arms which they brought ashore was unfortunately destroyed, as they were ignorant of its importance ; but the clergyman of the village as- 370 ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. sures me it was 10 inches in diameter and 6 feet in leiij^tli. The other arm was brouj;i:iit to Saint John’s, but not before 6 feet of it were destroyed. For- tunately, I heard of it and took measures to have it preserved. Mr. Murray, of the j2:eologiciil survey, and I afterwards examined it carefully, had It pho- tographed, and immersed in alcohol ; it is now in our museum. It measured 10 feet, is of a pale, pink color, entirely cartilaginous, tough, and pliant as leather, and very strong.” In a letter dated November 27, 1877, Mr. Harvey gives an account of another si)eclmen, which was stranded on the shore at Taince Oov(‘, Smiths Sound, Trinity Hay, about 20 miles farther up the bay than the locality of the Catalina Bay specimen (No. 11). He received his information from Mr. John Duffet, a resident of the locality, who was one of the persons who found and measured it. His account is as follows: “On November 21, 1877, early in the morning, a ‘big squid’ was seen on the beach, at Lance (^/ove, still alive and struggling desperately to escape. It had been borne in by a ‘spring tide’ and a high in- shore wind. In its struggles to get off it ploughed up a trench or furrow about 30 feet long and of considerable depth by the stream of water that it ejected with great force from its siphon. When the tide receded it died. Mr. Duffet measured it carefully, and found that the body was nearly 11 feet long (prob- ably including the bead) ; tlie tentacular arms, 33 feet long. H(' did not measure the short arms, hut estimated tlaun at 13 feet, and that they w(‘re much thicker than a man's thigh at their bases. The i>eople ent the body open and it was !oCt on the bench. It is an ont-of-tiie-way place, and no one knew that it was of any value. Othorwi.se, it could easily have been brought to St John's, with only the eyes destroyi'd and the body ojxmcd.” It was subse- quently carried off by the tide, and no portion was scoured. From Capt, J. W, Collins, of the United States Fish (.’oiinnission, I learn that in October, 1875, an unusual number of giant sq\iids were found floating at the surface on the Grand Banks, hut mostly entirely dead and more or less mutilated by birds and fishes. In very few cases they were not quite dead, but entirely disabled. These were seen cbiclly between north latitude 44® and 44® 30’, and between west longitude 49® .30' and 49® 50'. He believes that between 25 and 30 specimens were secured by the licet from Glou(*ester, Mass., and that Jis many more were probably obtained by the vessels from other places. They w(we cut up and xised as bait for codfish. For this use they are of considerable value to the fishermen. Capt. Collins was at that time in command of the schooner Howard, w’hich secured five of these giant squids. These were mostly from 10 to 15 feet long, not including the arms, and aver- aged about 18 inches in diameter. Tlie arms were almost always mutilated. The portion that was left was usually 3 to 4 feet long, and at the base about us large as a man’s thigh. One specimen, when ent up, was packe<I inpi a large* hogshead-tidi, having a capacity of about 75 galh)ns, which it filled. This tub was known to bold 700 pounds of codfish. The gravity of the Architeuthis is probably about the same as that of the fish. This wouhl indicate more nearly the actual weight of one of these creatures than any of Die mere estimates that have been made, which are usually much too great. Allowing for the parts of the arms that hatl been destroyed this specimen would, probably, have weighed nearly 1,0(K) pounds. Among the numerous other vessels tliat ‘were fortunate in securing this kind of bait Capt, Collins mentions the following: THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 371 The schooner Sarah P, Aycft Capt. Oukly, took one or two. The JJ, R. Nicker- son, Caj)t. McDonald, secured one that had its arms and was not entirely dead, so that it was harpooned. Its tentacular arms were 36 feet long. Tlie schooner Truga bigzanda, Capt. Mallory, secured three in one afternoon. These were 8 to 12 feet long, not including the arras. These statements are conhrined by other fishermen, some of whom state that the “big squids” were also common during the same season at the “Flemish Cap,” a bank situated some distance northeast from the Grand Banks. The cause of so great a mortality among these great Oephalopods can only be conjectured. It may have been due to some disease epidemic among them, or to an unusual i)revalence of deadly parasites or other enemies. It is worth while, however, to recall the fact that these were observed at about the same time, in autumn, when most of the .specimens have been found cast ashore in Newfoundland in different years. This time may, perhaps, be just subsequent to their season for repi'oduction, whcai they would bo so much weakened as to be more easily overpowered by parasites, disease, or other unfavorable condi- tions. Aside from man tlie sperm whale is undoubtedly the greatest enemy possessed by these monstrous animals, for it is well knowm tliat parts of them are usually found in the stomach or are vomited by the sperm whale when the animal is captured by wdialers. We quote from The Depths of the Ocean, by Sir John Murray and Dr. tiohan Hjort (pp. 651-652) On the 15th of August the Miehael Sarn arrived in Mofjord ou tlie cast coast of Iceland, and visited the local wdialing station. On the shore were two freshly caught whales, one a north-caper, the other a cachalot. Inspecting the cachalot 1 saw around its enormous jaws several long parallel strii)es con- sisting, as closer .scrutiny revealed, of great luimbers of circular scars or wounds about 27 mm, in diameter. It occurred to me that these scars must hav(‘ Ixnm left hy the suckers of a giant squid, and following up this idea I found in the whale’s mouth a piece of a squid tentacle 17 cm. in maximum diameter. In the stomach of the whale many squid-heaks of various sizes were found, the largest measuring 9 cm. in length, besides some fish bones, and the men who had shot the whale told me that in its death flurry it dis- gorged the arm of a squid 6 meters long. Our illustration (pi. 15) sliows the sucker scars in the skin. An encounter between a sperm whale and giant squid is described in Frank T. Bullen’s book on The Cruise of the Cachalot, from which we quote (pp. 143-144). At about 11 p. m. I was leaning over the lee rail, gazing steadily at the bright surface of the sea, when^ ihe intense radiance of the tropical moon made a broad path like a pavement of burnished silver. Eyes that saw not, mind only confusedly conscious of my surroundings, were mine; but suddenly I started to my feet with an exclamation, and stared with all ray might (A the strangest sight I ever saw. There was a violent commotion In the sea right where the moon’s rays were concentrated, so great that, remembering our position, I was i\t first inclined to alarm all hands; for I had often heard of volcanic islands suddenly lifting their heads from the depths below, or dis- 372 Alfl^L REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. appearing in a moment, and, with Sumatra’s chain of active volcanoes so near, I felt doubtful indeed of what was now happening. Getting the night glasses out of the cabin scuttle, where they were always hung in readii\ess, I focussed them on the troubled spot, perfectly satisfied by a short examination that neither volcano nor t^artluiiiake had anything to do with what was going on; yet so vast were the forces engaged that I might well have been excused for my first supposition. A very largo sperm whale was locked in deadly conflict with a cuttle-fish, or sipiid, almost as large as himself, whose interminable tentacles seemed to enhice the whole of his groat body. The head of the whale espe- cially seemed a perfect m'twork of writhing arras—naturally, 1 suppose, for It appeared as if the whale liad tlie tail part of tlie mollusc in his jaws, and, in a businesslike, methodical way, was sawing through it. By the side of the hlac'k columnar head of the whale appeared the liead of the great squid, as awful an object tis one could well imagine even in a fevered dream. Judging as carefully as possible, I estimated it to be at least as large as one of our pipes, which contained MHO gallons; but it may have been, and probably was, a good deal larger. The eyes wei’e very remarkable from tludr size and black- ness, wbich, contrasted with the livid whiteness of the head, made theur ap- pearance all the more striking. They were at least a foot in diameter, and seen under such conditions looked decidiMliy eerie and hol>g()blin-Uke. All around the coml)atants were numerous shai-ks, like jaelmls around a lion, ready to share the feast and api>arently assisting in destruction of the huge cei)halopod. So the titanic struggle went on in pcu’fect silence as far as we were concermvl, because, even had tlun-e Ix^m nny noise, our distance from the scene of conflict would not have permitted us to liear it. Tt is quite possible that the animal observed was an octopus, which would better fit the geographical position of the conflict than the squid. Such a fight is depicted in chapter 11, The Autobiograpliy of a Sjierm Whale, Frank T. Bnllen’s ‘^Denizens of the Deep,” from which we have taken plate 17. It is probable, from various observations, that this and the other species of squids are partially nocturnal in their habits, or at least are more active in the night tlum in the day. Those that are caught in the pounds and weirs mostly enter in the night, evidently while swimming along the sliores in “schools.” They are often found in the morning stranded on the beaches in immense numbers, espetaully when there Is a full moon, ami it is thought by many of the fishermen that this is because, like many other nocturnal animals, they have the habit of turning toward and gazing at a briglU, ligiit, and since fhey swim backwards they get ashore on the beaches opix>s!te the position of the moon. This liabit is also sometimes taken advantage of by the fislier- men, who capture them for bait for rod fish; they go out in dark nights with torches in their boats and by advancing slowly toward a beach drive them ashore. That Cephalopods furnished an attractive bait for fish was known to the ancients, for Aristotle tells ns: For this reason fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttlefish and use It as bait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted by it; they also halt® the ^ctupus and bait their fish baskets or weels with it entirely, as they say, on account of Its smell. Snmthsonian Report, 1 9 1 e:.~Bar1sch. Plate 18. An Impaled Squid Shooting Water from the Siphon. ’ t OLluU y J.ile in AiiM'iic.'i, Aiij^lLst, i'.K)!. THE SQTTID AND OCTOPUS—BABTSCH. m Our American cod fishermen will thoroughly agree with him, but they will say that baking or roasting is not essential, that salting even will do. Let us quote again from Simmonds’s Commercial Products of the Sea: The squids form an important element In the North American fisheries. The common Lolij:;o is (ho favorite food of the cod, and is therefore itself fished for bait One-half of all the cod taken on the banks of Newfoundland are said to be caught by it. When the vast slioals of this mollusk approach the coast hundreds of vessels are ready to capture them, forming an extensive cuttle fishery, engaging 500 sail of French, English, and American ships. During violent gales of wind hundreds of tons of them are often thrown up together in beds on the flat beaches, the decay of whi(‘h spreads an intolerable ehluvium around. They must themselves he consumed in enormous numbers, for it has been estimated that a single squid will lay in one season 40,000 eggs. A recent iiKiuiry at the Bureau of Fisheries yielded the statement that about 3,000,000 pounds were captured annually, estimated to have a value of about $43,500. Sixty-six per cent are caught in traps in moss chiefly about Cape Cod, though many are obtained in the same manner all the way from Maine to Maryland. Considerable quantities also ai*e obtained by American fishing vessels on the coasts of Canada and jNewfoundlaiid. These are not noted in t’le above statistics. To a considerable extent in former times, but only to a limited extent recently, squids have been caught by means of jigs, a collection of hooks arrangi'd in circular form along a central weight. Jigs are dangled in the water at the end of short lines and attract the squids which ai’e caught when they attempt to seize them. On our west coast squids are caught for food purposes, being chiefly used by tlie ()i‘iental element of the population. All through the soutli seas, the Philippines, and Japan, as well as the adjacent mainland countries, one may see split and di ied cuttlefish hung in the stores and otlered foi- sale as an element of proteid food. In the Mediterranean countries, where they are also used as food, they ai'e usually pickled. Nor is the flesh the only element of commercial value, for the cuttlefish bone forms quite an element of commerce. It is not only used as an adjunct to the canary’s cage, but in powdered form has served as a fine polishing powder, a fine dentifrice, and an ingredient of medicine. The ladies of ancient days knew it also, for they were accustomed to use the burned product, known to them as pearl powder, as an aid to complexion. In later days this was even improved upon by the addition of a bit of carmine to form the ^so-called French rouge. Sepia and India ink have been already referred to and need no further mention here. We will close our sketch with some extracts from a chariijing ar- ticle, ‘‘First Photographs Ever Made of a Paper Nautilus,” pub- 73839“—SM 1916 25 874 A^rKUAL BfiPOBT SMITHSOKIAK INSTITUTION, 1916. lished by Charles Frederick Holder, in Volume 15, No. 4, 1909, of Country Life in America, which gives one a glimpse of the marvelous beauty of some of these pirates of the deep. The terra paper nautilus suggests the dainty structure in which the animal lives at times—a fragile, involuted, vase-like object, deeply fluted and coiled, the keel or edge sharp, having double points, while all over the calcareous and pearly shell are deep graceful and branched radiations. The general color is a delicate gray, the opening in the side of nacre, heavily coated, in sharp con- trast to the horny translucent shell paper. The keel is tinted a rich brown that often extends an inch or two up the side of the shell, which may be 2 or 8 or 9 inches across. The shell is not to be compared with the ordinary covering of mollusks, as it is not essential to the animal ; it is only a dainty object having the shape of a shell, formed by the animal for the protection of its eggs. It is, then, a nest and in no way connected with the animal, as in the case of the pearly nautilus, where the animal forms partitions as it grows and is connected wllii them all by a fleshy pedicle or cord. The paper nautilus can dart out of its fairy ship at a second’s notice. (xluncing into the shell we may see a yellow hunch of miniature grapes hanging from the interior wall—the eggs—and perched in front of them Is the argonaut, looking very much like an octopus or deviltish. From the number of empty shells found upon Santa Catalina beaches in winter and summer it might bo assumed that the argonaut deserts the shell at times and lives a roving, octopuslike life. In appearance it Is one of the most beautiful of all animals as it rests in its shell, trembling with color, as waves of rose, yellow, green, violet, and all tints of brown are continually sweeping over it; now irised in the most delicate shade of blue, now brown or gi’eon, changing to rose, vivid scarlet, or molten silver. So sensitive is it that every convulsive movement of the mantle of my paper nautilus in taking water to brentlie and forcing it out of the siphon caused a wave of color to pass over the entire body. Wlien the water was talcen in the color cells contracted, leaving it pale for a fracdion of a second; when it was forced out they evidently relax^nl and the entire surface was suffused with color to disappear as quickly, giving a continuous lieat-lightnlng eflX^ct. Of the three living specimens that I have ke>pt in confinement one was 4 or 5 inches long, another S or 9. The small one was extremely active, leaving it« shell to crawl about its prison and darting back with great agility, directing Its funnel backward at the cluster nf eggs hanging in thff interior of tlie shell, always paying the most assiduous attention to them to prevent the intrusion of any parasite or enemy. It would recline against the weed-covered rock wat(‘lnng me or eyeing my hand as it moved about, blushing, paling, displaying remarkable semsitivcnesa, and when I touched the shell would protest by pumping violently, shooting the shell backward and, if I held on, aiming the siphon at my hand and pump- ing water at it, on one occasion filling the water with an extraordimiry volley or cloud of ink. But ordinarily this argonaut did not resent my friendly ad^ vances and when touched it would twine its tentacles about iny fingers, liold them closely, and rise partly from the shell, the big black and silver staring# eye evidently watching every movement. The speed with which the argonaut could move backward, propelled by its siphon, was remarkable when seen from the side, but when it was observed from behind it was seen to be a perfect racing machine; the sharp keel of the shell covered by the extraordinary velamentous arms presented a perfectly Sm ithsf an Report, 1916 — Bortsch. Plate 19. 1. The Argonaut and Her Egg Case. I'roin “ Kir.sl J'li()li)L;rai)lis I’A'or M.idn (»f a l*:ip('r Nniil by CharL-s F. lloldor, C’aiiiiliy Life in Amonra, iM'btuury, lao'J. 2. A Fish Trap on the Cape Cod Coast, in which Large Numbers of Squid are Caught. From Kiii|4 Herring: An Aeeounl. of tho ^Vorld's MosI, Valuable- Fish, cte./’ by Hugh M. vSinith. Matiuiuil Geographic Magaziiio. Aueiisl.. I'loo THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 375 smooth surface, and tlie slip^htest current from the siphon was sufficient to send it along, the entire animal being concealed, the tentacles not trailing behind, as often described When the argonaut left the shell it crawled about in the position of an octopus, mouth down, but Avhen In the shell its favoiite position apparently was ^\lth its mouth pointing directly upward, the h\o dorsal or upper arms thrown back, or it would fasten itself to the glass of the tank by the two large arms and gradually expand them until they were as large ns the shell itself, piesenting a rippling iilti irnanne blue on the outer side and iridescent tiostcd sil\er on the other THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE DIATOMS. By Aijjekt IVIann. [With 6 plates.] Scientific study is constantly giving einpliasis to the fact that in nature tliei-e is little, if any, relationship between size and impor- tance. Charles Darwin long ago made it plain that among the m3'riad of living creatures tlte earthworm pla.ys a very important role in the economy of nature', especially as applied to mankind, and is in fact a greater animal than the elephant. The lowly gra.ss outweighs in importance the loftiest tree of the forest. A brilliant series of dis- coveries led by Pasteur has revealed to us that the most gigantic j)owei% in some cases beneficent, in others baleful, is exercised by the minutest of all living things, the bacteria. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at tliat tlie plants here under consideration, although as a <*lass (juite invisiide to the naked eye, and many of them so minute that a hundred can be laid upon the head of a common pin, are at the same tiiiK' of great economic imi)ortance. Put for a long time the attention of mankind was diverted from the more practical values that we are here to consider by that most striking characteristic of these ])Iants, their surprising beauty and the unequaled complexit}" of (heir ornamentation. Coupled with their minuteness tliere is a daintiness of structure and an artistic diversity of design among the six thousand and odd species which has doubtless been the cause whv until recent times they have been objects of merely esthetic interest. They have never been neglected, for from the time of the invention of the microscope they have been the darlings of the microscopists; but only to-day are they begin- ning to be recognized as an important factor in the welfare of the human race. Each diatom plant secretes for itself an incasing box or invest- ment of pure silica, somewhat as a clam or oyster secretes its shell; and these crystalline walls, within which the tiny living plant is housed, are sculptured and carved with such bewildering com})lexity of design and yet with such ])erfection of finish that their attrac- tiveness has absorbed the attention of students to the detriment of their many less spectacular qualities. 377 378 AN^nJAL REPORT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Only one practical use has been developed from this esthetic study of the diatoms; they have been long recognized as the most accurate and satisfactory test objects for determining the perfection of micro- scopic lenses and accessories, the ability of any microscope to render visible the fine lace ornamentation which overspreads some of the species being the best index of its optical excellence. As a conse- quence of this, all microscopes are to-day tested with one or both of two species of diatoms, PleAirosigimi angulatum^ or Amphipleuni pelluiida. One of the oldest of the economic uses of diatoms has been that of employing fossil diatom earth as a polishing powder, especially in metal work. These organisms appeared geologically about the middle of the Cretaceous period, and although, therefore, among the later of the now existing forms of plant life, their prolific multi- plication has resulted, during former periods of time, in the forma- tion of enormous fossil beds composed of the silica remains of these minute aquatic plants. Such beds arc found all over the world, famous deposits being located at Luneburg, Germany: liilin, Bo- hemia; Sendai, Japan; Ananino, Russia; Oamaru, New Zealand; Moron, Spain; Keene, N. H. ; Nottingham, Md. ; the coast of Cali- fornia, and many other places of minor importance. The first con- siderable fossil deposit of diatomaceous earth used was confused with a polishing material called rottenstone,” mined at Tripoli, in Africa, and it was therefore referred to in commerce by the same name, Tripoli powder,” and is in fact so sold in di'ug stores at the present time. Its high abrasive value comes from the fact that the material, silica, has a high degree of hardness and the grain of the diatom powder is so fine as to produce as a polish the highesli luster. Its extreme fineness of texture is shown by a computation made by Ehrenberg, that in 1 cubic inch of the Bilin diatom earth there are 40,000,000 individuals. This abrasive quality of the diatoms has led to their use for other purposes than metal polishing, as for example, for tooth powder. One of the widely advertised tooth powder preparations upon the market is composed entirely of diatomaceous earth. It can not be said that this is a good material for the purpose, as the cutting quality of this siliceous substance is too great to be used constantly upon the thin layer of enamel of the teeth. It is, however, interest- ing to think that many of the users of this diatom dentifrice would be amazed if they could see the thousands of exquisite gern-like organ- ics lying upon their tooth brush and used as a toilet preparation. As a curious instance of perverted use, it might be well here to. mention the fact that diatomaceous earth was at one time extensively eaten by the impoverished and half-starved tribes inhabiting the remoter portions of eastern Europe and Asia. Generally the diatom ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OP DIATOMS—MAN:^. 379 earth was mixed with flour, and although the nutritive value of this added substance is practically nothing, the advantage of its use was an actual one; because, when the normal requirement of the human stomach for a square meal ” is a (juart, and the available flour for that meal is a half pint, the unfortunate consumer gets at least the semblance of a full dinner by adding to his food supply thiee times its volume of harmless and inert matter. This is probably the ex- planation of tlie custom of those tribes Imown as the “ earth eaters.” A number of years ago and shortly after the invention of nitro- glycerine, the diatoms came into an economic use of great importance, namely, the manufacture of dynamite. This substance, so great a blessing and a curse to mankind, is essentially nothing but nitro- glycerine absorbed into the cavities of dried diatom earth. As each diatom plant is a microscopically small silica box, the walls of which arc perforated with intensely minute openings, the diatom earth serves to isolate tiny particles of nitroglycerine in such a way as to render the liijuid practically a solid and at the same time to obviate the dangerous quality of free nitroglycerine of exploding by means of shock and'at low temperatures. To-day, although diatomaceous earth is used to a considenible extent as an element in nitroglycerine explosives, it has been somewhat replaced by other substances, as for example, wood meal. If the meaning of the word economic is not too rigidly taken and may include our increased facility in certain lines of research, it is proper to mention among the economic uses of these plants their value in the determination of certain problems of oceanography, especially in the determination of the direction and the extent of the great ocean currents. Those familiar with this phase of research are aware of the great difliculties attendant upon the accurate meas- urement of the extent and speed of an ocean current, duo to the fact that the vessel from which such observations have to be made is itself a drifting object, acted upon by the current in question, as well as by the wind and other forces difficult to compute. Could the ship be anchored, this disadvantage would vanish; but inasmuch as this phase of oceanographic research is carried on in the deep seas, anchoring is not practicable. These organisms, on account of their peculiar structure, composition, and size, lend themselves perfectly to studies of this kind. It is perhaps safe to say that they are the only organisms which meet fully the requirements. Being com- posed in part of an indestructible substance, they do not suffer the rapid decay of many of the microscopic organisms of the sea. This is equally true of other marine organisms incased in silica ; but none of these have a second characteristic of the diatoms which is of equal importance, namely, a minuteness of size sufficient to enable them to be carried hundreds or thousands of miles by ocean currents. Such 380 ANlsUJAL REPOR'r SMrmsONIAN IKSTITUTION, 1916. animal denizens of tlic sea as the Kadiolaria are as immortal as to their silica encasements as are the diatoms; but their larger bulk and more massive construction precipitates them to the bottom, while the diatoms are held in suspension like the finest dust for an indefi- nite distance. When we add to these two qualities a third one, the large number of well-defined species, differing in kind according to the parts of the world in which they are found, we see that the pres- ence of these organisms in an ocean current, even thousands of miles from land, will often indicate the direction, the extent, and to some degree the speed of tlie current by which they are borne along. It should be here stated as a factor in this problem tliat the diatom flora of any part of the world is always peculiar to that locality, just as the land flora varies at difl’erent latitudes and on the different con- tinents. Thus we have a north and south arctic, a north and south temperate, and a torrid diatom flora, which are in strong contrast to each other and which, wherever met with, indicate tlie j)lace of their origin. In the same way the fresh-water forms, which are poured in large quantities into the sea by the rivers, are still more distinctive, and each section of the coast of our continent has at least some of these plants to be found nowhere else u]')on the earth. The student of these minute plants is constantly made aware of this sharp distinction of the diatom flora of one j^aid, of the world from that of the rest. Let us take some examj)les: A recent study of some living material from the Hawaiian Islands yielded a largo and elaborately ornamented diatom, Biddvlphm imperkilh^ and seai'ch through diatom literature revealed this in an obscuie monograph, where it was recorded that it also had been found at (he Sandwich Islands.” Doubtless the locality of the original s])ecimeii was prac- tically that of the one later found. Another species was named by a Philadelphia diatomist as ha ving been found in a gathering at Mjig- dalena Bay, Lower California, and marked as “very rare.” The writer subsequently found it to be very pleiitifid in a dredging of the XT. S. S. Albatross^ and, by comparison with the record of the original discovery, it was shown that the two localities were within a mile of each other. The writer named a new species discoA cred in the Arctic Sea, and subsequently, in a study of the dust collected in pockets on the ice flcxis of the Arctic, this diatom was rediscovered and on comparison it was found that the latitude and longitude of the two were practically identical. Material s(Hnired by the Smith- sonian Institution adjacent to the openings of the Panama Canal and previous to its completion has yielded a great many remarkable forms.. A rare species known as Pleurosigrrui Hpectdlrile occurs abundantly in one of the gatherings. This was previously reported by Prof. …