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ONR Report DR 153 S 1 Summary Report 0x1 Project Tektite I A Multiagency 60-Day Saturated Dive Conducted by the United States Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, and the General Electric Company Edited by: D. C. PAULI AND H. A. COLE Ocean Technology Branch Octon Science and Technology Division D D C OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH Washington, D.C. FOREWORD Tektite I was this country’s first multiagency program to exploit man’s abUitp not only to live on the bottom of the sea but to perform meaningful scientific work. Previous man-in-the-sea programs have concentrated on the advancement of under- sea technology, whereas the mission of Tektite emphasized existing technology 38 a means for obtaining scientific results. The national intere.st in future use of the ma, and the significance of Tektite I of furthering this interest, is s urn m ar i z e d in President Nixon’s messwe to the aquanauts at the end of their historic mission: ‘Your record breaking venture into inner space is another mile- stone in human achievements. The aquanauts join the astronauts a6 space pionears. Congratulations! ” The success of Tektite I constitutes a major step in using man in the sea for the scientific exploration of the nation’s continental shelf. The Navy, as the Tektite I lead agency and cosponsor with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration the Department of the Interior, and the General Electric Company, is pleased to present this Tektite I final report. I I Chief of Naval Research AUTHORS COMMENT This “Summary Report on Project Tektite I” (ONR Report DR 153 S), although identical to chapters 1 through 5 of the ‘Report on Project Tektite I” (ONR Report DR 153), is published separately here for convenience. The subjects addressed in summary in this report are treated in detail by the individual investigators in Appendixes, which constitute the additional portion of OITR Report DR 153. i _ - 1 - . CONTENTS Abstract Chapter 1 - HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION HISTORY AGENCY INTERESTS Navy Interests NASA Interests Department of the Interior Interest8 INTERAGENCY COOPERATION Chapter 2 - YYNOPsls MISSION SITE C R W HABITAT EASE CAMP PROJECT ORGANIZATION SAFETY Chapter 3 - SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS INTRODUCTION MARINE SCIENCE PROGRAM LIFE SCTENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL PROGRAM INTEGRATED OCEAN FLOOR PROGRAM ENGINEERING PROGRAM Habitat and Support Systems Assembly Habitat Transportation Engineering Evaluation Chapter 4 - FACILITIES INTRODUCTION HABITAT Air Supply, Pressure, and Atmospheric Control Atmosphere Monitoring System Thermal Control Emergency Air Systems Communication, Electrical, and Sanitary Systems Alarm System V 1 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 14 15 15 15 15 19 24 26 27 27 28 30 30 30 37 37 37 37 * 39 40 ii . suppom BARGE Surface-Control-Center Van Environmental Control a d Supply System Electrical Generation and Distribution System Water Storage and Distribution System CRANEBARGE BASE CAMP REPAIRS HABITAT A N D AQUANAUT SUPPORT EQUIPMENT CAUSEWAY PIE& LOGISTICS, T~ANSPORTATION, .~ND COMMUNICATIONS Chapter S - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS INTRODUCTION CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS iii 40 40 42 45 45 43 45 45 50 50 48 51 51 51 52 t IBLANK PAGE i ABSTRACT Project Tektite I, under the overall cognizance and management of the Chief of Naval Research, involved the Departments of the Navy and Interior, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Gen- eral Electric Company, and other government, industry, and academic organizations. Anocean floor habitat at a49 foot depth and the supporting facilities were B 3 t ab 1 is he d and evaluated for 60 days at a carefully selected, isolated site in the Virgin Islands from February 15 to April 15, 1969. Four marine scientists lived in and worked out of the habitat for the 60-day period, durhg which their research emphasized marine biology and geology. Thiswastwice as long as men had previously lived under saturated diving conditions and the only such experiment to use a conbolled nitrogedoxygen atmosphere with a normal 0.2-atmosphere oxygen partial pressure. Through continual t e 1 e v i s ion and auditory monitoring, medical doctors, psychologists, and divingengineers studied the aquanauts’ biomedical responses to the 60-day saturation dive and their behavioral and other psychological r e s p o n s e s to each other, to their work, and to their isolated, hostile environment. The Tektite I e x p e r i m e n t was completed with a perfect safety record within minutes of the time scheduled many months previously. The successful operation demonstrated that men can live together and perform safely and effectively on the ocean floor for extended periods and provided specific psycholcdcal, physiological, and marine scientiiic results which can be applied to future space and unde r s e a missions. V - - - . . . . . . . __ . .. . . - , . . . . . * I V i Chapter 1 HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES "If. instead of rending the observations of reamen to able mathematicianr on l a t a , the land would send able mathematicians to sea, it would signify much more to the improve- ment of navigation and to the safety of men'r liver and estater on that element." Sir Isaac Newton, 1692 INTRODUCTION The U.S. Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, the General Electric Company, and many other participating organizations were brought together in project Tektite I with very much the same theme as that given in Sir Isaac Newton's statement of 1692, but with a variety of professions involved. In Tektite I the marine scientist removed himself from his shore laboratory and home and became an in-situ partner with the in-vivo marine life. The behavioral psychologist directly observed this marine scientist removed from his normal environment to deter- mine his responset, to the r e d isolation, stresses, and hazards that were part of his new environment. The synergistic use of saturation* diving from a habitat to conduct marine science and the observation of the habitat occupants as subjects for behavioral studies evolved from the U.S. Navy's Sealab n man-in-the-sea project.? Two of the conclusions of that project, conducted by the Office of Naval Research in August-September 1965, were: 'In situ living offers a new and important methodology to scientific, biological, and geological ocean-floor investigations .- *'Saturation" refers to the state of the dissolved gases in the tissues of the diver. Under a saturated tissue condition, the diver works out of a habitat whose atmosphere i s maintained at approximately the same pressure as that of the water in which he will be working. His habitat may be an ocean Hoor installation maintained a t the ambient outside water pressure or maybe a pressurized deck decompression chamber (DDC) on board a surface vessel from which he travels to his work location in a pressurized personnel transfer capsule (PTC). In either case he does not undergo drcompression between working dives; he is decompressed only after his total dive sequence. Whether a series of conventional, nonsaturated, short dives a r e used or a saturated dive is used depends on many factors (even assuming that the equipment9 necessary for each a r e available). The primary factors, however, a r e the time required to accomplish the diving tasks, the number of divers available who a r e qualified f o r the specific tasks, and the depths of water of the task. 'D. C. Pauli and G. P. Clapper, "An Experimental 45-Day Undersea Saturation Dive a t 2 0 5 Feet," ONR Report ACK-124, March 8, 1967. 1 2 PROJECT TEKTITE I ‘Based on the analysis of the overall performance of the aquax.auts, criteria can be developed to assist in the selection of future aquanauts.” understanding the beharior oi small groups of men conducting real work while isolated in a hazardous environment. * Analysis of the Sealab II behavioral observations yielded significant information for To the behavioral psychologist the undersea laboratory becomes an exciting obser- vational situation. Closed-circuit television provides one of the usual modes for opera- tional and engineering monitoring of the habitat as well as a vital communication link between the occupants and the surface support personnel. By simple remote extensions, these closed-circuit links can be used at observational stations. The behaviorist thus is enabled to collect voluminous, valid data on a real situation. The subjects are engaged in real work in a hazardous environmental situation which involves stress and isolation. To the marine scientist the habitat-laboratory affords the opportunity to investigate biological and ecological processes unencumbered by the need to return to the surface. Thus, by not being encumbered by the restrictions of repetitive surface dives, he can return to the site of his investigations as many times during the day and night that his life support systems will permit. He is no longer physiologically restricted: he is limited only by life-support equipment and human endurance. This becomes a very impor- tant factor in considering the applicability of saturated diving to the research to be under- taken. Thus, in Tektite I the study of the behavior of lobsters, for example, was! integrated with many otner scientific dives which occurred at various times during both day and nighttime. In this manner a cohesive 2-month marine science p r o p u n became a reality for four scientists to conduct. HISTORY The similarity between crew behavioral aspects of a long-duration operational satur- ation dive and a space mission was suggested in November 1966, in a side discussion between Office of Naval Research and National Aeronautics and Space Administration psychologists at a NASA Symposium on Isolation and Confinement. This suggestion led to ONR/NASA meetings, later in 1968 and early in 1967, to develop a rationale for the validation of a hypothesis that behavioral, habitability, and crew effectiveness data ohtairied in observations of undersea teams could be used to predict and understand similar problems involving space teams. concerning the validation of extrapolating marine mission data to space missions. Tech- nical progress under these contracts was jointly watched and monitored by NASA and Navy technical and management personnel. The results of these study contracts strongly supported what had been suggested in the original NASA/Navy discussions - that behav- ioral, crew effectiveness. and habitability data could be obtained in underseas operations. Based on these early meetings, NASA in June 1967 awarded two study contracts During the concluding months of the contracted studies it became evident that missions involdnp real work were r -quired to q\tain valid extrapolative data. The Department of Interior, who over the course of 1967 had come to an agreement with the Navy ior ‘cooper- ative study of problems of mutual interest,” was invited to participate in monitoring the NASA sponsored studies and formally became the third member in November 1967. In December 1967 the General Electric Company formally submitted to the Office of Naval Research, lead agency fur the government, an unsolicited proposal to conduct the undersea space/marine mission recommended 111 the concluding studies. The mission would be of 60 days duration and would study the ability of a small group of saturated HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 3 divers to successfully carry out a scientific mission under hazardous, isolated conditions. The project title Tektite comes from the name for small particles of space-born matter which survive the fiery plunge through the earth’s atmosphere and come to rest on the ocean’s floor. Tektite I would be jointly sponsored by the Navy, NASA, and Interior Department. In addition, the basic Tektite I habitat would be furnished by General Elec- tric, financed primarily by company Industrial Research and Development funds. AGENCY WTERESTS The interests in Tektite of the three agencies - Navy, NASA, and the Department of the Interior - relate to their national responsibilities. Generally the Navy’s interests were the study of diving physiology and small-crew psychology, for future subniersible and saturated diving missions and advances that could be made in ocean technology. NASA’s interests of small-crew psychology and behavior were oriented toward long dura- tion space flight, as in orbiting laboratory or post-Apollo missions. The Interior Depart- ment’s interest was the use of saturated diving to broaden man’s capability to conduct scientific work in the sea. A closer look at the roles of each agency shows the areas of interest and responsibility of each. Navy Interests The Navy interests in Tektite I were reflected in overall project coordination and management, development of techniques for accomplishing the behavioral and biomedical scientific mission object;-ies, engineermg evaluation of the shallow-water Tektite I habitat, and operational and technological procedures, including safety. The Navy was the “lead agency” of the three agencies supporting Tektite. Through the Office af Naval Research, the Navy had the responsibility for overall pro4ram and scientific management and for administration of the General Electric Tektite I contract. An additional Navy responsibility in Tektite I, and perhaps the most important. was mission safety, both in the operational and scientific conduct of the program. The Office of Naval Research was responsible for the overall planning of the behav- ioral and biomedical programs, and integration and coordination of the overall Tektite I scientific program. The Navy, during the Sealab II program. developed basic field obser- vation techniques for the behavioral studies of small crews living in undersea habitats. Tektite I presented opportunity for further development of these techniques and acquisition of additional data. The key scientists from the Sealab Il program developed the Tektite I behavioral program in conjunction with NASA and Interior. The Tektite I biomedical program, likewise, was developed by Navy medical persmnr.1. and by contract research scientists of OEiR (such as the University of Pennuylwmia) working with Navy and NASA biomedical perscnnel. In addition to the stated scientific gods in the mission objectives, Tektite I also provided the Navy the opportunity for exploration in related areas of under- water technology, such as saturation diver safety, ocean engineering, and construction. The Navy provided the operational direction for implementation of the Tektite I program. Naval commmd experience provided the operational experience necessary to support the scientific program. Transportation, logistics, communication, and support construction and facility requirements operation were supplied by various naval organizations. ! 4 PROJECT TEKTITE I . . * , NASA Interests NASA's primary interest in Tektite I was the study of the performance oI highly qualified scientists under conditions of stress for use in understanding and predicting man's behavior on long-duration space flights. urated diving condition, which prohibited vertical ascents to the water's surface. Reac- tions to their living, working, and recreation environments were recorded by systematic observation, by automatic event recording, and by subjective opinion. Measures were made of group cohesiveness and the adjustment of each crew member to the others, !O his environment, and to his assigned duties. The marine scientific mission plan provided the scientific crew the goals necessary for maintaining a continuous high level of motiva- tion required for meaningful extrapolation of the behavioral data to space flight. The ability of the crew to conduct their own mission and their willingness to attempt tasks not directly related to their scientific training were evaluated as well as the extent of their dependence on an outside technical crew. Biomedical measures were made to assure crew safety and to evaluate the psychological effects of activities inside and out- side the habitat on the measurable physiological functions of the crew. The NASA scientific responsibilities were reflected in the hematology portion of the biomedical research program and in the sleep and psychorioter studies in the behavior propam. The Tektite I data collection program, developed under NASA contract, W a S the primary means of accumulating daily the crew behavior, biomedical and habitability and engineering data required by each investigator. NASA management res?onsibilities were in the development of the behavioral program, and in overall program management in concert with the other agencies. The four Tektite f aquanauts experienced true locked-in isolation due to their sat- Department of the Interior Interests a diversified research program with a small group of marine scientists using saturated diving techniques. The two primary objectives were: evaluate saturated diving as a research technique for marine science studies, and conduct an operational research pro- gram on the ocean floor to demonstrate that scientists can live and work effectively on the ocean floor. The Department of the Interior's fundamental interest in Tektite I was to accomplish For years marine scientists have recognized the advantages of having direct access to the undersea environment for extended periods of time. To this end, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) equipment and research submersibles have pro- vided only partial solutions to depth, time, and mobility limitations. Manned habitats, such as the Tektite I habitat, using saturated diving have offered a research tool which appears to have many advantages for prolonged studies of the ocean floor. ~ - - . ------- "Am--- r\mvfi*, INI'LKA~cNL I L w r r > a r r i i v * . Although Tektite had been preceded by several underwater living experiments, some at greater depths, several distinguishing features set it apnrt from these ezrlier experi- ments. Primary among these is that Tektite was the first major venture undertaken whose objectives were primarily scientific rather than technological. Close liaison and communication between participating members from all organizations involved was necessary to accomplish a cohesive progrm. For example, the behavioral and biomed- ical studies conducted by the Navy and NASA, concurrent with Interior's ocean floor program, were designed for the minimum interference with the marine research actAvities ._i HISTORY AND 0 B J ECTI VES 5 of the crew. The mutual Navy and NASA interests in the behavioral and biomedical por- tions of Tektite required 5: high degree of interaction between the scientists of both agen- cies for optimization of efforts and results. General Electric integrated the program needs into a habitat system that could satisfy the divergent requirements placed on it. The success of Tektite I was due largely to the spirit of cooperation that prevailed throughout the entire project, from conception through execution. The major participating activities and their primary responsibilities and contri- b u t i o ~ were: NAVY Office of Naval Fteeearch Headquarters: Overall project management, scientific pr0gra.n coordination, direction >f on-site operations, funding support, logistic coordination, overall Safety responsibility. Naval Biolcgical Laboratory: Planning and execution of the Tektite I micro- biological studies. support throughout ope rat ion. Naval Research Laboratory: Laboratory analysis of habitat atmosphere, logistic Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters: Design of habitat installation methods, design habitat surface support AMMI barge facility, on-site installation and retrieval of habitat and other equip- ment, operational responsibility for emplacement and retrieval of habitat and support systems. U.S. Atlantic Fleet Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO: Implementation of habitat installation methods and equipment, assembly of support AMMI barge, design and construction of base camp, operation and maintenance of habitat support system. equipment and materials, and project personnel to the Tektite site and return. Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet: Transportation of habitat system, base camp Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Chief, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery: Review and approval of medical and safety plans, assignment of medical personnel to p w ject. Naval Submarine Medical Center: Development of Tektite decompression schedule, participation in biomedical program, aquanaut physical and psychiatric exam- inations, medical personnel on site. Naval Medical Research Institute: Planning and execution of behavioral program, equipment and technical assistance for behavioral program, on-site monitors and super- visors, data reduction. Naval Medical Neuropsychiatric Research Unit: Planning and execution Of Navy sleep studies. 6 PROJECT TEKTITE I Naval Ship Systems Command Supervisor of Salvage: Decompression facilities and personnel, diving personnel assistance, small boat and equipment support. diving officers and personnel. of habitat support barge, dcck facilities for loading and unloading of Tektite hardware at beginning and end of project. repair facilities for boats and electronic equipments, logistic support. Experimental Mkhg Unit: Atmospheric monitoring equipment Ond ope-tors, Philadelphia Naval Shipyard: Assembly of Tektite I habitat, service8 !or assembly Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Tenth Naval Mstrict: Critical Submarine Acquisition Project Office: Material safety reviaw of habitat and support systcms. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR Planning and management of marine science program, program management, funding support, aquanaut crew and two backup crew members, surface scientific and diving support for marine science program, scientific and diving equipment for aquanaut crew, operational site in the Virgin Islands National Park. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters: Program management, funding support, data management pro- gram, behaviordl program support. Manned Spacecraft Center: Planning and execution of NASA sleep studies, devel- opment of hematology program, develop emergency decompression tables. Marshall Spaceflight Center: C?ew habitability program. Langley Research Center: Furnish, install and maintain mass spcctrometer atmosphere analyzer, implementation of psychomotor experiment. GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY Missile and Space Division: Habitat design and fabrication, scientifir program integration assistance, preparation of scientific program planning documents, personnel and technical support for on-site operations. COAST GUARD Safety diver support personnel, diving watch officer on-site, supp2rt in imple- mentation and assessment of safety program. HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 7 I : ASSOCIATED SUPPORT University of Pennsylvania: Biomedical prognm coordination and support, College of the Virgin 1sl;mdS: Mnrine science program support, site survey Battelle Memorial Institute: Engineering support to the Olfice of Naval Research, biomedical pre-dive base line data, post-dive biomedical diver assessment. support, backup aquanaut. engineering review of Tektite I program. Particulax mention is made of the Navy SEABEEs’ extensive and energetic work in Tektite I. The SEAEEE force was comprised of officers and men from Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO, with additional SEABEE divers from both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The SEABEES were active through the project, both in implementing the Navy’s engineering program and in supplying constructi Jn and maintenance services for all on-site Tektite facilities. . , Chapter 2 SYNOPSIS MISSION The missions of Tektite I were threefold: (a) to study the behavior and effectiveness of a small group of highly trained men to real work under stressed, isolated conditions, (b) to study biomedical responses of men living under high-nitrogen-partial-pressure saturated conditions in the marine environment for an extended period, and (c) for the men under study in (a) and (b) to conduct meaningful marine science research from an undersea habitat under the advantageous and disadvantageous boundary conditions imposed by saturation diving. Since the three missions are interdependent, equal emphasis had to be placed on each. Coincident with those three scientific missions was a Navy ocean engineering program to advance the scientific utilization of undemater habitats. The selected mission duration w a s 2 moc'hs, from February 15 to April 15, 1969. During this time the aquanaut scientists were saturated to a water depth of 43 feet. At the end of the mission, a decompression schedule approximately 20 hours long was required to return the aquanauts szlely to the surface. SITE The site selected for Tektite I was Lameshur Bay, St. John Island, U.S. Virgin Island8 (Fig. 1). This site is in the southeast quadrant of the island and within the boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park, which includes two-thirds of St. John Island and most of the offshore waters. Because Lameshur Bay is within the park, a special " w e permit" was required from the National Park Service to conduct the project. The site selection was based on five primary factors: 1. Shallow water. The acceptable depth range of the habitat for conducting the satur- ation dive on a mixture of 0, and N, over the 60-day period was set at 40 to 60 feet. 2. Biological activity. Tho biological activity of the area selected had to be abundant to assure the ability to develop a valid continuous, long-duration marine science program. There was a great biological diversity of marine plant and animal species in Lameshur Bay enhanced by the presence of extensive coral reefs. Since the waters of Lameshur are characteristic of the tropical waters of the Caribbean, South Pacific, ar?d Indian Oceans, marine research conducted there would be applicable to many parts of the world. 3. Shelter from storm. In the January-to-May p r i o d required for the total Tektite I stratup, operation, and withdrawal, the Lameshur Bay area was historically expected to be extremely sheltered from the sea. With the exception of one unseasonable storm, the predicted weather conditions prevailed. 4. LOW subsurface water currents. Subsuriace currelit con&i!%~s N ~ T P than 0.25 h o t except during the unseasonable southerly sea condition experienced, when surge currents were estimated to be of the order of 0.5 h o t . 8 SYNOPSIS Fig. 1 - Location of Lnrnashur Bay, Vlrgin Islands. the Tektite i rite 5. Logistics supportability. Logistics is a major problem to a project conducted in a remote location. This was a contributing factor in selecting the Virgin Islands site over other islands in the vicinity. Even so logistics were considerably more difficult than was envisaged. While nearby St. Thomas was the source of most operating supplies that were not originally brought in the installation phase, many componeats and services unique to this type of operation had to be obtained from the mainland and Puerto Rico, which entailed detdled expediting to minimize time and in-transit loss of materials. CREW Four marine scientists from the Deputment of the Interior were the Tektite I Richard A. Waller - Oceanographer, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Conrad V. W. Mahnken - Oceanographer, Bureaij of Commercial Fisheries John G. Van Derwalker - Fishery Biologist, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries H. Edward Clifton - Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey aquanauts (Fig. 2): L 10 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 2 - Tektite I crew: left to right are aquanauts Clifton. Mahnkcn. W a l k , and Van Derwalker * I i I HABITAT The Tektite I habitat (Fig. 3) was designed and constructed by the General EIectric Company and was furnished to the Navy under a bailment agreement. The habitat was installed nn the bottom of Lameshur Bay at a depth of 49 feet. The habitat hatch, 6 feet above the bottom, established the saturation depth of 43 feet. BASE CAMP To conduct the total Tektite I scientific mission, approximately 35 scientists and 65 support personnel were required. A base camp was constructed adjacent to Lameshur Bay (Fig. 4). This camp functioned as the living quarters for all Tektite I personnel, military and civilian, except the four aquanauts. PROJECT ORGANIZATION Although the Tektite I mission was 60 days in duration, the total time required to plari, execute, and evaluate the project was in excess of a year and a half. Project activ- ities during this time were &:vfCed into five phases which describe the evolution of Tektite I. Phase I: Detailed program plans, cquipment design and fabrication, and base camp cunaii ur;tiiiii. 2iik.g gf....ae I, were designed and built, and the project's scientific programs were planned ana coorG- nated. The facilities required for support at Lameshur Bay were designed and constructed. Baseline biomedical and psychological data were obtained. This phase ran through Jan- uary 8, 1969, when the Tektite I habitat was loaded aboard the U S Hermitage for ship- ment to the Virgin Islands. in earlv 1968, the habitat and its supporting systems SYNOPSIS 11 Fig. 3 - Artist's rendering of the Tektite I habitat. At the left are the bridge and the crew's quarters, and at the right are the machinery room and the wet room, with a cupola on top which allows a 360-degree view. Fig. 4 - Tektite I experiment site, Lameshur nay, St. John, Virgin Islands - .. , .-... .-....___ - __ ~ I 12 ' PROJECT TEKTITE I Phase II: On-site preparation, equipment installation, and checkout. The major work during phase Ll began in January 1969, when the Tektite I habitat and its supporting equipment and personnel arrived at Lameshur Bay. The habitat and supporting equip- ment were installed. The marine science equipment6 were readied. The major remain- ing supporting logistics problems were solved. Upon final approval of the results of the systems checkout of the habitat/swface control complex, phase III was initiated. Phase IU: Major experiment phase. Phase IU waS, essentially, the 6G-day mission. Phase IU began when the Tektite I habitat became operational and ended when the four aquanauts completed their decompression on April 16, 1969. Phase IV: Equipment withdrawal and dispersal. Phase N was, essentially, the inverse of phase XI. Phase 4 began on April 16, 1969, and was completed on June 10, 1969, when the last of the Tektite I material was removed from Lameshur Bay. Phase V: Reduction, analysis, and distribution of data and results. Efforts during phase V were primarily directed toward the preparation and distriboution of this Tektite I ' find report. 0 c BUUW 'IL'BYEIXNTII I - Fig. Sa - Scientific Management Organization Structure SYNOPSIS 13 I GENERAL ELECTRIC: HABITAT ENGINEERING (Mr. 8 . Thompson) The Tektite I Program Plan and Operation Plan documented the scientific and oper- ational organization and conduct of the project. The Tektite I Program Plan was prepared by General Electric as a part of their contract taek, and contained four parts: Scientific Mission Requirements Plan, Safety Plan, Transportation and Assembly Plan, and Emplace- ment Plan. The Tektite I Operation Plan was promulgated by the Chief of Naval Research. The Operation Plan implemented the on-site portions of the project, designated command structures, and delineated standard and emergeocy bills. A primary function of the Oper- ation Plan was the establishment and implementation of project safety standards and procedures. andoperational(Fig. 5). The administrative authority (Fig. 51) was primarily concerned with the scientific managemenf of Tektite I and remained constant throughout all of the project's five phases. The operational authority was in effect only during the three operational phases (Le., Phases II, m, and IV). The operatlonal authority for Phases II and IV (Fig. 5b) reflects the requirement for engineering responsibility during these phases. The operational organization for the sixty day major experiment phase, Phase m, is shown in Figure 5c. The Operation Plan identifkd two distinct organizational authorities: administrative * AMPHIBIOUS CONSTRUCTION BATTALION TWO (CDR V. Skrinak) I I I I I I I I I I AMPHIBIOUS CONSTRUCTION I BATTALION TWO: GE ENGINEERS WD TEKTITE I DETACHMENT TECHNICIANS (LTJG J. Fuccillo) (LTJG T . Fusby) T e m p o r v y personnel M' assigned as required Fig. Sb - O p e r a t i o n a l Cornman,! Structure (Phases I1 and IV) 14 PROJECT TEKTITE 1 SAFETY The forcmost consideration throughout TEKTITE I was the safety of the personnel involved, particularly the aquanauts. The impact of extcnsive safety consciousness is evident in all aspects of TEKTITE 1. Because the aquanauts were saturated to a depth of 42 feet, the biggest potential hazard was decompression sickness ('bends") resulting from inadvertent surfacing. As part of the bicmedical research program, emergency decompression schedules were prepared as treatment for accidential surfacing. In addition, particular emphasis was placed on preventing situations that might cause the aquanauts to surface. Thz situations considered most likely to cause aquanaut surfacing (other than a habitat disaster) were an aquanaut's becoming lost, or his losing or expiring his air supply. Way stations, equipped with an air supply and sound-powered phones linked to the habitat, were located near to the habitat. When the aquanauts made excursions from the habitat, they would be accompanied by a surface craft manned by divers ready to offer immediate assistance. The aquanauts carried colored floats which they would release to signal that assistance w a s required. On routine aquanaut swims near the habi- tat, lookouts stationed on the support barge replaced the surface boat crews. The TEKTITE aquanaut szfety program was highly organized. The Operation Plan designated the individuals responsible for safety, and these persons organized watch schedules, safety procedures, and emergency bills. In addition to the diving boat crews which accompanied the aquanauts on their excursions, watch crews manned the surface decompression facility, the watch director's post and medical watch post, and support barge equipment around the clock. Training drills were frequently conducted to minimize the time required to recover and treat a surfaced aquanaut. entire TEKTITE I operation. Thus it was shown that saturation dives of the TEKTITE AS further experience is gained, the safety factor added for uncertainty can be reduced to a degree, and the advantages of saturation diving may be more fully exploited. No on-site project accidents bvolving personnel injury were experienced during the type be s$&y - - - - - a A - A 4L-4 n -;m.--n*~c cafotv nrnuram i s imF,'lpmpnted. , y L u V L u c u &&.a. Y "b" "- ---- .I r - - o - - Chapter 3 SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS INTRODUCTION The major program elements of Tektite I were marine science, life sciences, and ocean engineering. The goals and known accomplishments Or each d theso program el+ menta are given in the following paragraphs. MARINE SCIENCE PROCRAM The goal of the marine science program as planned was twofold: (a) a number of individual marine ecological. biological, and geological studies integrated into P 60-day time period, and (b) an evaluation of the use of saturation diving techniques from an undersea habitat to accomplish the studies planned in (a). The wide variety of planned experiments and observations are summarized in Table 1. The marine science program was developed to explore the wide range of potenttal research made possible by undersea habitation. More research was planned than could be accomplished during the mission so the aquanauts could select those areas best suited to the situation. Thus several of the experiments shown in Table 1 were not carried out because the aquanauts decided to use their time in studies resulting from their explor- atory surveys of the ocean floor. The aquanauts' decisions to exclude certain pianned studies in favor of unplanned studies were based on their assessments of the relative importance of the particular work. In addition, time available to carry out scientific work was limited by a variety of other reasons, such as equipment malfunction and other unioreseen circumstances. For example, habitat operational problems at the beginning of the mission consumed a great deal of the aquanauts' time. During the 60-day mission, the aquanauts spent 432 man-hours outside of their habitat. Toward the end of the mission individual aquanauts were spending as much as 5 hours per day in the water. The limiting factor on this time and on the range of oper- ations was the endurance capability of the equipment and the time required for recharging the scuba tanka. The aquanauts were assisted in their marine research tasks by a surface diving scientific support team. This team, composed of three alternates for the aquanauts in the habitat, complemented the studies conducted from the habitat by extending the marine research into areas beyond the horizontal range or vertical limits of the aquanauts. This suliace team was augmented during the mission by visiting scientists from the Depart- ment of the Interiur. LIFE SCIENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM The behavioral program was planned to provide data on the characteristics of crew behavior which could be extrapolated to future manned missions in space and undersea research. The emphases of the behavior study were: crew size and selection criteria, quarters size and habitability, and use of time in mission performance. The restraint of 15 16 PROJECT TEKTITE 1 Experiment isolation (satunted diving) and the reality of the crew's rnhsion (marine science) both contributed to the significance of the study. A qualitative sunimary of the behavioral program is glven in Table 2. Objective Environmental factors Plankton analysis Acoustics Record water temperature, salinity, pressure, cur- rent vectors, surface and internal waves, and bio- luminescence at the habitat and remote locations. Determine the types and relative abundance of plank- tonic organisms in the water column, their fluctua- tions in time, and the extent of their vertical migra- tions (Fig. 6). Evaluate a sifle-scanning sonar for signatures of separate fish species, for animal and diver tracking, and for the effects of environmental variations on sonar performance. (This experiment way not ini- tiated due to equipment difficulties .) Spiny lobster behavior Spiny lobster population Lobstering and fishing Day-night periodicity Effects of the habitat Light attraction Artificial reefs Ecology Validate tagging techniques for general marine pop- ulation studies (Figs. 7 and 8). Understand population size, growth, and mortality. Compare effectiveness and selectivity of different gear for catching lobsters and reef fish. Understand foraging, mating, and predatory activ- ities during the full diurnal cycle. Calibrate the influence of the habitat on the local fauna and flora. Evaluate multicolored underwater lights as artificial attractants. Evaluate through periodic sampling the population on DreDositioned artificial reefs. Geology Geological bottom Reef diagenesis and Biogenous sand lithification Effects of organisms on Storm modifications Carbonate mud -- 2:-.^,&..'..-.. JeUlU.BZ.,;sU".* I Bottom rock weathering Sedimentology techniques ~- Obtain control data for geological experiments. Relate biogenous sand to the source organisms and study reef growth and destruction. Study the reef structure and history. Study the mechanisms and rates of the reworking of aertjrnentn by organisms. Study the degree of modification of bottom sediments by storms. Determine the rate and type of changes in the com- position of carbonate mud as the result of organic decay. Compare submarine and subaerial weathering of rocks. Develop habitat-based sedimentology experimental techniques and evaluate surface-operated instruments. . SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS j 1 Fig. 6 - Aquanaut adjusting a standpipe in a n exper- iment to measure plankton in the water C O l U m n a t variour heights above the ocean floor 17 .. . t Fig. 7 - Aqcanauts engaged in spiny lcbster studies. The 1 o b s t e r s were captured and tagged with identifying metal tags or tiiiy acoustic transmitters, and released. They could then be observed and identified to study their migrator) habits. 18 PROJECT TEKTITE I 5 Fig. 8 - Aquanaut tracking a tagged lobrter with an acoustic directional receiver Table 2 Tektite I Behavior Program E m r i m ent Crew behavior measures: general activity, task performance efficiency, social relations, operational and interpersonal communica- tions, personal habits, emotional adjustment, psychological traits, psychomotor perfor- mance, and sleep (electroencephalography) Crew selection study Human performance study Habitability study Data collection study . Objectives Evaluate long-term work per- formance under hazardous, isolated conditions. Relate observed crew behavior to physiological and medical indices. Obtain crew selection, compo- sition, and training data for use in later space and undersea missions. Determine human performance criteria for application to long- duration, high-stress situations Measure individual and crew response to features of working and living facilities. Develop and refine data collec- tion methods in an operational .-.-.-A b C . . . * * " . L . I I C I * \ . SCIWTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS I9 Paramount to the success of the behavioral prograni was the accurate identification and collection of data which could be used as a measure of behavior functions. ;Data col- lection was automated to the maximum extent. For example, the times that the divers were out of the habitat were automitically recorded. Data based on the observation of the aqua- nauts were also nccrded in real time. Teams of 7bservers monitored the crew for up to 18 hours per day and recorded the visual (televir an) and audio (open microphone) obser- vations Ut parameters such as mood, stalus, and preferences directly on computer cards using predetermined formats (Fige. 9 and 10). During the 60-day mission, over 400,000 individual observation6 were made and recorded for subsequent evaluatlon (Fig. 11). In addition to observation by television and open microphrnes, behavioral and habitability data were obtained from records, logs, and questionnaires completed before, during, and after the operation by the aquanauts. Another source of behavioral data was sleep research to evaluate the quality and quantity of the aquanauts’ sleep for ssible correlation with observed behavior. Of par- ticular interest were the possible ef ct of hyperbaric cmditions upon sleep and the rela- tionship of sleepgatterm to waking ctivities. Sleep logs and electrophysiological (EEG) recording were used for sleep eval f ation. Sleep logs were maintained by all four aqua- nauts, and EEG recordings were obtained frum aquanauts Clffton and VanDenvalker using somewhat standard electrodes. Electrodes were fitted to make contact with aquanaut Waller’s cranium via a newly developed skull cap, developed by NASA, which incorporated contact electrodes. Brain wave data were recorded on both magnetic tape and paper. Electronic, real time, partial processing on-site by NASA neuropsychophysiologists of the sleep log and other EEG data indicated that the aquanauts did not have major sleep difficulties. They slept longer (8-plus hours) and stayed in deeper sleep (slow sleep wave) for a longer time a s the mission progressed. The Tektite I sleep data indicate that man can adapt to nitrogen saturation and live on the ocean floor for productive work without suffering from sleep deprivation. LIFE SCTENCES BIOMEDICAL P R O ~ R A M The biomedical program had a s its twofold purpose the aquanauts’ medical safety and the evaluation af possible physiological effects of long-term saturated diving on the aqua- nauts. Throughout mission planning and execution the safety of the aquanauts was always foremost. Prior to the mission each’ aquanaut was given a detailed medical examination. During the mission, daily and weeklgiinedical status assessments of each of the aquanauts were made to assure their continuing health. Upon decompression a detailed postdive examination was made of each of the divers to ascertain any changes in the aquanauts’ physiologlcal condition. Because of the exploratory nature of a saturated dive using a nitrogen/oxygen mix- ture, a major objective of the biomedical program was to ubtain physiological data on the possible effects of this type of saturation under closely controlled conditions. The aqua- nauts were saturated at a depth of 43 feet on a habitat gas mixture of 9 8 0 nitrogen, s% oxygen. Their scuba tanks, used for excwsions from the habitat, contained compressed air with a composition of WO nitrogen, 20% oxygen. Particular attention was given to the functioning of the pulmonary, blood, and nervous systems of the aquanauts. A week of detailed medical examinations was administered prior to the mission at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital Research Center by a select group of medical specialists, which provided baseline measurements for each aquanaut. A summary of the biomedical areas of investigation is given in Table 3. I I 20 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 9 - Behavioral observers monitoring and recording the aquanauts interactions with the h a b i t a t and environment. Four of the six TVmonitorspreeentviews of each of the four habitat compartr.ents, and two were available for under - water TV cameras. Avideo tape recorder (left) stands ready to record significant events. Fig. 10 - Behaworal observers shown in Fig. 9 and a behavioral scientist supervisor. Automatically r e - corded data is processed by the consoles behind the supervisor's post. e SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 21 MACHINE 1 Eg?o PUNCHEO LAMESHUR BAY, V.I. I I r COPlES TO BASE CAMP, &E., ONR INT€RlOR. N A S A , C7C. c. *€ LLCOMY. CARDS TO MAGNETIC MACHINE PUNCHE 0 WEEK'S f I L E TAPCS IF REQUCSTCD, COPICS FOR OCTAILEO ANALYSIS WEEKLY SUMMARY I A 0 0 TO M A S T E R STATUS RE PORT U E N 0 OF MISSION A & COPlE s O f RE PORT A N 0 MASTER TAPCS TO ONR, INTERIOR. NASA, G.E., ETC. FOR F I N A L PURTMER ANALYSIS SUMMARY A N 0 F I N A L W R I T T E N PREPARE FINAL DATA SUMMARY TAPES P R ; Y T Fig. 11 - Tektite I digital data flow 22 Experiment PROJ'EGT TEKTITE I Objective General medical exams, opthalmology, dermatology, neurology, and audio- vestibular studies Determine the physical status of the aquanauts as a health safeguard. Obtain physiological data to assess possible effects of the hyperbaric nitrogen/oxygen environment and prolonged immersion on vision, hearing acuity, skin, etc. Physical characterization of red-blood- cell populations, studies of red cell metabolism, red-blood-cell radioiso- tope studies, immuno-hematology, and microtrauma and antigen induced inflammation Decompression Health assessment Determine the effects of pressure and gas mixture on blood composition and cell production. Develop standard and emergency decompression tables for a high- nitrogen, hyperbaric atmosphere. Determine vertical excursion limits within which the divers can operate. Monitor diver health and possible effects of hyperbaric environment. aerobiology, and marine microbiology I General Observations I immersion on man's natural orga- nism balance. Data correlation - Respiratory/Pulmonary Respiratory control, pulmonary dif- fusion, ventilatory function, and pulmo- nary resistance and compliance Determine the effects of pressure and gas on lung ventilation, respiratory response, and carbon monoxide dif- fusion into ;he diver's system. Diver Safety Studies Correlate monitored physiological and medical data to observed crew behavior and performance. Certain functions were monitored during the mission by weekly examinations and sa,I,pi,zz. -- 111 QUUlUU11, P - I"\Y.U--U,~-~*"\... --.---' bt.- -1r-b m s A i e - 1 wr3tt-h ..-_--- rnsintginprl ___ .. rlnsc. observation of the aquanauts via television. The primary medical difficulty of the aquanauts during their 60-day stay was ear infection, and the primary organism that caused the divers' ear infections was pseudomonas. Fungi did not appear to be involved. mine any significant variations in life functions which possibly could be attributed to the hyperbaric environment. The postdive examination revealed only one possible detrimental The extensive postdive medical examination conducted on-site was not able to deter- . SCIENTIFIC AND ENGWEERXNC PROCRAMS 23 facit-the discovery of a s-1 occlusion in the right eye lens of aquanaut Clifton. This occlusion was off axis and did not interiere with Dr. Clifton’s visual acuity. Dr. Clifton was the only aquanaut of the four having high-normal intraocular tension. Whether o r not this occlusion was due to the 2-month saturation dive is not knuwn. There ha8 been no known aimilar occurrence of occlusiona in over 50 divers who have been saturated in the Navy’s man-in-the-sea program. Examination several months after the postdive examination indicated the sizc of the occlusion had diminished considerably, making it difficult for the ophthalmologiete to find it. A closely rrlated portion of the biomedical program waa a microbiology study in which water, air, and swab samples were taken regularly in 2nd around the habitat to ascertain the presence and relative occurrence of various types of microorganisms (Fig. 12). A number of questions had been raised with respect to prolonged isolated saturation diving, such as: (a) would the microbial population build up, (b) what changes would occur within the normal microflora of the aquanauts, and (c) would organisms indigenous to the aquanauts and their marine environment present a health problem? 6 Fig. 12 - Mobile laboratoryin a van a t the base camp being u s e d for on-site processing of microbiology samples taken in and around the habitat The microbial carrier state of the aquanaut did not play a part in the transmission of disease in the Tektite I program. This is borne out by a Staphylococcus carrier study 2r.d L!e r<icienis t h l Candida and Proteus remained associated with a single individual throughout the entire pmg-mm. The microbial population did not build up on the walls of the habitat during the 59 days of the s f ~ r J y . Ths szzq!: z%s hi& I I O ~ b e n swabbed prior to obtaining the sample, thus the sample represented the microflora of the wall over an increasingly longer period of time. This microflora was in a state of f!ux with new organisms continually becoming associated with the wall surface while the older organisms were dying. --- 24 PROJECT TEKTITE I The level of coliform organisms from tie disposal of sewage into the environment did not attain a level sufficient to become a health hazard to the aquanauts. Conditions imposed in maintaining the hatitat did not induce a latent virus infection, nor did the aquanauts acquire any demonstrable virus infection from the marine environment. The answers to the questions posed at the beginning of the program show that the pro- longed application of the environmental conditions and aquanaut interactions, as carried out in the Tektite I program, did not result in any unusual microbiological hazard. The possible intrusion of a marine organism (Acinetobacter phenon 4-1) into the habitat and its establishment was of interest and may present a problem in future long-term studies of this type. Ear infections are common to this type of program and will probably remain so unless adequate prophylactics are used. The development of normal and emergency decompression schedules was another area of significant biomedical research. The tables developed are shown in Table 4. Although the normal decompression schedule developed for Tektite was prepared for an operational program, it became evident that the controlling tissue for nitrogen saturation decompression is far beyond the 240-minute level suggested by Workman.* The data col- lected during this series of dives supports the much longer controlling tissue described by BuhImi3M.t Preparation of the emergency decompression tables by NASA subcon- tract$ indicated that, should a nitrogen-saturated aquanaut inadvertently surface (explo- sively decompress from a saturation depth of 42 feet), a 15-minute period wa8 available for safe recompression. The emergency decompression table used an overpressure return and early oxygen decompression for treatment of explosive decompression. INTEGRATED OCEAN FLOOR PROGRAM The Tektite I project required a detailed intermeshing of the scientific pr?grams. A daily scenario covering the full 60 days was prepared prior to the project's start, scheduling the scientific programs in train with appropriate operational and administra- tive tasks. Sample scenarius for the first and last days of the mission as well a s typkal days during the mission are shown in Fig. 13. The biomedical and psychological events were to the maximum possible extent concentrated on one day per week (Wednesday). This allowed the aquanauts maximcm uninterrupted time for their own research on the other days of the week. A typical biomedical examination day is shown in Fig. 13 as day 5. Day 17 is Q-pical of the week's remaining days. The biomedical and psychological programs closely followed the scenario. Although the biomedical samplinm on the first such days took longer than planned, the aquanauts and surface personnel soon established smooth routines for t a h g samples and for promptly transferring them to the surface. The behavioral program was primarily con- ducted by monitoring from the surface, with minimum interference to the aquanaut crew. *R. D. Workman, "Calculation of Decompression Schedules for Nitrogen-Oxygen and j ~ . A. Buhimann. T. F r & , &i,d :. KB!!:~, "Sztzr=!iz~ s . I ? ~ n-eatiiratian with N: and He at $P. 0. Edel. "Delineation of Emergency Surface Decompression and Treatment Proce- Helium-Oxygen D.ves," U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit Research Report 5-65, 1965. 4 Atmospheres." J. Appl. Physiol. 23:458-462 (1967). dures for Project Tektite Aquanauts," J and J Marine Diving Co., Inc., Pasadena, Texas, Apr. 20, 1969. SCILNTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS I Aquanauts Stidace will bt transferred Table 4 Tektite I Decompression Schedules I \Id thr Breathins Media - 42. t 30 t 25 4 20 20 t 15 IS 11 15 13 1s 15 15 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 + i Jul-feC. Norm - 1Zt 120 5 200 5 1'IQ 30 5 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30 5 66 30 20 30 20 40 5 200 5 + 55 # 50 4 45 # 40 + 25 t 20 20 + I5 IS 1 10 10 (5 i Emrrpncy I ~oollowing an &xpIos 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 20 15 60 5 90 30 5 90 60 5 120 60 5 150 00 5 Dccompre! 12 132 157 117 142 512 547 567 597 617 M? 667 697 71 7 74 7 752 812 a42 062 892 912 952 957 1157 1162 (19 hr 22 mini - sa 1011 Schedul 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 a5 35 65 65 95 95 125 125 IS5 160 160 190 190 220 220 260 265 265 265 (4 hr 25 mln) 7 mompression and Dccornpression t Decompression (Inadvertent Surfacing) 20 25 45 50 70 75 95 100 120 135 195 200 320 325 41 S 475 480 800 660 665 81 5 875 880 (14 h r 4Omln) 290 20 25 25 25 45 50 30 SO IO IO IO 70 100 105 105 165 165 185 22 5 230 230 290 290 ( 4 hr 50min) m rransier Caosule to t 26 PROJECT TEKTITE I p..r I Fig. 13 - Typical days from the Tektite I integrated oceaq floor program scenario Postmission analysis has shown that the aquanauts were able to sperd almost a third of their bottom time conducting mission-oriented work. The total bottom Hme was cata- gorized into six major activities and average daily times, in hours per aquanaut, were found for each activity: Scientific work (5.5 hours), habitat maintenance (1.9), self main- tenance !2.7), recreation (3.0), rest and relaxation (10.71, and transit (0.2). ENGINEERING PROGRAM I I The TEKTITE I engineering program had a two-fold objective: (a) to provide P hab- itat system within which the TEKTITE I scientific programs could be conducted, and (b) to gain experience in ocean engineering and in the conduct of underwater programs that would be of future benefit to others. This entailed designing and fabricating the kabitat and its supporting systems, transporting the habitat to the project site in the Virgin Islands and emplacing it in Lameshur Bay, maintaining the habitat during the %month mission, evaluating its performance during this period, and recovering and returning the habitat and its supporting systems. General Electric Company was tasked, under Office of Naval Research Contract N00014-68C-0356,with furnishing the Tektite I habitat, integraiing the p i G p Z scieztiiic equipment into the habitat, defining the support service bower, air, water) requirements SCLICNTIFIC AND ENGINEERE4G PROGRAMS 27 for the habitat, asslriting in the integration of the habitat with its support 6ysbms, and maintaining the habitat for the duration of the mission. The Navy had project nrponsibllity for designing and constructing support system. to meet the habitat senrice requirements, integrating the habitat senrice requirements, integrating the habitat with it6 support systems, transporting the entire assemblage to the Virgin Islands site and returning it, preparing the ocean floor at the experiment rite, and emplacing the habitat and its supporting rystems at th. experiment sit.. Habitat and Support Systemr h m m b l y at the Misaile and Space Division, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The habitat was fabricated in three sections: the two habitat cylinders and the bpee (Fig. 3). The two cylinders w e n assembled and tested as components in Valley Forge. The base war fabricated under General Electric subcontract in Philpdelphia. A n m n complete description of the habitat wili be given in Chapter 4. The habitat support systems were designed by the Naval Facilities Engineering Com- mand to meet habitat service specifications provided by Geneml Electric. Fabrication of these systems on the support barge (to be described in Chapter 4) was by Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO (PHIBCB TWO). Fabircation was initiated at the PHIBCB TWO facility in Norfolk, and completed at the Telrilte I embarkation point, the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. The three major habitat components we= individually tranap@rterl to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where the habitat was totally assembled for the first time. After assembly of the two cylinders on the lnse, the base waa ballasted and the assembled habitat pneumo- statically tested to 28 psig. After completion of the pressure test. each habitat rubsyscem was operationally tested. The Tektite I habitat was deeigned and constructed by the Geneml Electric Company Habitat Transportation The Tektite I habitat was assembled Gn a Navy AMMI barge (Fig. 14), and for trans- portation to the Virgin Islands the tcrge and habitat were floated into the vell-deck of a Wasted-dawn landing ship dock (LSD) (Fig. 15). Upon loading, the LSD was deballasted, leaving the habitat/barge on the dry floor of the LSD well for the opn-sea trip to the site. Upon arrival in Lameshur Bay the LSD was again ballasted down, and the habitat and barge were floated to the habitat launch site. There the habitat and the support systems were fully integrated and checked. The habitat waa Ulauncned' by controlled sinldng of the AMMI barge from under the habitat (using pilir 3 driven into the Bay bottom as guides) until the habitat floated (Fig. 16). The habitat was towed to the experiment site, and winched to the bottom and the floodable ballast tanka flooded. Newly developed Navy A m 1 barges were selected for the habitat launch barge and the support barge. The AMMI barge, in addition to floating like an ordinary barge, may also be jacked up out of the water on pilings which act as stilts. The AhlMl barge is also compartmented, which with only minor modification allows it to be progressively flooded for controlled sinldng. The Tektite I habitat could not be floated directly into the LSD well-deck because the 24-foot draft of the ballasted and assembled habitat (310,000 lb) was deeper than the maxi- mum water depth in a fully-ballasted-down LSD well-deck. Therefore, a shallow-draft barge was required to carry the habitat and to launch it, since high-capacity crane service was not available in Lameshur Bay. The use of the AMMI barge to transport and launch 28 PROJECT TEKTITE I the Tektite I habitat demonstnted the capability of the AMMI to handle deep-draft, heavy loads, such as habitats and submersibles. It must be recognized, however, that the AMMI launch spatem is limited to shallow water, since guide pilings to assist in controlling descent must be driven into the bottom. Also, the AMMI launch system is sensitive to sea mckions and requires calm water such as found in Lameshur Day. Engineering Evaluation An engineering evaluation was made of how well the habitat and the supporting systems met the requirements of the scientific users. It is generally agreed that the habitat as a whole provided a comfortable and livable home for the Tektite I long-duration, shallow- water, saturated dive. As a laboratory it was not optimum, but it was adequate. Although small problems did occur, the majority of the habitat and support systems equipment functioned as designed, and tnis contributed significantly to the safe completion of the project. Fig. 14 - Tektite I habitat being assembled on a Navy AMMI barge at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. At the right is the support barge with habitat support systems. A serious problem was in the CC'? scrubber system. About 36 hours after the aqua- nauts entered the habitat the C02 lwel rose to 10.2 torr (1.34% surface equivalent by vol- ume), higher tfian the generaiiy accepted iippi 'liiiiit of 17" s t ~ % . ~ e equiv~ient iz c!csed hyperbark environments and higher than the design value of 2 torr. Corrective action, incluciing removal of C 0 2 fire extinguishers and use of a makeshift scrubber, lowered the C02 to acceptable level. For the next 2 weeks the baralyme absorbent was changed stalled on March 1 allowed 8 hours between baralyme changes. Under actual mission con- ditions, the scrubber efficiency was considerably lower than during prior tests. The re- moval of C02 from a closed hyperbaric environment remains a critical problem in ocear. habitation. every 9 a * noun - w 1---- ~ C S Y L a - f-A -4 -. - .. -e-<--l .." ..... __ lovol __. _ _ & fi tc 7 tnrr. A pnrhhle scnbber in- f . . . i ! .- SCIENTIFfC AND EXCINEERINC \ i. 29 Fig. 15 -'Habitat (left) on an AMMf barge bei:g floated aboard the USS Hermitage at the Philadelphia Naval Shiward for tranqnortatinn +n +h- V i r n i m T r l ~ . d - Fig. 16 - Habitat being larmched by sinking the AMMI barge out from under it. The four pilings at the barge corners guided and c o n t r o 11 e d the descent of the flooded bar ge . Other lesser engineering problems were ercountered. Mtially it was danned to place two underwater television cameras outside the habitat. One of these malfunctioned prior to the mission and was not used. The other camera functioned only part of the time ckzriag %e iiiissioii md WM of iiiiii reai vaiue. Tire sound puwerea phones in the way stations were susceptible to water seepage through their protective cases, and were seldom used by the aquanauts. Tn zener$.', the +itiz! rt'hi!!~~!!!~ ~f the h ~ b i t ~ t s~'z~cF.I'.E, %id siib~qiefit iiininienmce, required more time than planned. This resulted in a reduction of t i ne available for scientific work b y the aquanauts. This situation could be alleviated by including an engineer or technician as an aquanaut in future scientific missions where crew isn1atit.n is 2 criterion. %,herwise, maintenanc? a surfzco-based engineer or technician. rspdrs could be accomplished in diving visits by Chapter 4 FACILITIES INTRODUCTION The TeMite I facilities, shown In Fig. 17, consisted of the Telctt!?c! I habitat, a 8uppOrt barge, a crane barge (with decompression facilities), a causeway pier, and a base camp. In addition to these major facilities, transportation, communications, :md logistics systems were vital supporting functions prodded. These facilities provided support for the four aquanauts in their undersea research mission, support for surface personnel involved in the collection and analysis of marine science, life science, and engineering data, and support for all other personnel directly associated with the project. UNCAVCD ROAO SUPPORT @AIOE AND C R A W U R S C Fig. 17 - Tektite X site at St. John, Virgin Islands HABITAT A cutaway view of the habitat was shown in Fig. 3. Elevation and plan views of the habitat are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The habitat consisted of two pressure hulls attached . I 30 Fig. 18 - Side view of the Tektite I h8bit.t Fig. 19 - Plan views in the habitat of the habitat compartment 31 32 PROJECT TEKTITE I to a rigid base, connected by a pressurized croe8over tunnel. The two cylinders were dirlded into two compartments each: bridge, crew quarters, equipment room, and wet room. Six hemispherical viewing ports and a cupola were provided for crew observation and safety monitoring purposes. The bridge served a dual plapose: as control center for the habitat system and a8 a dry laboratory for the aquanauts (Figs. 20 through 22). The crew quarters (Fig. 23) contained four bunks, a small galley, storage space for personal gear, and entertainment facilities (radio and television). In addition, an emergency exit hdch was located in the crew quarters (Fig. 24). The equipment room (Figs. 25 and 26) contained the environ- mental control system, the primary electrical transformers and switches, the frozen food locker, and the crew toilet facilities. The cupola was mounted above the equipment room. The wet room (Figs. 27 and 28) served a dcal role: a place for the aquanauts to don, doff, and store their scuba gear and a wet laboratory for specimen preparation. Fig.' 20 - Aquanauts Van Derwalker and Waller checking the habitat systems on the bridge of the habitat, Note the psy- chomoter test device at the lower right and the emergency escape bottles under the circular port to the left The atmospheric pressure inside the habitat was maintained at water pressure in the entry trunk, which was left open to provide an &-sea interface for diver entry and exit. Because the habitat was secured and pressurized during emplacement the pressure hull of the habitat W ~ S designed L? accordance wii'n Ahe AiiEiicLi SOC!C~;. of Mec.h.m!cz! Engineers (&WE) Boiler and Tressure Vessel Code for Vmfired Pressure Vessels. The base of the habitat rested directly on the ocean floor. When emplaced, the total negative tnoyancy oi iine ir&iti& xis I C tczz tz ~ ~ 1 2 : sfz!hili+ under normal sea condi- flons. Jetted and clump anchors, to which the habitat was tied, constituted a redundant bottom moor for additional hoMing force to meet unusual sea conditions. . F A C I L I T ~ Fig. 21 - Habitat bridge (photographed during construction) Fig. 22 - Crossover tunnel from the bridge to the equipment room (photographed during construction) 34 PROJECT TEKTITE f 0 Fig. 23 - Crew quarters (photographed prior to launching) with sleeping, cooking, and entertainment facilities I - -- L Fig. 24 - Crew quarters (photographed prior to launching, with the e m e r g e n c y escape hatch shown open). Note the storage spaces behind the two bunks and the TV camera at the upper right. FACILITIES 35 Fig. 25 - Equipment room and crossover t u n n e l te the bridge (photographed during construction). On the left is air conditioningequipment, and en the right i s a ladder to the cupola. Fig. 26 - Equipment room (d ur i n g construction). Left to right are emergency air bot:les, the entrance from the W e t room, the ladder to the cupola, and the freezer. 36 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 27 - Entry hatch into thc w e t room (during construc- tion). Left of the h a t c h is the scuba c h a r g i n g station. -._ ! -.__ . the exlt to the equipment room. 1 i r~C1WTlks 37 Air Supply, Pressure, and Atmmpheric Control The habitat wad initially pressurized on the surface to the emplacement depth pressure of approldmately 2.3 atmospheres by cornpressed air. The operational habitd nominal oxygen partial pressure (Po2) of 160 torr (mm Hg) waa obtained bp displacing air with nittogen after the habitat waa secured to the ocean floar. Thia roadtad in a mixture af 92% nitrogen, 8% oxygen. During the operation, compressed air WBI continually supplied to the habitat vl. 8n umbilical by law-pressure air compressors on the support barge to provlde metabolic oxygen to the habitants and to maintain t h e w 2 between 151 and 165 torr. The required flow rate of inlet alr to the habitat was 16 to 24 SCF/hr (standard cubic feet per hour). The flaw rate was manually controlled but waa based on measuredpO2 levels. A con- tinual stream of the habitat atmosphere was dumped through vent8 in the entrance trunk to the sea, thus maintaining the habitat pressure at t h mea pressure at these tnmlr ventr. C a r h dioxide ((20,) generated by the crew waa removed by a B d y m e scrubbar. The scrubber system consisted of two blowers (one redundant), a Baralyme canister, and associated valves and piping. Habitat air was forced by the blower through the Baralyme, where COz was absorbed, and the air then was directed in proportional pzrtS to each of the four compartments. The habitat Batalyme system was designed to operate 12 hours on a chemical charge. However, to maintain an acceptable C 0 2 level (8 torr or less) during the mission, it became necessary for the crew to change the chemical approx- imately every 4 hours. An additional CO, scrubber was subsequently used; this reduced the frequency of Baralyme change to once every 12 hours. Baralyme resupply from the surface wm necessary because of lack of storage space. Atmosphere Monitoring System The habitat atmospheric monitortzg equipment, the monitored parameters, and the acceptable parameter limits are shown in Table 5. Early in the mission, the mass spec- trometer (NASA atmosphere analyzer) in the habitat failed, requiring additional surface mmitoring Lquipment. After removal by the aquanauts and transfer topside, the mass spectrometer was repaired, retransferred below, and put back into operation. After mal- function cn the 46th day of the mission, the unit was no longer used. Thermal Control The thermal control system maintained the habitat air temperature and humidity, removlng heat and excess moisture from the air. Four heat exchangers were uszd, one per compartment. Connected to each heat exchanger were a blower for air circulation, a charcoal filter for odor removal, and an electrical reheater. The air was dehumiiWied by condensing water vapor on the heat exchanger coils, thus requir!.ng reheating the air to the desired temperature. Relative humidity was maintained between 42% and 6Wo. Emergency Air Systems Emergency air systems provided vere a surface air supply system, a purge system, a habitat emergency air supply system, a built-in breathing (BIB) system. and escape air bottles. Upon the first failure of the mass spectrometer, the emergelicy BIB was used, since the carbon dioxide levels rose abruptly. two 8000-SCF (at 2200 psi) compressed air cylinders. This system served as a backup The surface emergency air supply was aboard the support barge and consisted of F 38 PROJECT TEKTITE I Table 5 Tektite I Atmosphere Monitoring Parameters and Equipment R=W Rang. - c R=W Rang. - c Sldac. Servomu A0150 Perkin-Elmer 810 gas chromatograph Peran-Elmer 810 gr chromatoe# Perm-Elmer 810 gan chromatograph Perm-Elmer 810 gas chromatograph Perkin-Elmer 810 gas chromatograph Perm-Elmer 810 [an chromatotognph 0, maly2.r Srpi- 3 Bec*man P3 D, malyzet Beckman 1R111 infrared CO, analyzer Doteetor tub Sample to P.R. - to the support barge air compressors. In the event of compressor failure, compressed air would have been supplied automatically from these tubes. The purge system was designed to change 9fl0 of the a . i ~ within the habitat within 4 hours in the event of major contamination of the habitat atmosphere and return the habitat atmosphere to 8%02, 9% N,. The system used a 125-SCF/rnin, 100-psi diesel- driven air compressor and nitrogen storage cylinders located on the support barge to supply gas to the habitat via the air supply umbilical. In operation, air from the com- pressor would replace habitat air until gas sampling indicated a satisfactory atmosphere had been attained. Nitrogen would then be introduced to the system to reduce thepO, to within allowable limits. If practical, normal operation of the habitat would then have been resumed. The habitat emergency air supply consisted of 23 240-SCF compressed air cylkders fn th2 habitat base. This emergency air supply could be activated by the crew in the event of normal air supply failure. This system was designed such that the emergency air would be introduced into the normal habitat air distribution system in the event of topside compressor or umbilical failure. In the event of atmospheric contamination within the habitat, this emergency air could be supplied to the BIB system. The BIB system provided 12 breathing stations within the habitat to be used in the event of atmospheric contamination. In this mode, air was available for 12 hours dura- tion. The line pressure to each BIB station was maintained at 100 psi, and demand regulator/hose assemblies and face masks were attached at each station. Of the twelve BIB stations, four were in the crew quarters, four were in the wet room, and two each were in the bridge and equipment rooms. Each BIB had 7 :lose long enough to reach to adjacent compartments. Eight escape air bottles with regulators, hoses, and mouthpieces were available to provide capability to move about inside tne nabiiai unlie~ condtti~ii~ ieydrkg P,E h e & - ing. and to escape from the habitat to the personnel transfer capsule. Each bottle had an 18-SCF capacity, sufficient for approximately 7 minutes breathing. Four bcttles were in the crew quarters, and two each were in the bridge and equipment room. None were required in the wet room, since sc‘ia gear stored there could serve the same purpose. rACrtITIES 39 Communication, Electrical, and W u y Spstenu between the habitat and the support barge. The bridge, which waa the habitat communi- cation center, was connected to the surface command facility via intercom, sound-powered phones, and voice sonar. Each compartment was equipped with an intercom station connecting it with the other compartments and the surface, an open mike and closed- circuit television camera for the behavioral program, and audible and visible alums. The bridge could monitor the open mike6 and the closed circuit television c a m e r m In the wet room was a timer for recording the timos that each diver left and entered the habitat, for th. behovloral program. The communication systems (Table 6) provided aural and visual communication Table 6 Tomb I Communication Symtomr Behavioral data !ACqUiSitiOar Normml or emergency communication to shore Diwr -to-dlvar communications Entertainment Biomedical data acquisition 4 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 HABITAT EQVIPMENT I TV camera8 in habitat TV monitors in habitat Open microphones in habitat Diver-idout panel in wet room Crew activlty monitoring switch set in crew quarters Sound-powered phone link in bridge Intercom system in habitat Emergency alarm panel in bridge Warning bells and horn in bridge Hardwire communication to way stations Commercial TV monitor Commercial radio EEG electrodes and amplifiers hl crew quarters EKG recorder/amplifier in bridge Electrical power was furnished to the habitat via an umbilical from two 100-kilowatt generators (one redundant) mounted on the support barge. The habitat electrical system was a three-wire grounded system. The habitat and all equipment cases and chassis were thus grounded. rlooding sensors were provided to shut off surface power in the event of major habitat flooding. Each compartment was lighted by two separate circuits, and emergency battery-powered lights were at ailable in each compartment. Potable water wm pumped from the support barge to the habitat via a hose. “he toilet facilities were of marine type, and waste was chemically treated prior to discharge to the sea through a 1000-foot drain hose laid out along the ocean floor away from the habitat. 40 PROJECT TEKTITE I Alarm System ' triggered by these alarms are summarized in Table 7. Difficulty waa experienced with the entry-trunk-water-level alarm, which was replaced. The alarm sensors used to monitor the habitat life support systems and the displays Table 7 Tektite I Alarm System 120-V power loss I Light Buzzer* TV Entry trunk water level I Light I Buzzer* 1 TV 1 Wet room flooding + I Light Horn t *The buzzer may be manually activated in the bridge. tThe wet-room-flooding alarm automaticaily turnu off power to the hkbitat at the $The habitat horn may be manually activated from the bridge only. §The control-center horn may be manually activated from tbe van only. shore end. a"VPY0RT BARGE The support barge (Fig. 29) was located at the nearest shore point adjRcent to the habitat iocaticn. This barge was a Navy AMMI pontoon jacked rrp above ?ha water 3ur- frce on driven piles to minimize reactions with waves and tcj minimize machinery wise being transmitted into the water. The barge was the shore terminus for all habitat umb2icals and provided the platform upon which were mounted the surface-control-center van and all hatitat life S-lpport eqr.ipment. Access to this barge was by boat from the causeway pier adjacent to the base camp. The facilities located aboard this barge were the surface-control-center ran, the environmental controi and supply system, the elec- trical generation and distribution system, and the water storage and distribution system. Surface-Contrcl-Center Van The surface-control-center van (Fig. 30) was ar. air-conditioned instrumentation van divfded inta tgo compartmeats, the behavioral monitoring station and the watch director's station. The behavioral monitoring station, effectiveljj isolated from the watch director's JLaLLUIL --I - & * -- L-- " J a 8 *O.UY.b la;-- ---titinn rl ---_ ~., zrrnmmodated three behavioral observers and the behavioral scientist supervisor. Displtyed before the observers were six television monitors, four of which continuously covered televised input from each of the four habitat compartments and two of which were avaC:aSle for external habitat cameras. A video tape recorder was zvailable for recording significant events. Audio monitoring of the own microphones in the habitat's compartments could be recorded on two audio tape recorders. Automatic data recorciing equipment monitored important behavioral parameters such as time out of habitat, sleep time, stove and oven usage, .md entertainment facility usage (Fig. 31). FACILXTIES i Fig. 29 c Tektite I rupport barge. which provided all utiii* tie. and n e r v i c e e for the habitat. The watch director'# station and the behavioral monitoring station were i i r the trailer at t!ie left. The electric g e n e r a t o r e in the right foreground provided all power for the barge and the habitat. The barge is rupported on four pilings for noire control. I Fig. 30 - Surface controi center van on the support barge. The partition between the behavioral monltori-g station a t .A= . C I L _ , , U % , . 5 "a L . 1 . V . I C C C " . a .3L-..",* O L L 2 . L . * 5 , ' C pv...-cu privacy and quiet for the behavioral program. 6L- I - f r - - - l r~ --LJ:---.--?- - L r L . -:.-Lb __-_. 1 - 1 - 2 42 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 31 - Recordingeqllipment ussd in collecting EEG data from the aquanauts. This equipment is in the behavioral monltoring station, with the foiding partition (Fig. 30) a t the left. The watch director‘s &atlor? was the command center for the Tektite I operation. control panel, at YMch the watch director and the medical watch officer wefe stationed, provided audlo, video, and envjronmental monitoring capability for these two officers (Fig. 32). Tile habitat alarm system displays were located at the watch director’s station, which ais0 served as the control ~nint ior all communications to the habitat, base camp, maidand, and the immediate surface area. A Envlronmental Control and SupDQ System The environmental control and suFply system, aboard tbe support barge, provided the habitat all normal and emergency surface gas supplies (Figs. 33 and 34). This system included: an on-Xrie and aSacku9 h3bitzt si~py!y air compressor (3.1 SCF’min at 50 psi), a purge compressor (125 SCF/min at 100 psi) with air aftercooler and moisture trap, a surface emergency air supply (two tubes, each 8000 SCF at 2200 psi), a nitrogen habitat charging and pmge gas supply (four tubes, each 8000 SCF at 2200 psi), a pneumatic con- ti=: e~nz.o!e (Fig. 15) l_f which onp man could monitor and control the total gas supply to the habitat, and all necessary valves, regulators, and piping. In addition, the compressors for chargin% the aquanauts’ scuba tanks were located on the support barge, and the high-pressure charging air was sent to the habitat via the umbilical for storage in volume tanks in the habitat base. . P ~ C t t r f f ES 43 Fig. 32 - Watch director's station in the surface control center van. The two TV monitors could be switched to any of the six signals from the habitat. The intercom provided for audio monitoring of each of the habitat's r o o m a , and measurements of the habitat atmosphere wercalso presented on the con- sole. Inthe forearound a r e gas analysis equipment.. Fig. 33 - Surface control center van and gas supplies for the habitat 44 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. $4 - Utility .,ources on me support Barge. 3cuoa cnarg- ing compressors a r e beneath the table in the right foreyrorind, and air supply compreosorr a r e immediately past the table. Water is stored in a large pillow tank b e n e a t h the canopy. Diesel-driven generators a r e in the r e a r , with power trans- formers hanging from the rack a t the left center. Fig. 3 3 - Cuntral coi:trol console, \\here flo\\ and pressure of all atmosphere gas to tht, h a b i t d t *as controlled, rnoritoreti. an.! rrcordc.cl FACILITIES 6 45 Electrical Generation and Distribution System The electrical generation and distribution system provided electrical power for t b support barge and the habitat. Two 100-kilowatt diesel-powered generators (one redundant) furnished all rquired power for the habitat, environmental compressors, water pump., and lighting. Water Storage and Distribution Syysten; Potable water for the h&itat wab stored on the support barge in a 3OOO-gallon pUlW tank and was pumped to the habitat via the water umbilical. The pillow tank WZI refilled from a tank truck. aboard a N ~ v y LCM boat, when required. I The crane barge on which was located for handling this system. CRANE BARGE The decompression system (Fig. 37) was an Ocean Systems, Inc.. ADS N system consisting of a double-lock deck decompression chamber with its environmental S L T ~ O ~ unit and personnel transfer capsule. This ADS IV system was man-rated to a depth of 600 feet. The decompression mode was that of ventilation, with occasional periods when the aquanauts were on pure oxygen supplied through a mask/regulator breathing system (the decompression schedule used was given in Table 4). Personnel for the operation of the decompression facility, handling crane, and sma. boat support were maintained on a 24-how alert watch. With frequent drills SO that if necessary an aquanaut could have been moved from the water into decompression in less than 5 minutes. * CAUSEWAY PIER The causeway pier (Fig. 38) was the sealshore interface between the support barge . Thomns could tie up. This pier was the terminus of the and the base camp. The draft at the end of this pier was such that most craft transporting personnel and supplies from shuttle boat service between F he support barge and the shore. BASE CAMP The Tektite I base c m p (Fig. 5) OQS a semipermanent facility to house and mess the scientific and support personnel who were on-site throughout the mission. Because of the remoteness of the Tektite I site. the base camp was required to be self-supporting. Additionally, because the camp was located in a National Park, great care was required to preserve the beauty and nature of the park. The camp vias set back from the Lameshur Bay beach and beach road to maintain the unspoiled beauty of the beach area. table, prefabricated aluminum building. 20 hy 48 feet. with supporting utility services. Eleven tropical huts were used as barracks. one as the command (OD) hut. and one as the galley. The wood framing was treated timber. and the siding was rehood. All were screened for veritilzation except for the OOD hut. which was enclosed and air conditioned. The camp consisted of 13 wooden tropical huts. 16 by 32 feet (Fig. 39), and one por- PROJECT TEKTITE I i Fig. 36 - Crane barge, moored alongside the support barge with a hand-powered ferry barge between . . . -. . I . Fig. 37 - ADS IV deck d e c o m p r e s s i o n chamber (center), personnel transfer cap- sule (left), and lifting crane for the per- sonnel transfer capsule The aluminum building (Fig. 40) was partitioned into three compartments: dispensary, marine science laboratory, and recreation area. During the postdive medical debrief- ings, this building housed the medical examination facilities. The tropical huts of the base camp will be used in the future by the College of the V i r g h Islands, for use as a laboratory and dormitory iacility in conjunction with their Marine Ecological Station, also on Lameshur Bay and partly visible at the f a r right center in Fig. 5. Potable water for the camp w a s stored in two iG,000-galIon underground tanks. Water for these tanks was pumped from a water barge alongside the causeway pier to the camp via “invasion piping” over a distance of approximately 11’4 mile. Water was pumped from the storage tanks mto a camp ?&tribiurion sysiern. A w e l l adjii~ent to the base camp had been outfitted with a pump and plumbing for shower water supply, but this well proved too unreliable for use. ' FAC!LIT!W \,, Fig. 38 - Pier, consisting of causeway sections tied el?d ta end, s e r v i n g as the o f f l o a d i n g point for personnel and sup~1:es arriving at Lamerhur Bay. The small craft left of the pier shuttled personnel between the base camp and the support barge adjacent to the habitat. Fjg. 39 - Base camp which housed the approximately 60 support and 3 5 scientific personnci at the zite 48 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 40 - Aluminum building in the base camp which was partitioned into the infirmary, m a r i n e science laboratory, and recreation room Human waste was burnt on a daily basis in half -drums (55 gallons) by. covering the waste with fuel-oil and igniting. This system was quite efficient. Waste water irom the showers, galley, and dispensary was drained into the grouiid -rk T. gr’e?s? k-22 md h a i n field. Electric power was generated in the camp by two 100-kilowat: generators (one redundant) and distributed, where possible, by underground cables. LOGISTICS, TRANSPORTATION, AND COMMUNICATIONS a wide variety of military and civilian resources in the coordhation of logistics, trans- portation, and communication. For the most part, sufficient dry food was landed with the Tektite I party in January 1969. Resupply of dry foods, and continuing resupply of frozen foals, was obtained from Visiting Navy ships. Fresh provisions, such as bread and milk. were procwed from local vendors on 5. Thomas. Water ?YZS delivered to the Larneshur Bav site on a weekly hasis by the government of the Virgin Islands via water barge. Petroleum was purchased under Defense Contract in St. Thomas. Diesel fuel and gasoiine were loaded into 55-gallon drums at Red Hook (St. Thomas) and transported by a Tektite I LCM boat to the site on The remoteness of the Tektite I site r e q d e d some degree of resourcefulness and Logistics requirements were primazuy in the areas of food, water, and petroleum. - - nrnokly ..____ hgsin Transportation to the Tektite I site was by two routes: via water over an open 8-mile unmarked and unlighted course from Red Hook Harbor, St. Thomas, and a torturous over- land route from Cruz Bay (Fig.41). The water route was the more desirable of the two. .*l)r Fis. 41 - Trampottatim to the Tektite I site and all supplies and moat personnel were transported via tu mode. The Tektite I fleet consisted of two LCM-class cargo boats, three LCPL-class personnel boats, and twa 18-foot outboard runabouts (primarily for safe9 diver use). Land transportation on the base camp consisted of one 6 by 6 truck md two 4 by 4 ordnance cwriers. One 4 by 4 ordnance zarrier was stationed on St. Thomas. These vehicles were Finished and oper- ated by Amphibious Construction Battalion Two. m e r n a l communications were by rarflo, telephone, and commercial marine-operator service. Internal communications (within the base camp area) were by radio, field phones, and sound-powered phones. Mail service was handled through the U.S. Post Office, St. Thomas. External radio communication using AN/PRC-47 single-sideband radios wa8 on local NORATS frequency 2114 kHz, on which contact was maintained with the St. Thomas Coast Guard StaLion and with Ft. Allen, Puerto Rico. Telephone service (two lines) into the base camp waa furnished by VPTELCO. Commercial marine-operator service, which was patched into the WTELCO system in Sr. Thomas, was leased by General Electric. Telephone ~ 8 i vlce was approxixfinately (3% reliable. Internal communication was 9 - d to exercise command control over the base camp and adjacent areas. Additional AN/PRC-47 ra&os, located in vehicles, boats, the base camp, and the surface control center operated on the upper sideband on 4073 kHz. Con- tact between the watch director and the diving and safety watches was maintained on the 39-MHz band using Motorol:: PT-200 FM transceivers. Field phones linked the cause- way pier to the base camp and were a backup to the PT-200 transceivers between the crane barge and the support barge. Sound-powered phones provided an emergency com- mudcation link between the watch director and thc habitat. PROJECT TEKTITE I REPAIRS Repairs to boats, electronic equipment, and vehicles which required facilities or personnel not available i11 the base camp were accommodated by the Supervisor of Ship- building, Conversion and Repair, Tenth Naval District in Sw Juan, Puerto Rico (Fig. 1). HABITAT A M ) AQUANAUT SUPPORT EQUIPMENT Additional equipments available for aquanaut use included a series of undcrwater way stations and a navigational grid system. Five way st?tions were located around the habitat ta provide the aquanauts a series of landmarks and places of refuge. Each way station consisted of a clear-plastic hemispherical shell mounted on a cylindrical steel cage. A charged set of scuba bottles and sound-powered phones linked to the habitat were located in each way station. The main use of the way stations was in the transfer of air bottles between the aquanauts and the surface, although they did serve as roassuring landmarks to the aquanauts. The navigational grid system was installed on the Lameshur Bay floor prior to the beginning of the project. However, because of the clarity of the water and the rapidity with which the aquanauts could visually familiarize themselves with their surroundir@, the navigation system was not used to any great extent. The aquanauts used standard twin-tank scuba rigs. Each 72 cubic foot capacity tank had its own reserve valve and single hose regulator. This double-tank combination had a little over an hour's air capacity at a 50 foot depth. For longer excursions, extra tanks were pre-positioned by surface divers along the excursion route. Before the mission it was anticipated that newly developed, Navy-procured closed-circuit rigs, with approximately a six hour capacity, would be available foi aquanaut use. These, however, were not delivered to the Navy in time for completion of evaluation and certi- fication, and thus were not used in Tektite I. The Tektite I aqwnauts had available, in addition to standard scuba equipment, hookah masks with built-in communications equipment. A hookah system is one in which breathing gas is supplied to the diver via an umbiiic21. In the case of Tektite I, the gas was supplied from a low-pressure source in the habitat through a 200-foot hookah hose. Thus the aqua- nauts could swim up to 200 feet from the habitat without having to suit-up in full scuba gear. The hookah mask contained communications equipment, linked to the habitat via hardwire cables along the hookah hose, The hookah was used for 41 man-hours of diving, about 1/10 of the total man-hours in the water. In addition to tne tethered hookah communications, the Tektite I aquanauts had two sets of untethered aquasonics equipment. These included two tender and three diver units. These units were seldom used due to range and reliability limitations. A dumbwaiter system was provided for the dry transfer between the habitat and the surface of items such as food, C 0 2 absorbent, mail, and garbage. The system Consisted of a floating platform with an A-frame and winch which could raise and lower a series of pressure and waterproof canisters. The canisters were vented for pressure equalization dtei each tx=rsr,i!. T-;o size= nf t.rl_?sfer yt!? were used during the Tektite I project. The larger size was capable of moving 300 pounds, but the size axid weight of the pot made it awkward to handle. The smaller sized pots, of which there were two, were of 30-pound capacity, and these canisters saw considerable service Sefore and during the project. Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ~ . mmumm Tektite I project personnel were able to achieve their primary missions of (a) keep- ing an undersea habitat in operation for a continuous 2-month period, (b) safely conducthg sustained 2-month series of marine science studies from the habitat, and (c) collecting a voluminous quantity of consistent data on the behavior of a smali tam of men isolated pnd working in a continuously hazardous environment. Tektite I waa the third major program Sn this country !preceded by Serlabr I and ll) to study the moponsea of men to the isollted, hazardow, quasi-operational environment of extended undersea habitation. For this reason, certain of the Tektite I conclusions and recommendations may be recognized a% having been irientified in these earlier programs. To the maximum possible extent, recommendations from ihese previous programs were incorporated into Tektite I, but schedule and budget limitations precluded inclusion of specifically recognized desirsble considerations. Consequently, certain of the conclustona and recommendations to follow indicate areas in the Tektite I program where desirable features were sacrificed. It is emphasized that in no respect was the safety of the aquanaut crew or other project personnel compromised where schedule/budget tradeoffs occurred. CONCLUSIONS 1. 2aturation dives of the Tektite type can be conducted safely,providedthat arigomus safety program is implemented. As further experience is gained, the safety factor added for uncertainty can be reduced to a degree, ahile freedom from restraints may be more fully exploited. most impressive feature was the wide range of studies during the project. The applica- tion of undersea habitation to studies of marine geological processes, to exploration and exploitation of mineral and other marine resources, and to studies of the sea floor are potentially unlimited. be applicable to civilian and military needs. The Tektite I aquanauts, swimming in warm tropical water, were physiologically bound only by vertical limits imposed by decom- pression. Their horizontal ranging from the habitat increased throughout the mission. The horizontal excursion limit on time in the water limit became a function of equipment, not aquanaut, endurance. It shculd be realized, however, that a similar mission in cold watc,r would have the additional requirements of adequate diver heating. the controlling tissue for nitrogen satwation is beyond the 240-minute limit. The prepam- tion and experimenhl validation of the emergency decompression (treatment) schedul== indicated that a surface time of 15 minutes was safely available to a diver nitrggen sat- urated at the Tektite I depth (43 feet) before emergency recompression and decompression treatment was required. 2. Saturated diving offers great advantages to investigations of marine science. The 3. Long excursions by aquanauts from undersea habitats appear feasible and would 4. Studies to prepare the Tektite I normal decompression schedule indicated that 51 . 5. Divers can safely live and work in a hyperbaric nitrogen atmosphere saturated d 43 feet with excursions to 22 and 85 feet. Thus, for t k s e depths, which are of con- siderable interest to the scientific community, expensive three-gas helium-oxygen- nitrogen liie support sydtems are not required to suppo;-t saturated xientific Jhing. the various behavioral interactions invalved therein. The aquanauts experienced no severe sleep loss or disruption of sleep cycles. Instead of obtaining less sleep as the mission progressed, the aquanauts appew to have slept !onger and deeper. 7. The prolonged application of the envircnmental conditions and aquanaut inter- actions, a8 carried in the TeM'te I program, did not result in ary unwual microbiological hazard to the quanauts. kchnological advance in undersea cxploration, where monitcring and control of the life support atmosphere i8 essential. 9. The aquanauts spent 432.15 man-hours h the water during the mission. This represented an average 0: 7.2 man-hwss per day. Maximum range (honzontal) from the habitat exceeded 1800 feet in the latter stages of the mission. This range was limited by the available gas in the aqum~uts' scuba bottles. 10. The Tektite I hookah hose and masks allow the aquanauts ready access to an area within 200 feet of the hsbitat without requiring them to suit-up in full scuba gear. The m a s h and commudcation system allowed the aquanauts to communicate with the habitat bridge while they were out on the hookah. The aquanauts used the hookah system for more than 41 diving hours, about 1/10 of the total diving time. 8. Man can adapt to the stresses that accompany undersea habitation at 43 feet and 8. The use of mass spectrometer instrumentation in a hyperbaric environment fs a RECOMMEN3ATXONS 1. Crew compositicin for future extended underwater missions should include a dbet-mglneer to assume responsibility for equipment maintenancc and habitat upkeep and resupply. This would allow the marine investigators more diving time and would minimize trdning and familiarization problems. recommended if a trained diver/engineer is not part of the crew. The training period should provide the aquanauts a more detailed familiarization with the habitat systems and hardware as well as with aquanaut support equipment. Training should be conducted under conditions simulating as nearly as possible actual mission conditions, and an in- water trainhe exercise is highly recommended. 3. Long-duratim (closed-circuit or semiclosed-circuit) breaihing equipments, operational swimmer delivery vehicles, and free -swimmer communicatjon units should be developed for use of scientific divers operating from undersea habitats. This would enable them to take N l e r advantage of their saturated condition by allowing them longer excursions from their habitat. 2. A longer aquanaut training program in hahitat operation than that of Tektite I is 4. :.f&ics ~ r o p z z ~ % ~ _ s tnr fiitiir~ missions should emphasize thorough usage of preventive measures to curb aquanaut ear infections common to this type of program compatible with the needs of the aquanaut users. Where possible, storage space should not encroach upon scientific work space, and inaximum effort should be made to make storage spaces in otherwise wasted spaces. 5. Design of habitats for future missions should reflect the need for work arras CONCLUSIONS AND RECUMMEFr’DATIONY 53 6. Provisions should be incorporated in the ieqign of future habitats to allow Ievel- fng of the habitat after it has been securad to the ocean floor. 7. Eabitats for future undersea projects should be designed with consideration for transportation and launch in less-than-favorable seas. The usc of the AMMI barge/LSD transportation and launch system. while successful in the calm water of Lameshur Bay, would not be as successful in deep or heavy seas. research, other modes of saturated diving shocld be considered for scientific work. The- include mobile habitats, PTC (personnel transfer capsule) diving from d2ck chambers to the sea bottomfor work, and a habitat in which the aqumauts are compressed and &Corn- pressed enroute to and froin the working site. 9. Baaed on the demonstrated c.ipability of MCBIACB Yqers in Tektite I, these personnel should be incltided in future Navy experimental,:research actinties where applicable. 10. Further develo?meirt of mass spectrometer instrumentation for undersea appli- cation is recomn.endea. Instrument design should provide for simplified calibration techniques. Special emphasis is required in designing a sturdy instrument package that will withstand the operational rigors of an undersea mission. Modular component design would enable aquanauts to make module replacements without specialized training. quatr surface and free-swimmer communication systems. .a. Although Tektite I proved that sa:?rated diving can be a useful tool for marine 11. Special emphasis in future missions should be placed on establisking fully adn- 12. Hookah masks, with communication capability between divers and back to tine habitat, should oe provided in subsequent programs. Adequatc, can-qenient space should be provided outside the habitat for stowage of the long hookdl boscs while not in use. I